Editing Titus

{{Short description|Roman emperor from AD 79 to 81}}
{{About|the Roman emperor|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = Titus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN3159.jpg
| alt          = Bust
| caption      = Bust at the [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]]
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign        = 24 June 79 – 13 September 81
| predecessor  = [[Vespasian]]
| successor    = [[Domitian]]
| birth_name   = Titus Flavius Vespasianus{{sfn|Hammond|p=27}}
| birth_date   = 30 December 39
| birth_place  = [[Rome]], [[Roman Italy|Italy]]
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|81|9|13|39|12|30|df=y}}
| death_place  = Rome, Italy
| burial_place = Rome
| spouses      = {{ubl |[[Arrecina Tertulla]] ({{c.|62 AD}}; her death) |[[Marcia Furnilla]] ({{c.|lk=no|63–65 AD}}; divorced) |[[Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa)|Berenice]] (concubine, AD 79  separated)}}
| issue        = {{ubl|[[Julia Flavia]] (by Arrecina)|Flavia (by Furnilla)}}
| full name    = Titus Caesar Vespasianus (69–79){{sfn|Hammond|p=27}}
| regnal name  = Imperator Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus
| dynasty      = [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian]]
| father       = [[Vespasian]]
| mother       = [[Domitilla the Elder|Domitilla]]
}}
{{Flavian dynasty|image=[[File:INC-1601-a Ауреус Тит цезарь ок. 75 г. (аверс).png|150px]]|caption=Aureus of Titus}}

'''Titus Caesar Vespasianus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|aɪ|t|ə|s}} {{respell|TY|təs}}; 30 December 39 – 13 September AD&nbsp;81) was [[Roman emperor]] from 79 to 81. A member of the [[Flavian dynasty]], Titus succeeded his father [[Vespasian]] upon his death, becoming the first Roman emperor ever to succeed his biological father.

Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] during the [[First Jewish–Roman War]]. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperor [[Nero]] in 68, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power during the [[Year of the Four Emperors]]. When Vespasian was declared Emperor on 1 July 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In 70, he [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|besieged and captured Jerusalem]], and destroyed the city and the [[Second Temple]]. For this achievement Titus was awarded a [[Roman triumph|triumph]]; the [[Arch of Titus]] commemorates his victory and still stands today.

During his father's rule, Titus gained notoriety in Rome serving as [[Praetorian prefect|prefect]] of the [[Praetorian Guard]], and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queen [[Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa)|Berenice]]. Despite concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor by [[Suetonius]] and other contemporary historians.

As emperor, Titus is best known for completing the [[Colosseum]] and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the [[eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79]] and a fire in Rome in 80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever on 13 September 81. He was [[deified]] by the [[Roman Senate]] and succeeded by his younger brother [[Domitian]].

==Early life==
Titus was born in [[Rome]], probably on 30 December 39 AD, as the eldest son of [[Vespasian|Titus Flavius Vespasianus]], commonly known as Vespasian, and [[Domitilla the Elder]].<ref>Suetonius claims Titus was born in the year Caligula was assassinated, 41. However, this contradicts his statement that Titus died in his 42nd year, as well as Cassius Dio, who notes that Titus was 39 at the time of his accession. See [[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#1 1], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#11 11]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#18 LXVI.18]; and {{Cite book|author=Brian Jones |author2=Robert Milns |title=Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary |year=2002 |publisher=Bristol Classical Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-85399-613-9 |page=91}}</ref> He had one younger sister, [[Domitilla the Younger]] (born 45), and one younger brother, [[Titus Flavius Domitianus]] (born 51), commonly referred to as Domitian.

=== Family background ===

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early 1st century.<ref name="jones-domitian-3">Jones (1992), p. 3</ref> One such family was the ''gens [[Flavia gens|Flavia]]'', which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in only four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the Emperors of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]. Titus's great-grandfather, [[Titus Flavius Petro]], had served as a [[centurion]] under [[Pompey]] during [[Caesar's Civil War]]. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48 BC.<ref name="jones-domitian-1">Jones (1992), p. 1</ref>

Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely-wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son [[Titus Flavius Sabinus I]], Titus's grandfather.<ref name="jones-domitian-2">Jones (1992), p. 2</ref> Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] status through his services as [[tax collector]] in Asia and banker in [[Helvetia]]. By marrying [[Vespasia Polla]], he allied himself to the more prestigious [[patrician (Ancient Rome)|patrician]] ''gens Vespasia'', ensuring the elevation of his sons [[Titus Flavius Sabinus II]] and [[Vespasian]] to the [[Roman senator|senatorial]] rank.<ref name="jones-domitian-2"/>

The [[cursus honorum|political career]] of Vespasian included the offices of [[quaestor]], [[aedile]] and [[praetor]] and culminated with a [[consulship]] in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the [[Roman invasion of Britain]] in 43.<ref>Jones, (1992), p. 8</ref> What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down by [[Suetonius]], who recorded that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of [[Britannicus]],<ref name="suetonius-titus-2">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#1 2]</ref> the son of Emperor [[Claudius]], who would be murdered by [[Nero]] in 55.

The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus on the night he was murdered and sipped of the poison that was handed to him.<ref name="suetonius-titus-2"/> Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in the [[military science|military arts]] and was a skilled poet and orator both in [[Koine Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]].<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#3 3]</ref>

==Adult life==
[[File:Titus, Roman, c. 70 AD, marble - Galleria Borghese - Rome, Italy - DSC04762.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Titus, c. 70 AD]]
From around 57 to 59 he was a military [[tribune]] in [[Germania]]. He also served in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]] and perhaps arrived about 60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of [[Boudica]]. About 63, he returned to Rome and married [[Arrecina Tertulla]], daughter of [[Marcus Arrecinus Clemens (praetorian prefect under Caligula)|Marcus Arrecinus Clemens]], a former [[Prefect of the Praetorian Guard]]. She died about 65.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4 4], with Jones and Milns, pp. 95–96</ref>

Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, [[Marcia Furnilla]]. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to [[Nero]]. Her uncle [[Barea Soranus]] and his daughter [[Marcia Servilia Sorana|Servilia]] were among those who perished after the failed [[Pisonian conspiracy]] of 65.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 16#30|XVI.30–33]]</ref> Some modern historians think that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.<ref>Gavin Townend, "Some Flavian Connections", ''The Journal of Roman Studies'' (1961), p. 57. See [[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4 4]</ref><ref>Jones (1992), p. 11</ref>

Titus never remarried and appears to have had daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.<ref>[[Philostratus]], ''The Life of Apollonius of Tyana'' [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_7_06.html#%A77 VII.7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174856/http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_7_06.html#%A77 |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name="suetonius-titus-4">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#4 4]</ref> The only one known to have survived to adulthood was [[Julia Flavia]], perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.<ref>Jones and Milns, pp. 96, 167.</ref> During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of [[quaestor]].<ref name="suetonius-titus-4"/>

===Judaean campaigns===
{{Further|First Jewish-Roman War}}
[[Image:First century Iudaea province.gif|thumb|250px|The [[Iudaea Province|province of Judaea]] during the 1st century.]]

In 66, the [[Jews]] of the [[Judaea Province]] [[First Jewish-Roman War|revolted against the Roman Empire]]. [[Cestius Gallus]], the [[Roman Syria|legate of Syria]], was defeated at [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|the battle of]] [[Beth-Horon]] and forced to retreat from [[Jerusalem]].<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book II#Chapter 19|II.19.9]]</ref> The pro-Roman King [[Agrippa II]] and his sister [[Berenice (daughter of Agrippa I)|Berenice]] fled the city to [[Galilee]], where they later gave themselves up to the Romans.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 1|III.1.2]]</ref>

Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the [[Legio V Macedonica|Fifth Legion]] and [[Legio X Fretensis|Tenth Legion]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He was later joined at [[Acre, Israel|Ptolemais]] by Titus with the [[Fifteenth Legion]].<ref name="josephus-wars-iii-4-2">Josephus, ''The War of the Jews'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 4|III.4.2]]</ref> With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.<ref name="josephus-wars-iii-4-2"/>

The history of the war was covered in detail by the Roman-Jewish historian [[Josephus]] in his work ''[[The War of the Jews]]''. Josephus served as a commander in the city of [[Yodfat]] when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed. Titus, however, was not simply set on ending the war.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 7|III.7.34]]</ref>

Surviving one of several group suicides, Josephus surrendered to Vespasian and became a prisoner. He later wrote that he had provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 8|III.8.8]]</ref> By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman Army, with decisive victories won at [[Magdala|Taricheae]] and [[Gamala]], where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.<ref name="suetonius-titus-4"/><ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 10|III.10]]</ref>

====Year of the Four Emperors====
[[Image:Roman Empire 69.svg|thumb|350px|A map of the Roman Empire during the [[Year of the Four Emperors]] (AD 69). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus]].]]

The last and most significant fortified city held by the [[Zealotry|Jewish resistance]] was Jerusalem. The campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.<ref name="josephus-wars-iv-9-2">[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 9|IV.9.2]]</ref> Almost simultaneously, the [[Roman Senate]] had declared [[Galba]], the governor of [[Hispania]], as emperor. Vespasian decided to await further orders and sent Titus to greet the new ''[[princeps]]''.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#1|II.1]]</ref>

Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by [[Otho]], the governor of [[Lusitania]], and that [[Vitellius]] and his armies in [[Germania]] were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.<ref name="tacitus-histories-ii-2">[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#2|II.2]]</ref> Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the [[First Battle of Bedriacum]] and committed suicide.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#41|II.41–49]]</ref>

When the news reached the armies in Judaea and [[Ægyptus]], they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 10|IV.10.4]]</ref> Vespasian accepted and, after negotiations by Titus, joined forces with [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus]], governor of Syria.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#5|II.5]]</ref> A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, and Vespasian travelled to [[Alexandria]], leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 11|IV.11.1]]</ref><ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#82|II.82]]</ref> By the end of 69, the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on 21 December, thus ending the [[Year of the Four Emperors]].<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#3|IV.3]]</ref>

====Siege of Jerusalem====
{{Main|Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)}}
[[File:04 2022 Roma (Arco di Trionfo di Tito- Bassorilievi) FO228683 bis Photo by Paolo Villa.jpg|thumb|[[Arch of Titus]]: North inner panel, relief of Titus as ''triumphator'']]
[[File:04 2022 Roma (Arco di Trionfo di Tito- Bassorilievi) FO228685 bis Photo by Paolo Villa.jpg|thumb|[[Arch of Titus]]: South inner panel, close-up of [[relief]] showing spoils from the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|fall of Jerusalem]]]]
[[File:Nicolas Poussin - The Conquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Conquest of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus'', by [[Nicolas Poussin]] (1638), depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple]]
Meanwhile, the Jews had become embroiled in a civil war of their own by splitting the resistance in Jerusalem among several factions. The [[Sicarii]], led by [[Menahem ben Judah]], could hold on for long; the [[Zealots]], led by [[Eleazar ben Simon]], eventually fell under the command of the Galilean leader [[John of Gischala|John of Gush Halav]]; and the other northern rebel commander, [[Simon Bar Giora]], managed to gain leadership over the [[Edom|Idumeans]].<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 1|V.1.4]]</ref> Titus [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|besieged Jerusalem]]. The Roman Army was joined by the [[Legio XII Fulminata|Twelfth Legion]], which had been previously defeated under [[Cestius Gallus]], and from Alexandria, Vespasian sent [[Tiberius Julius Alexander]], governor of Egypt, to act as Titus' second in command.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 1|V.1.6]]</ref>

Titus surrounded the city with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the [[Mount of Olives]] to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate [[Passover]] and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman Army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 2|V.2.2]]</ref>

After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 6|V.6–V.9]]</ref> To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be [[crucified]] around the city wall.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book V#Chapter 11|V.11.1]]</ref> By that time the Jews had been exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached, bitter street fighting ensued.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 2|VI.2–VI.3]]</ref>

The Romans finally captured the [[Antonia Fortress]] and began a frontal assault on the gates of the [[Second Temple]].<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 4|VI.4.1]]</ref> As they breached the gate, the Romans set the upper and lower city aflame, culminating with the destruction of the Temple. When the fires subsided, Titus gave the order to destroy the remainder of the city, allegedly intending that no one would remember the name Jerusalem.<ref>[[Sulpicius Severus]], ''Chronicles'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sulpiciusseveruschron2.html II].30.6–7. For [[Tacitus]] as the source, see {{Cite journal|author=T.D. Barnes |date=July 1977 |title=The Fragments of Tacitus' ''Histories'' |journal=Classical Philology |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=224–231, pp. 226–228 | doi = 10.1086/366355|s2cid=161875316 }}</ref> The Temple was demolished, Titus's soldiers proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' in honour of the victory.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 6|VI.6.1]]</ref>

[[Destruction of Jerusalem|Jerusalem was sacked]] and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, most of whom were Jewish.<ref name="josephus-wars-vi-9">[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9|VI.9.3]]</ref> Josephus's death toll assumptions are rejected as impossible by modern scholarship since about a million people then lived in the Land of Israel, half of them Jewish, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard-hit region of Judea.<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |editor-first1=William David |editor-last1=Davies |editor-first2=Louis |editor-last2=Finkelstein |editor-first3=Steven T. |editor-last3=Katz |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1984 |first=Seth |last=Schwartz |title=Political, social and economic life in the land of Israel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC |page=24|isbn=978-0521772488 }}</ref> However, 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar-Giora and John of [[Gischala]].<ref name="josephus-wars-vi-9"/> Many fled to areas around the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Titus reportedly refused to accept a [[wreath of victory]], as he claimed that he had not won the victory on his own but had been the vehicle through which their God had manifested his wrath against his people.<ref>[[Philostratus]], ''The Life of Apollonius of Tyana'' [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_26.html#%A729 6.29] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315005913/http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_26.html#%A729 |date=15 March 2016 }}</ref>

The [[Jewish diaspora]] during the Temple's destruction, according to [[Josephus]], was in [[Parthia]] (Persia), [[Babylonia]] (Iraq), and [[Arabia]], and some were beyond the [[Euphrates]] and in [[Adiabene]] (Kurdistan).<ref>{{PACEJ|text=JW|bookno=1|chap=1|sec=5|show-translator=no|show-source=no|abbr=yes}}</ref>

===Heir to Vespasian===
[[Image:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|thumb|300px|Titus's [[Roman triumph|triumph]] after the [[First Jewish-Roman War]] was celebrated with the [[Arch of Titus]] in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple, including the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] and the trumpets of Jericho.]]

Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at [[Caesarea Maritima]] and [[Berytus]] and then travelled to [[Zeugma, Commagene|Zeugma]] on the [[Euphrates]], where he was presented with a crown by [[Vologases I of Parthia]]. While he was visiting [[Antioch]], he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 3|VII.3.1]], [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5|VII.5.2]]</ref>

[[File:Torso di doriforo di policleto con ritratto di tito, 79-81 dc..JPG|thumb|upright|Statue of Titus modelled after the ''[[Doryphoros]]'' of [[Polykleitos]], 79–81 AD, [[Vatican Museums]]]]

On his way to [[Alexandria]], he stopped in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] to consecrate the sacred bull [[Apis (Egyptian mythology)|Apis]]. According to Suetonius, that caused consternation since the ceremony required Titus to wear a [[diadem]], which the Romans associated with monarchy, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome in the hope, according to Suetonius, of allaying any suspicions about his conduct.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#5 5]</ref>

Upon his arrival in Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a [[Roman triumph|triumph]].<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#6 LXV.6]</ref> Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, Titus rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] and the [[Pentateuch]].<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5|VII.5.5]]</ref> Simon Bar Giora was executed in the [[Forum Romanum|Forum]], and the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the [[Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)|Temple of Jupiter]].<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5|VII.5.6]]</ref>
The [[triumphal arch|triumphal]] [[Arch of Titus]], which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorialises the victory of Titus.

With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian received the title of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' from the Senate.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#1 LXV.1]</ref> In addition to sharing [[tribune|tribunician power]] with his father, Titus held seven [[Roman consul|consul]]ships during Vespasian's reign<ref name="suetonius-titus-6">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#6 6]</ref> and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf.<ref name="suetonius-titus-6"/> More crucially, he was appointed [[Praetorian prefect]] (commander of the [[Praetorian Guard]]), ensuring its loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler.<ref name="suetonius-titus-6"/>

In that capacity, Titus achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot.<ref name="suetonius-titus-6"/> When in 79, a plot by [[Aulus Caecina Alienus]] and [[Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus|Eprius Marcellus]] to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.<ref name="suetonius-titus-6"/><ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#16 LXV.16]</ref>

During the Jewish Wars, Titus had begun a love affair with [[Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa I)|Berenice]], the sister of [[Agrippa II]].<ref name="tacitus-histories-ii-2"/> The [[Herodian Dynasty|Herodians]] had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian in his campaign to become emperor.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#81|II.81]]</ref> In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the eastern queen and disapproved of their relationship.<ref>Schalit, A. (2007). Berenice. In M. Berenbaum & F. Skolnik (Eds.), ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 410–411). Macmillan Reference US.</ref> When the pair was publicly denounced by [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] in the theatre, Titus acceded to the pressure and sent her away,<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxv-15">[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#66-15 LXV.15]</ref> but his reputation suffered further regardless.

==Emperor==
=== Succession ===
[[Image:Titus Augustus Denarius.png|thumb|330px|A Roman [[denarius]] depicting Titus, c. 79. The reverse commemorates his [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in the [[Jewish-Roman wars|Judaean Wars]], representing a Jewish captive kneeling in front of a trophy of arms. Caption: IMP. T. CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG. / TRibunus POTestas VIII, COnSul VII]]

Vespasian died of an infection on 23<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#24 "Life of Vespasian" §24]</ref> or 24<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#17 LXVI.17]</ref> June 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-18">[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#18 LXVI.18]</ref> He was the first Roman emperor to come to the throne after his own biological father. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Titus adopted the titulary ''Autokrator Titos Kaisaros Hununefer Benermerut'' ("Emperor Titus Caesar, the perfect and popular youth").<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pharaoh.se/roman-emperor/Titus |title=Titus |website=The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt |access-date=13 March 2018}}</ref> Because of his many (alleged) vices, many Romans feared that he would be another Nero.<ref name="suetonius-titus-7">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#7 7]</ref> Against those expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues, instead of vices.<ref name="suetonius-titus-7"/>

One of his first acts as emperor was to order a halt to trials based on treason charges,<ref name="suetonius-titus-8">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#8 8]</ref> which had long plagued the [[principate]]. The law of [[treason]], or [[law of majestas]], was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly "impaired the people and majesty of Rome" by any revolutionary action.<ref name="tacitus-annals-i-72">[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#72|I.72]]</ref> Under [[Augustus]], however, that custom had been revived and applied to cover [[slander]] and [[libel]] as well.<ref name="tacitus-annals-i-72"/> This led to numerous trials and executions under [[Tiberius]], [[Caligula]], and Nero, and the formation of networks of informers (''[[delator]]s''), which terrorised Rome's political system for decades.<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/>

Titus put an end to that practice against himself or anyone else and declared:

<blockquote>It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-19">[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19 LXVI.19]</ref></blockquote>

Consequently, no [[Roman senator|senators]] were put to death during his reign;<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-19"/> he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of [[Pontifex Maximus]] "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained".<ref name="suetonius-titus-9">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#9 9]</ref> Informants were publicly punished and banished from the city. Titus further prevented abuses by making it unlawful for a person to be [[double jeopardy|tried under different laws for the same offense]].<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/> Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.<ref name="suetonius-titus-7"/>

As emperor, he became known for his generosity, and [[Suetonius]] states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have lost a day".<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/>

===Challenges===
[[Image:Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02.jpg|thumb|180px|The [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79]] completely destroyed [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]]. Plaster casts of actual victims found during excavations are now on display in some of the ruins.]]
Although Titus's brief reign was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, he faced a number of major disasters. A few months after his accession, [[eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD|Mount Vesuvius erupted]].<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#22 LXVI.22]</ref> The eruption almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around the [[Bay of Naples]]. The cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] were buried under metres of stone and ash,<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#23 LXVI.23]</ref> killing thousands.<ref>The exact number of casualties is unknown, but estimates of the population of Pompeii range between 10,000 ({{cite web |title=Engineering of Pompeii: Ruins Reveal Roman Technology for Construction, Transportation, and Water Distribution |url=http://enginova.com/engineering_of_pompeii.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708190434/http://www.enginova.com/engineering_of_pompeii.htm |archive-date=8 July 2008 |access-date=10 March 2009}}) and 25,000 ([http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm]), with at least 1000 bodies currently recovered in and around the city ruins.</ref> Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort and personally donated large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/> Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24">[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#24 LXVI.24]</ref>

During the second visit, in spring of 80, a fire broke out in Rome and burned large parts of the city for three days and three nights.<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/><ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24"/> Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the [[Great Fire of Rome|Great Fire]] of 64 and crucially spared the many districts of [[insulae]], [[Cassius Dio]] records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], the [[Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)|Temple of Jupiter]], the [[Diribitorium]], parts of the [[Theatre of Pompey]], and the [[Saepta Julia]] among others.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24"/> Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-24"/> According to Suetonius, a plague also broke out during the fire.<ref name="suetonius-titus-8"/> The nature of the disease, however, and the death toll are unknown.

Meanwhile, war had resumed in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], where [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] pushed further into [[Caledonia]] and managed to establish several forts there.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Agricola (book)|Agricola]]'' [[s:Agricola#22|22]]</ref> As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of [[Imperator#Imperator as an imperial title|imperator]] for the fifteenth time, between 9 September and 31 December 79 AD.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#20 LXVI.20]</ref>

His reign also saw the rebellion led by [[Terentius Maximus]], one of several false Neros who appeared throughout the 70s.<ref name="tacitus-histories i-2">[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2|I.2]]</ref> Although Nero was primarily known as a universally-hated tyrant, there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had survived his overthrow were fuelled by the confusing circumstances of his death and several prophecies foretelling his return.<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Sanford | first = Eva Matthews | author-link=Eva Matthews Sanford | title = Nero and the East | journal = Harvard Studies in Classical Philology | volume = 48 | year = 1937 | pages = 75–103 | doi = 10.2307/310691 | jstor=310691}}</ref>

According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the [[lyre]].<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-19"/> Terentius established a following in [[Asia Minor]] but was soon forced to flee beyond the [[Euphrates]] and took refuge with the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]].<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-19"/><ref name="tacitus-histories i-2"/> In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.<ref name="suetonius-titus-9"/><ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26">[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#26 LXVI.26]</ref>

===Public works===
[[Image:Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg|thumb|left|The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the [[Colosseum]], was completed after 10 years construction during the reign of Titus and inaugurated with spectacular games that lasted for 100 days. See ''[[Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre]]''.]]

Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, now better known as the [[Colosseum]], was begun in 70 under [[Vespasian]] and was finally completed in 80 under Titus.<ref>{{Cite book | first=Leland M. | last=Roth | year=1993 | title=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning | edition=1st | publisher=Westview Press | location=Boulder, CO | isbn=978-0-06-430158-9 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth }}</ref> In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish Wars]].<ref>{{Cite book | first=Amanda | last=Claridge | year=1998 | title=Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide | edition=1st | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], 1998 | location=Oxford, UK | isbn=978-0-19-288003-1 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 276–282] | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 }}</ref>

The [[inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre|inaugural games]] lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including [[gladiatorial combat]], fights between wild animals ([[elephant]]s and [[crane (bird)|cranes]]), [[Naumachia|mock naval battles]] for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-25">[[Cassius Dio]], ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#25 LXVI.25]</ref> During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold or even [[Slavery in antiquity#Slavery in Rome|slaves]]), which could then be traded for the designated item.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-25"/>

Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's [[Golden House]], Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public [[thermae|bath house]], the [[Baths of Titus]].<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-25"/> Construction of the building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.<ref name="suetonius-titus-7"/>

Practice of the [[Imperial cult of ancient Rome|imperial cult]] was revived by Titus, but apparently, it met with some difficulty since Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.<ref>Coins bearing the inscription ''Divus Vespasianus'' were not issued until 80 or 81 by Titus.</ref> To honour and glorify the [[Flavian dynasty]] further, foundations were laid for what would later become the [[Temple of Vespasian and Titus]], which was finished by Domitian.<ref>Jones, Brian W. ''The Emperor Titus''. New York: St. Martin's P, 1984. 143.</ref><ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#5 5]</ref>

===Death===
[[File:Tito, da vicinanze del battistero lateranense, inv. 2282, 02.JPG|thumb|upright|Marble statue of Titus found near the [[Lateran Baptistry]], [[Chiaramonti Museum]] of the [[Vatican Museums]]]]
At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths in what was his final recorded act as Emperor.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26"/> He set out for the [[Sabine]] territories but fell ill at the first posting station<ref name="suetonius-titus-10">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#10 10]</ref> where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farmhouse as his father.<ref name="suetonius-titus-11">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#11 11]</ref> Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were "I have made but one mistake".<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26"/><ref name="suetonius-titus-10"/>

Titus had ruled the [[Roman Empire]] for just over two years: from the death of his father in 79 to his own on 13 September 81.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Titus'' 11: "[He died] two years two months and twenty days after succeeding Vespasian".</ref><ref>[[Cassius Dio]] LXVI.18: "For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days".</ref> He was succeeded by [[Domitian]], whose first act as emperor was to [[deify]] his brother.<ref name="suetonius-domitian-2">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#2 2]</ref>

Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. [[Philostratus]] wrote that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare (''[[Aplysia depilans]]'') and that his death had been foretold to him by [[Apollonius of Tyana]].<ref>[[Philostratus]], ''The Life of Apollonius of Tyana'' [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_31.html#%A732 6.32] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165942/http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_31.html#%A732 |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain that he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26"/><ref name="suetonius-domitian-2"/> Consequently, Dio believed the mistake to refer to not having Titus's brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26"/>

The [[Babylonian Talmud]] ([[Gittin]] 56b) attributes Titus's death to an insect that flew into his nose and picked at his brain for seven years in a repetition of another legend referring to the biblical King [[Nimrod]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sefaria.org.il/Gittin.56b.13?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en|title=Tractate Gittin 56b|website=www.sefaria.org.il}}</ref><ref>Rosner, Fred. ''Medicine in the Bible and Talmud''. p. 76. Pub. 1995, KTAV Publishing House, {{ISBN|0-88125-506-8}}. Extract viewable at ([https://books.google.com/books?id=SL34EWxAJfYC&pg=PA76])</ref><ref>[[s:Page:Legends of Old Testament Characters.djvu/178]]</ref> According to Rabbinic literature, Titus was a descendant of [[Esau]] and dared to challenge the Lord.<ref>[https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/953573/jewish/Tituss-Death.htm Tituss Death Chabad]</ref> Jewish tradition says that Titus was plagued by God for destroying the second Temple and died as a result of a [[gnat]] going up his nose, causing a large growth inside of his brain that killed him.<ref>Quinn, Thomas (Director) (26 June 1995). Urban Legends: Season 3 Episode 1 [Television series]. United States. FilmRise.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/953573/jewish/Tituss-Death.htm |title=Titus's Death |publisher=Chabad.org |access-date=8 November 2018}}</ref> 
Rabbinic scholars like [[Azariah de Rossi]] reject the literal historicity of the story, viewing it as an allegory about divine retribution. [[Maharal]] and others, such as [[Yosef Hayyim|Yosef Chaim of Baghdad]], interpret the narrative allegorically, emphasizing its spiritual and moral lessons rather than its historical accuracy. [[Reuben Margolies|Reuven Margolios]] suggests the Talmud might refer to another figure, [[Titus Furius Victorinus|Titus Frigius]], rather than the emperor. Modern scholars like [[Galit Hasan-Rokem]] analyze the story as a literary device symbolizing Titus’ punishment for destroying the Temple. Overall, the rabbinic account is treated as a theological or symbolic narrative rather than a literal historical record.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Reuven Chaim |date= 2023 |title= Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994/Are_historical_sections_of_the_Talmud_actually_historical_Critical_tools_for_understanding_historical_claims_in_rabbinic_literature|journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |issue= |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42-75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}</ref>

Another story is recorded in which [[Onkelos]], a nephew of the Roman emperor Titus who destroyed the Second Temple, intent on converting to Judaism, summons up spirits to help make up his mind. Each describes his punishment in the afterlife."Onkelos son of Kolonikos ... went and raised Titus from the dead by magical arts, and asked him; 'Who is most in repute in the [other] world? He replied: Israel. What then, he said, about joining them? He said: Their observances are burdensome and you will not be able to carry them out. Go and attack them in that world and you will be at the top as it is written, Her adversaries are become the head etc.; whoever harasses Israel becomes head. He asked him: What is your punishment [in the other world]? He replied: What I decreed for myself. Every day my ashes are collected and sentence is passed on me and I am burnt and my ashes are scattered over the seven seas..."<ref>Babylonian Talmud Gittin 56b–57a. 1935 Soncino edition</ref>

==Flavian family tree==
{{Flavian family tree}}

==Legacy==
===Historiography===
[[Image:The Arch of Titus, Upper Via Sacra, Rome (31605340150).jpg|thumb|The [[Arch of Titus]], on the [[Via Sacra]], just to the south-east of the [[Roman Forum]] in Rome]]
Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. The extant accounts from the period, many of them written by his contemporaries, present a highly favourable view toward Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' offers a witness account of the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus. The neutrality of [[Josephus]]'s writings has been questioned as he was indebted to the [[Flavians]]. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a [[Roman citizen]] and took on the Roman [[Roman naming conventions|nomen]] Flavius and [[praenomen]] Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Life of Flavius Josephus]]'' [[s:The Life of Flavius Josephus#76|76]]</ref>

It was in Rome and under Flavian patronage that Josephus wrote all of his known works. ''The War of the Jews'' is biased against the leaders of the revolt by portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganised and even blaming the Jews for causing the war.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book II#Chapter 17|II.17]]</ref> His credibility as a historian was later questioned.<ref>Josephus, Flavius, ''The Jewish War'', tr. G.A. Williamson, introduction by E. Mary Smallwood. New York, Penguin, 1981, p. 24</ref>

Another contemporary of Titus was [[Publius Cornelius Tacitus]], who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#1|I.1]]</ref> ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|The Histories]]'', his account of the period, was published during the reign of [[Trajan]]. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reigns lost.

[[Suetonius|Suetonius Tranquilius]] gives a short but highly favourable account on Titus's reign in ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', emphasising his military achievements and his generosity as emperor.<ref name="suetonius-titus-1">[[Suetonius]], ''[[The Lives of Twelve Caesars]]'', Life of Titus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#1 1]</ref>

<blockquote>Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor.<ref name="suetonius-titus-1"/></blockquote>

[[Cassius Dio]] wrote his ''[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]]'' over 100 years after the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source but is more reserved by noting that

<blockquote>His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days—in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of [[Augustus]], since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-18"/></blockquote>

[[Pliny the Elder]], who died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, dedicated his ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'' to Titus.<ref>[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm The Destruction of Pompeii, 79 AD], Translation of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s letters. [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/pliny.ep6.html Original.]</ref><ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural Histories]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/holland/plinyepistle.html Preface]</ref>

In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, Jewish memory has "Titus the Wicked" remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. A legend in the Babylonian Talmud described Titus as having had sex with a prostitute on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.<ref>Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b)</ref>

===In later arts===
[[Image:The Triumph of Titus Alma Tadema.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Triumph of Titus'', by Sir [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] (1885). The composition suggests a love affair between Titus and Domitian's wife, [[Domitia Longina]] (see below).]]
The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The [[bas-relief]] in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the [[destruction of Jerusalem]], with the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the [[Second Temple]].

====Literature====
* The early mediaeval Christian text ''[[Vindicta Salvatoris]]'' anachronistically portrays Titus as Roman client-king of Libya, north of Judah.<ref name="ehrman/plese 523">Ehrman and Pleše (2011), p. 523.</ref>
* ''[[Bérénice]]'', a play by [[Jean Racine]] (1670), which focuses on the love affair between Titus and Berenice.
* ''[[Tite et Bérénice]]'', a play by [[Pierre Corneille]], which was in competition with Racine the same year and concerns the same subject matter.
* ''[[Titus and Berenice]]'', a 1676 play by [[Thomas Otway]]
* ''[[La clemenza di Tito]]'', an [[opera]] by [[Mozart]], which centres around a plot to kill Emperor Titus instigated by Vitellia, the daughter of [[Vitellius]], to gain what she believes to be her rightful place as Queen.
* The ''Josephus Trilogy'', novels by [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], about the life of [[Flavius Josephus]] and his relation with the Flavian dynasty.
** ''Der jüdische Krieg'' (''Josephus''), 1932
** ''Die Söhne'' (''The Jews of Rome''), 1935
** ''Der Tag wird kommen'' (''The day will come'', ''Josephus and the Emperor''), 1942
* The ''[[Marcus Didius Falco]]'' novels, which take place during the reign of Vespasian.
* Titus figures prominently in "[[The Pearl-Maiden]]", a novel by [[H. Rider Haggard]], first published in 1901.

====Paintings and visual arts====
* ''[[:Image:Kaulbach Zerstoerung Jerusalems durch Titus.jpg|The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus]]'' by [[Wilhelm von Kaulbach]] (1846). Oil on canvas, 585 x 705&nbsp;cm. Neue Pinakothek, [[Munich]]. An allegorical depiction of the [[destruction of Jerusalem]], dramatically centered around the figure of Titus.
* ''[[:Image:La Destruction du temple de Jérusalem - Nicolas Poussin - Israel Museum.jpg|The Destruction and Sack of the Temple of Jerusalem]] '' by [[Nicolas Poussin]] (1626). Oil on canvas, 145.8 x 194&nbsp;cm. [[Israel Museum]], Jerusalem. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army led by Titus.
* ''[[:Image:(Venice) La distruzione del tempio di Gerusalemme -Francesco Hayez - gallerie Accademia Venice.jpg|The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem]]'' by [[Francesco Hayez]] (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252&nbsp;cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, [[Venice]]. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army.
* ''[[:Image:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70]]'' by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]] (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197&nbsp;cm. Private collection. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus.
* ''[[:Image:Romano Triumph of Titus and Vespasian.jpg|The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian]]'' by [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]] (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120&nbsp;cm. [[Louvre]], [[Paris]]. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting [[anachronistically]] features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian.
* ''[[:Image:The Triumph of Titus Alma Tadema.jpg|The Triumph of Titus]]'' by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Prettejohn | first = Elizabeth | author-link = Elizabeth Prettejohn | title = Lawrence Alma-Tadema and the Modern City of Ancient Rome | journal = The Art Bulletin | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 115–129 |date = March 2002 | doi = 10.2307/3177255 | jstor=3177255| title-link = Lawrence Alma-Tadema }}</ref> Vespasian, dressed as [[Pontifex Maximus]], walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife [[Domitia Longina]], who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26"/><ref name="suetonius-titus-10"/>
* ''[[:Image:Franks casket 01.jpg|Rear Panel]]'' of the ''[[Franks Casket]]''. Northumbrian, early 8th century. Whale's bone carving with Anglo-Saxon runic inscription, 22.9 x 19&nbsp;cm. [[British Museum]], London. Titus leads Roman army into Jerusalem and captures Temple. Inhabitants flee into exile, judgement is passed on offenders, and captives are led away.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite journal |last=Hammond |year=1957 |first=Mason |title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=25 |pages=19–64 |doi=10.2307/4238646 |jstor=4238646 |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofamerica25ameruoft |author-link=Mason Hammond |ref={{sfnref|Hammond}} }}
* {{Cite book| last = Jones | first = Brian W. | title = The Emperor Domitian | publisher = Routledge | year = 1992 | location = London | isbn = 978-0-415-10195-0 }}
* {{Cite book|author=Brian Jones |author2=Robert Milns |title=Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary |year=2002 |publisher=Bristol Classical Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-85399-613-9 |page=91 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Ehrman |first1 = Bart D. |last2 = Pleše |first2 = Zlatko |author-link2 = Zlatko Pleše |title = The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations |year = 2011 |publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] |isbn = 978-0-19-973210-4 |url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199732104 |url-access = registration |quote = apocryphal gospels texts and translations. }}

==Further reading==
===Primary sources===
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Titus], Latin text with English translation
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Books 65] and [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html 66], English translation
* [[s:The War of the Jews|Josephus, ''The War of the Jews'']], English translation
* [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2|Tacitus, ''Histories'', Books 2]], [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4|4]] and [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 5|5]], English translation

===Secondary material===
* [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/titus/t.html Coinage of Titus at Wildwinds.com]
* [http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=1192 A private collection] of coins minted by Titus
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/titus.htm Biography of Titus at roman-emperors.org]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120303013402/http://homeros.godsong.org/FRANKS_CASKET.pdf Wayback Machine] (Austin Simmons, ''The Cipherment of the Franks Casket'') Titus is twice depicted on the back side of the [[Franks Casket]].

== External links ==
* {{commons and category inline|Titus}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Titus, Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus |volume=26 |page=1032 |short=x}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Flavian dynasty]]|30 December|AD 39|13 September|AD 81}}
{{S-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Vespasian]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]|years=79–81}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Domitian]]}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Gnaeus Caecilius Simplex]]|before2=[[Gaius Quinctius Atticus]] }}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]]|regent1=[[Vespasian]] |years = 70}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus]] II|after2=[[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] |as=suffect consuls}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Gnaeus Pompeius Collega]]|before2=[[Quintus Julius Cordus]] |as=suffect consuls}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]]|regent1=[[Vespasian]] |years = 72}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus]] III|after2=[[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul 69)|Titus Flavius Sabinus]] II |as=suffect consuls}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Sextus Julius Frontinus]],<br />and ''ignotus'' |as=suffect consuls}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]]|regent1=[[Vespasian]],<br />followed by [[Domitian]]|years = 74–77}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Gaius Catellius Celer]]|after2=[[Marcus Arruntius Aquila (consul 77)|Marcus Arruntius Aquila]] |as=suffect consuls}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Quintus Articuleius Paetus]],<br />and ''ignotus'' |as=suffect consuls}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Roman consul]]|years = 79–80}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Aulus Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento|A. Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento]]&nbsp;II|after2=[[L. Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus]] |as=suffect consuls}}
{{S-end}}
{{Roman emperors}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{First Jewish–Roman War}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Titus| ]]
[[Category:39 births]]
[[Category:81 deaths]]
[[Category:1st-century Roman emperors]]
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[[Category:Flavian dynasty]]
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[[Category:Roman quaestors]]
[[Category:Vespasian]]
[[Category:Sons of Roman emperors]]
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