Editing Titchwell Marsh

{{short description|Nature reserve in the United Kingdom}}
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| photo           = Titchwell131111-238.jpg
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| photo_caption   = Freshwater lagoon seen from west bank, with Island Hide in the foreground, and the Parrinder wall and hides further back
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| area            = {{Convert|171|ha|acres}}
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| map_caption     = Titchwell Marsh shown within [[Norfolk]]
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| location        = Norfolk, East of England, England
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'''Titchwell Marsh''' is an English [[nature reserve]] owned and managed by the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] (RSPB). Located on the north coast of the county of [[Norfolk]], between the villages of [[Titchwell]] and [[Thornham, Norfolk|Thornham]], about {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of the seaside resort of [[Hunstanton]], its {{convert|171|ha|acre|abbr=off}} include [[reed bed]]s, [[Salt marsh|saltmarshes]], a freshwater [[lagoon]] and sandy beach, with a small woodland area near the car park. This internationally important reserve is part of the North Norfolk Coast [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSI) and the [[Norfolk Coast AONB|Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB), and is also protected through [[Natura 2000]], [[Special Protection Area]] (SPA) and [[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] listings.

The reserve is important for some scarce breeding birds, such as [[pied avocet]]s on the islands, and [[western marsh harrier]]s, [[Eurasian bittern]]s and [[bearded reedling]]s in the reeds. To encourage bitterns to breed, the reed beds have been improved to make them wetter, and the lagoon has been stocked with the [[common rudd]]. Typical wetland birds such as the [[water rail]], [[Eurasian reed warbler|reed warbler]] and [[sedge warbler]] also appear, and [[little egret]]s are common. The reserve has regularly attracted rarities, as its location is important for [[bird migration|migrating birds]]. Ducks and geese winter at Titchwell in considerable numbers, and the reserve shelters the endangered [[European water vole]].

Facilities include three [[bird hide]]s, a [[seawatching]] platform, two nature trails, and a [[Visitor center|visitor centre]]. Because of concerns about [[climate change]], a major project in 2010 and 2011 brought improvements to the banks around the freshwater lagoon and the conversion of the [[brackish water|brackish]] lagoon to tidal saltmarsh, a more effective barrier to encroachment by the sea.

Titchwell Marsh is [[archaeology|archaeologically]] significant, with artefacts dating back to the [[Upper Paleolithic]], and has remains of military constructions from both world wars. These include brickwork from a [[World War I|First World War]] military hospital and 1940s artillery targets for [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s and warplanes in the [[World War II|Second World War]].

==History==
===Before 1972===
[[File:Coastal defence at Titchwell, Norfolk. - geograph.org.uk - 164972.jpg|thumb|Remains of [[Second World War]] coastal defences]]
Titchwell has a long history of human occupation. Populations of both [[anatomically modern humans|Modern]] and [[Neanderthal]] people were present in Norfolk before the last  [[glacial period|glaciation]] between 100,000 and 10,000&nbsp;years ago, and returned as the ice retreated north. The [[archaeological record]] is poor until about 20,000 years ago, partly due to the prevailing conditions, but also because the coastline was much further north than at present, so that many sites are now under the sea.<ref name= NAE9/> Early [[Mesolithic]] [[flint]] tools with characteristic [[Blade (archaeology)|blades]] up to {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}}<ref name=murphy14>Murphy (2009) p. 14.</ref> long found on the present-day coast at Titchwell date from a time when it was {{convert|60|–|70|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the sea. Other flint tools have been found dating from the [[Upper Paleolithic]] to the [[Neolithic]]. As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic, the sea level rose, filling what is now the [[North Sea]], and bringing the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line;<ref name= NAE9/> the remains of submerged forests can still be detected at low tide.<ref name= murphy32>Murphy (2009) p. 32.</ref> By 11,000 BC, the makers of the long blades had gone, and peat marshes had formed behind an offshore [[barrier island]] or spit.<ref name= NAE9>Robertson (2005) pp. 9–10.</ref> A layer of peat formed between 1920 and 1680&nbsp;BC and another between 1020 and 830&nbsp;BC, indicating marshy conditions;<ref name= NAE152>Robertson (2005) p. 152.</ref> polished Neolithic axes found in those layers were blackened by exposure to the peat.<ref name= NAE15>Robertson (2005) pp. 15–16.</ref>

Two possible timber platforms were identified within the peat at Titchwell, and may be prehistoric. Similar [[Bronze Age]] structures are rare, and they may be significant in providing information about early timber construction methods.<ref name= NAE149>Robertson (2005) p. 149.</ref> [[Medieval]] and later pottery has been found at Titchwell, and the peat and [[silt]]s which overlay the [[sediment]]s deposited by the retreating [[glacier]]s have signs of post-medieval ploughing.<ref name= NAE15/>

The draining of Norfolk's coastal marshes commenced in the late 17th and 18th centuries, and sea defences including the "Old Lord's Bank" at Titchwell were shown in maps from 1786 and 1797.<ref name= NAE9/> For the next 170 years or so, the reclaimed marsh was [[arable land|arable]], producing crops and beef cattle.<ref name= Robinson>Robinson (1986) p. 28.</ref> A huge influx of [[Pallas's sandgrouse]] into Britain in 1853 led to several arrivals at Titchwell, including mated pairs. The last bird seen was on the saltmarsh, and the rest were on the dunes or in [[Ammophila (Poaceae)|marram grass]]; many were shot.<ref name= zool21>{{cite journal | last= Dodman | first= M |author2=Dodman, W | year= 1853 | title= Pallas' Sand Grouse in Norfolk | journal = The Zoologist | volume= XXI | page= 8686 }}</ref><ref name= zool22>{{cite journal | last= Stevenson | first= Henry | year= 1854 | title= Pallas' Sand Grouse in Norfolk | journal = The Zoologist | volume= XXII | page= 8957 }}</ref>
[[File:SS Vina, The Brancaster Wreck.jpg|thumb|The wreck of the SS ''Vina'', seen in 2010.]]
Thornham Marsh, immediately west of Titchwell, was used between 1914 and 1918 by the [[Royal Flying Corps]] as a [[bombing range]]. Some brickwork on Titchwell Marsh is all that remains of a military hospital dating from that period. A First World War concrete building along the west bank was let as holiday accommodation until the [[British Army]] returned in 1942.<ref name= beforerspb >''Titchwell Marsh before the RSPB''. RSPB information sheet.</ref>

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], military defences were constructed at Titchwell. The drainage of farmland behind the banks was stopped, reflooding the former marshland;<ref name = rspbarch>{{cite web| title= Archaeology and history | work= Titchwell Marsh | url= http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/archaeology.aspx | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 5 November 2011.</ref> zigzag ditches were dug, and [[British hardened field defences of World War II|pillboxes]] built into Old Lord's Bank.<ref name= NAE15/> Between 1942 and 1945, the marsh was used by the [[Royal Tank Regiment]];<ref name=beforerspb/> an [[armoured fighting vehicle]] gunnery range was established and new banks were constructed for firing practice, with targets set at {{convert|900|m|yd|abbr=on}} intervals. Some of the still extant islands were built to hold "pop-up" targets, operated by cables from winches in a building whose foundations lie below Island Hide. Remains of the triangular concrete track used by the tanks also survive.<ref name=beforerspb/><ref name = rspbarch/> Military activities continued after the war, with the [[Royal Air Force]] returning to Thornham Marsh between 1950 and 1959. Bombing practice was supervised from a control tower, which was demolished in 1962, leaving only a concrete structure opposite the end of Titchwell's west bank.<ref name= NAE15/><ref name=beforerspb/> The remains of two Second World War [[Covenanter tank]]s, probably used as targets, are sometimes exposed at low tide.<ref name = rspbarch/>

The wreck of the SS ''Vina'', a cargo steamer built in 1894, can be seen at low tide. In 1944, she was anchored offshore for use as an RAF [[target ship|target]] when a gale dragged her to her present location and sank her. After the war, some of the wreck was salvaged as scrap.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?69922 |title=SS ''Vina'' (+1944) |author=Dowse, Julian |publisher= Wreck Site |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> The remains of the ''Vina'' are accessible at low tide, but visiting them is potentially hazardous as the wreck is quickly cut off and submerged by the incoming tide.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hunstanton lifeboat crew warns of Brancaster wreck danger |author=Semmens, Donna |url=http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/hunstanton_lifeboat_crew_warns_of_brancaster_wreck_danger_1_991014 |newspaper=Eastern Daily Press |date=11 August 2011 |access-date=14 November 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075526/http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/hunstanton_lifeboat_crew_warns_of_brancaster_wreck_danger_1_991014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Deadly peril of a treacherous tide |author=Shaw, John |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1352827/Deadly-peril-of-a-treacherous-tide.html | newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=15 August 2000 |access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref> A warning sign on the wreck advises anyone reaching it to return to the beach immediately.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2034303 |title=TF7846 : SS Vina – Safety warning sign |author=Dowse, Julian |publisher=Geograph Britain and Ireland |access-date=18 November 2011}}</ref>

Behind the sea wall, the marshes were drained after the war, and reverted to farmland, but the bank was breached in the [[North Sea flood of 1953]], returning the whole area to tidal saltmarsh dominated by [[Aster tripolium|sea aster]].<ref name = hammond>Hammomd (1984) pp. 167–168.</ref> The construction of a new sea wall across the reserve created a shallow freshwater lagoon, with a [[reed bed]] on its northern side and a vegetation-free [[brackish marsh]].<ref name =hammond/>

===RSPB era===
[[File:Recurvirostra avosetta -Titchwell Marsh, Norfolk, England -swimming-8.jpg|The [[pied avocet|avocet]] features on the RSPB's logo.|thumb]]
Between 1970 and 1972, a pair of [[Montagu's harrier]]s, Britain's rarest breeding [[bird of prey|birds of prey]], nested in the reed bed. The RSPB bought the reserve in 1973 for £53,000 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|53|1973|r=0}}}},000 in 20{{CURRENTYEARYY}}).{{Inflation-fn|UK}} The Montagu's harriers did not return, but [[western marsh harrier|marsh harriers]] did, and the RSPB commenced improving the habitat and facilities, including embanking the lagoons and building a car park and visitor centre. Avocets, then still very rare in the UK, first bred here in 1984. The visitor centre facilities were improved between 1987 and 1989 to cope with the numbers of visitors.<ref name= afterrspb>''The RSPB and Titchwell Marsh''. RSPB information sheet.</ref>

In 1991, the sea broke through the dunes at the eastern end of the beach near the former Tern Hide, and the dunes started to [[erosion|erode]]. The remains of the Second World War tanks first appeared around this time. In the following year the boardwalk at the beach end of the west bank was constructed to protect the dunes, and the [[seawatching]] platform was added at its northern end. {{convert|12|ha|acre|abbr=off}} of land to the east of the reserve was bought in 1993; much of this was formerly part of the firing range, and large amounts of [[barbed wire]] caused problems when the area was being converted to reed bed and wet grazing meadow. Over the winter, an old hide on the West Bank was demolished and replaced with the current Island Hide. Storms in February 1996 removed most of the dunes east of the boardwalk, and eroded those to the west. The Tern Hide, now cut off at high tide, was dismantled. Developments at the end of the 20th century included the 1997 extension of the visitor centre, which included building a cafe, and the erection of Fen Hide in 1999, together with a boardwalk path to the hide, and a dragonfly pond.<ref name= afterrspb/>

The reserve covers {{convert|171|ha|acre|abbr=off}},<ref name =hammond/> and is of international importance for its breeding and wintering birds. It was designated as a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSI) in 1973, and in 1986 it was subsumed into the {{convert|7700|ha|acre|abbr=off}} North Norfolk Coast SSSI. The larger area is now additionally protected through [[Natura 2000]], [[Special Protection Area]] (SPA) and [[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] listings, and is part of the [[Norfolk Coast AONB|Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB).<ref name=encitation>{{cite web |title=North Norfolk Coast |work=SSSI citations |url=http://www.english-nature.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1001342.pdf |publisher=Natural England |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202212559/http://www.english-nature.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1001342.pdf |archive-date=2014-02-02 }} Retrieved 8 November 2011.</ref><ref name = rspbmain>{{cite web| title= Titchwell Marsh| work= Reserve guide| url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/ | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 6 November 2011.</ref><ref name = aonb>{{cite web | title= Other Conservation Designations within the AONB December 2009 | work= Norfolk Coast AONB Management Plan 2009–14 | url= http://www.norfolkcoastaonb.org.uk/mediaps/pdfuploads/pd001159.pdf | publisher= Norfolk Coast partnership | access-date= 8 November 2011 | archive-date= 31 March 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120331161613/http://www.norfolkcoastaonb.org.uk/mediaps/pdfuploads/pd001159.pdf | url-status= dead }} Retrieved 8 November 2011.</ref> This is the RSPB's most visited reserve, with about 92,000 visitors annually.<ref name=rspbfacts>{{cite web|title=Fact File |work=Reserves |url=http://www.west-norfolk.gov.uk/pdf/1390-42b%20Birdwatching2.pdf |publisher=RSPB |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719080254/http://west-norfolk.gov.uk/pdf/1390-42b%20Birdwatching2.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-19 }} Retrieved 17 November 2011.</ref>

==Access and facilities==

Titchwell Marsh is next to the [[A149 road]] and buses stop outside the reserve.<ref name = rspbdirect>{{cite web| title = How to get here | work=  Titchwell Marsh| url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/directions.aspx | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 10 November 2011.</ref> The main track to the beach is a public [[Right of way (transit)|right-of-way]], and the only part of the reserve where dogs are permitted. The reserve is open all year, and access is free, although non-members are charged for using the car park. The main part of the reserve is accessed from the visitor centre using the 1&nbsp;km (1,050&nbsp;yd) West Bank footpath. After leaving the woodland around the visitor centre, there are two short paths running from the main path; the {{convert|200|m|yd|abbr=on}} Fen Trail to a hide overlooking the reed bed, and the {{convert|100|m|yd|abbr=on}} Meadow Trail boardwalk loop through wet marsh and past the dragonfly pond. The main footpath continues north past the reedbed to the freshwater lagoon and the Island Hide, then reaches a bank running across the reserve. The new Parrinder hides are placed along this wall. The footpath continues past a tidal lagoon, and over another bank to a saltmarsh, formerly ending at a raised wooden seawatching platform on the dunes by the beach.<ref name = rspbmap2015>{{cite web| title= Finding your way around | work= Titchwell Marsh | url=https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/titchwellmarsh_tcm9-260976.pdf | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 22 October 2015.</ref>

The visitor centre and shop are open daily except Christmas Day and [[Boxing Day]].<ref name = rspbabout>{{cite web| title= About Titchwell Marsh | work= Titchwell Marsh | url= http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/about.aspx | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 10 November 2011.</ref><ref name = rspbfac>{{cite web| title= Facilities | work= Titchwell Marsh | url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/facilities.aspx | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 10 November 2011.</ref> Most of the reserve and its facilities are [[accessibility|wheelchair accessible]], but the last part of the path to the beach is rough, and accessed via a steep bank.<ref name = rspbaccess>{{cite web| title= Accessibility | work= Titchwell Marsh | url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/accessibility.aspx | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 10 November 2011.</ref>

==Fauna and flora==
===Birds===
[[File:Acrocephalus schoenobaenus 1948.jpg|thumb|[[Sedge warbler]]s breed in the marsh.]]
The key breeding species are reed bed specialists such as the marsh harrier, Eurasian bittern and bearded reedling, together with the avocet, the RSPB's symbolic bird.<ref name = rspbspecies>{{cite web| title= Star species| work = Titchwell Marsh| url= http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/star_species.aspx
| publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 8 November 2011.</ref> Bitterns stopped breeding on the reserve in 1989 due to inadequate habitat and a lack of sufficient large food fish;<ref name= gurney/> although [[European eel]]s, a favoured food, are present, the numbers are too low.<ref name= Self>{{cite journal | last= Self | first= M | year= 2005| title= A review of management for fish and bitterns, ''Botaurus stellaris'', in wetland reserves | journal= Fisheries Management and Ecology | volume= 12 | issue = 6 | pages= 387–394 | doi =  10.1111/j.1365-2400.2005.00462.x| doi-access= free | bibcode= 2005FisME..12..387S }}</ref> These problems were addressed by managing water levels and excavating some of the reed bed to create open, reed-fringed pools, and stocking the lagoon with the common rudd; breeding recommenced in 2004.<ref name= gurney>{{cite journal | last= Gurney | first= Mark | year=2007 | title= Introduction of rudd ''Scardinius erythropthalmus'' as food for bitterns ''Botaurus stellaris'' at Titchwell Marsh RSPB reserve, Norfolk, England | journal = Conservation Evidence | volume= 4 | pages= 4–5 }}</ref> In 2011, there were 80 avocet nests, two pairs of Eurasian bitterns, and four pairs of marsh harriers, the latter successfully [[fledge|fledging]] seven young.<ref>{{cite web|author=Eele, Paul |title=Titchwell Marsh |url=http://www.rspb-westnorfolk.org/titchwell.html |publisher=RSPB West Norfolk Local Group |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425150952/http://www.rspb-westnorfolk.org/titchwell.html |archive-date=2012-04-25 }} Retrieved 8 November 2011.</ref>

Other breeding birds include [[common ringed plover|ringed plovers]] and [[Eurasian oystercatcher]]s in the sand dunes, and [[water rail]]s in the reed bed. [[Sedge warbler|Sedge]], [[Eurasian reed warbler|reed]] and [[Cetti's warbler]]s all nest in the wetland, and [[little egret]]s are now common on the reserve. In early summer, scarcer [[bird migration|migrants]] like the [[little gull]], [[black tern]], [[Eurasian spoonbill]]s and [[garganey]] may pass through on their way to breed elsewhere.<ref name = harrup>Harrup (2010) pp. 246–248.</ref>

In the autumn, species arrive from the north, some, such as [[black-tailed godwit]]s, [[curlew sandpiper]]s and [[little stint]]s just passing through, pausing for a few days to refuel, others staying for the winter.<ref name = rspbseas>{{cite web| title= Seasonal highlights | work=Titchwell Marsh | url= http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/seasonal_highlights.aspx| publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 11 December 2011.</ref><ref name= Newton114 >Newton (2010) pp. 114–115.</ref> This is also a good time to see bearded reedlings.<ref name= Taylor/> Offshore, [[Great skua|great]] and [[Arctic skua]]s, [[northern gannet]]s and [[black-legged kittiwake]]s may pass close by in favourable winds.<ref name =harrup/>
[[File:Limosalimosaislandica 1979.jpg|thumb|[[Black-tailed godwit]]s of the Icelandic subspecies pass through on migration.]]
Large numbers of ducks winter on the reserve, including many [[Eurasian wigeon]]s, [[Eurasian teal]]s, [[mallard]]s and [[gadwall]]s, and smaller counts of [[common goldeneye|goldeneyes]] and [[northern pintail]]s.<ref name = rspbseas/> Offshore, there may be large "rafts" of [[common scoter]]s, and smaller numbers of [[common eider]]s, [[long-tailed duck]]s, [[velvet scoter]]s<ref name= Taylor/> and [[red-throated loon|red-throated divers]]. [[Brant goose|Brent geese]] feed on [[Ulva|sea lettuce]] and other [[green algae]],<ref name= summers>{{cite journal | last= Summers | first= Ronald W | year = 1990 | title=  The exploitation of beds of green algae by brent geese | journal= [[Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science]] | volume= 31 | issue = 1 | pages= 107–112 | doi =10.1016/0272-7714(90)90031-L | bibcode= 1990ECSS...31..107S }}</ref> and hundreds of [[European golden plover]]s may roost on the reserve at high tide.<ref name =harrup/> In the evenings, large flocks of [[pink-footed goose|pink-footed geese]] fly over Titchwell on their way to roost, and [[Western barn owl|barn owl]]s and [[hen harrier]]s quarter the marshes.<ref name = rspbseas/> This is the season for flocks of [[lesser redpoll]]s, sometimes accompanied by a rarer [[common redpoll]],<ref name= Taylor/> and [[snow bunting]]s are to be found on the beach.<ref name =harrup/>

The reserve's location means that [[bird migration|migrants]] may be found, sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions are right,<ref>Elkins (1988) pp. 136–137.</ref><ref>Newton (2010) pp. 97–98.</ref> sometimes including [[vagrant species|vagrant]] rarities.<ref>Newton (2010) p. 50.</ref> Major rarities in recent years include a [[Pacific golden plover]] and a [[great knot]] in 2016,<ref name= BB110b>{{cite journal | last1 = Holt| first1 =Chas and the Rarities Committee |year =2017| title = Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2016| journal =British Birds | volume = 110| issue = 10| pages = 562–631 }}</ref> and a [[slender-billed gull]] and a [[penduline tit]] in 2014.<ref name= BB108>{{cite journal | last1 = Hudson| first1 =Nigel and the Rarities Committee |year =2015| title = Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2014| journal =British Birds | volume = 108| issue = 10| pages = 565–633 }}</ref>

===Other animals and plants===
[[File:Titchwell saltmarsh - geograph.org.uk - 789979.jpg|Saltmarsh behind the beach|thumb]]
[[European water vole|Water voles]] are an endangered species in the UK, with a huge decline in numbers, mainly due to predation by the introduced [[American mink]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gill |first1=Victoria |title=Extinction: Quarter of UK mammals 'under threat' |work=BBC News |date=30 July 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-53585627 |access-date=30 July 2020 |quote=Familiar animals - the red squirrel and the water vole - have been put in the second most urgent category of Endangered.}}</ref> They are still common at Titchwell, which is one of a number of [[East Anglia]]n sites now of national importance for this species.<ref name=pennine>{{cite web | title= Water voles in the North Pennines | url= http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Lists/DocumentLibrary/Attachments/156//Watervoles.pdf | publisher= North Pennines AONB Partnership | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140729202427/http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Lists/DocumentLibrary/Attachments/156//Watervoles.pdf | archive-date= 2014-07-29 }} Retrieved 9 November 2011.</ref> Both [[harbour seal|common]] and [[grey seal]]s can be seen off the beach.<ref name= Taylor>Taylor (2009) pp. 136–137.</ref> Other [[vertebrate]]s include [[European eel]]s, [[common toad]]s and [[three-spined stickleback]]s.<ref name =hammond/>

In summer, the dragonfly pond can hold up to ten species of [[Odonata|dragonflies and damselflies]].<ref name = rspbseas/> The nationally scarce moth [[Senta flammea|flame wainscot]] has bred at Titchwell since 1996;<ref name= cadbury>{{cite journal | last= Cadbury | first= James | year= 2001| title= Lepidoptera recording at RSPB reserves, 1999 and 2000 | journal= Lepidoptera Conservation Bulletin | volume= 2 | page= 4 }}</ref> other [[Lepidoptera]] may include migrants such as the [[Vanessa cardui|painted lady]],<ref name= Taylor/> the [[diamondback moth]],<ref name = angle>{{cite web | author= Clifton, Jon | title= Species List for Titchwell RSPB, Norfolk | url= http://www.angleps.com/Species%20List%20for%20Titchwell%20RSPB.pdf | publisher= Jon Clifton Entomological Surveys | access-date= 12 November 2011 | archive-date= 25 April 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120425161047/http://www.angleps.com/Species%20List%20for%20Titchwell%20RSPB.pdf | url-status= dead }} Retrieved 12 November 2011.</ref> and especially the [[silver Y]], which can occur in huge numbers; 90,000 were recorded on the reserve in July 2010, feeding on [[Limonium binervosum|sea lavender]].<ref name=atropos>{{cite web|title=Migrant insect review – End of July 2010 |work=Migrant insect summaries |url=http://www.atropos.info/news.html |publisher=Atropos |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425161047/http://www.atropos.info/news.html |archive-date=2012-04-25 }} Retrieved 12 November 2011.</ref>

The saltmarsh contains [[Salicornia|glassworts]] and [[Spartina anglica|common cord grass]] in the most exposed regions, with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first sea aster, then mainly sea lavender, with [[Halimione portulacoides|sea purslane]] in the creeks and smaller areas of [[Plantago maritima|sea plantain]] and other common marsh plants. The drier areas contain maritime grasses such as [[Agropyron pungens|sea couch grass]] and [[Puccinellia maritima|sea poa grass]]. The reedbeds are dominated by [[Phragmites|common reed]] with [[Juncus gerardii|saltmarsh rush]], [[Ranunculus peltatus|brackish water crowfoot]], [[Bolboschoenus maritimus|sea clubrush]] and [[Typha latifolia|common bulrush]] also common in the various wetland habitats.<ref name = encitation/>

==Recreation==
[[File:Dune edge on the Norfolk coast. - geograph.org.uk - 164964.jpg|thumb|[[Birdwatching]] visitors help to support the local economy.]]
As the RSPB's busiest reserve, Titchwell Marsh has a significant economic impact on its locality. A 2002 survey reported that an estimated 137,700 visitors spent £1.8&nbsp;million locally in 1998.<ref name = economy>Shiel (2002) pp. 6–16.</ref> The tiny village of [[Titchwell]] has two three-star hotels and a shop selling [[telescope]]s and [[binoculars]], although it does not have a general store or a [[public house]].<ref>[http://www.titchwellmanor.com/ Titchwell Manor] Titchwell Manor. Retrieved 11 December 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.briarfieldshotelnorfolk.co.uk/ Briarfields] Briarfields Hotel. Retrieved 11 December 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.at-infocus.co.uk/titchwell.html In Focus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219063824/http://www.at-infocus.co.uk/titchwell.html |date=19 February 2012 }} In Focus. Retrieved 11 December 2011.</ref>

A 2005 survey at Titchwell and five other North Norfolk coastal sites found that 39&nbsp;per cent of visitors gave [[birdwatching]] as the main purpose of their visit. The 7.7&nbsp;million day visitors and 5.5&nbsp;million who made overnight stays in the area in 1999 are estimated to have spent £122&nbsp;million, and created the equivalent of 2,325 full-time jobs.<ref>Liley (2008) p. 6.</ref>

==Threats==
The soft rocks of the North Norfolk coast have been attacked by the sea for centuries;<ref name=EA>{{cite web|title=Long term planning: North Norfolk coast |work=Adaptation planning |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/planning/108980.aspx |publisher=Environment Agency |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216153828/http://environment-agency.gov.uk/research/planning/108980.aspx |archive-date=2012-12-16 }} Retrieved 11 November 2011.</ref> at Titchwell Marsh, the beach and sand dunes protecting the northern edge of the reserve have been eroded, and [[climate change]] has increased the likelihood of damage to the freshwater areas of the reserve. The predicted increasingly stormy weather could damage the dune system and expose the soft earth banks to wave damage, or the sea could just over-top the defences, as it did in the 1953 floods. Either way, the [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] value of the reserve would be adversely affected, especially through the potential loss of the bitterns. Rather than reinforce the outer bank, it was decided to undertake a managed realignment.<ref name=EU>{{cite web | title= Titchwell Marsh (UK) | work= Climateproof areas | url= http://www.newsletter.climateproofareas.com/reports/end%20products/CPA-WP2%20brochure%20Titchwell_web.pdf | publisher= Interreg IVB North Sea Region Programme | access-date= 2011-11-11 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120425155240/http://www.newsletter.climateproofareas.com/reports/end%20products/CPA-WP2%20brochure%20Titchwell_web.pdf | archive-date= 2012-04-25 | url-status= dead }}Retrieved 11 November 2011.</ref> Between 2010 and 2011, the banks on the east and west of the reserve were reinforced, and the sea wall to the north of the fresh marsh was rebuilt on the line of the old Parrinder bank.<ref name = rspbclimate>{{cite web| title= Coastal Change Project | work= Titchwell Marsh | url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/coastalchange/index.aspx | publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 11 November 2011.</ref> The old Parrinder Hide was replaced by a pair of modern hides, retaining the original name. Designed by HaysomWardMiller, these hides won an award from [[RIBA]] for their architectural style.<ref name=riba>{{cite web | title= East winners 2011 | work= Winners 2011 | url= http://www.architecture.com/Awards/RIBAAwards/Winners2011/East/Eastwinners2011.aspx | publisher= Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111107152532/http://www.architecture.com/Awards/RIBAAwards/Winners2011/East/Eastwinners2011.aspx | archive-date= 2011-11-07 }} Retrieved 11 November 2011.</ref> The former [[brackish water|brackish]] marsh north of the new wall has been modified by creating a breach in the east bank. This will allow tidal flooding and the eventual establishment of saltmarsh on what is now named Volunteer Marsh. The new saltmarsh will protect the rebuilt Parrinder wall, slowing erosion.<ref name = rspbclimate/> Nevertheless, it is estimated that by 2060 the beach may have advanced halfway across the new tidal area.<ref name= climateinfoerspb >''Titchwell Marsh Climate Change Project''. RSPB information sheet.</ref> Other improvements were made to the reed beds and islands in the freshwater lagoon, and a new [[sluice]] was installed. New reedbeds were created east of Fen Hide, which can be accessed by trails opened in 2012.<ref name =rspbclimate/> The first part of the trail is open all year, but the "autumn trail", running up from the woodland in the southeastern corner of the reserve, is accessible only from August to October.<ref name = rspbmap2015/>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Cited texts==
* {{cite book | last = Elkins | first = Norman | title = Weather and Bird Behaviour | year =1988 | location = Waterhouses, Staffordshire | publisher = Poyser | isbn =0-85661-051-8 }}
* {{cite book | editor-last = Hammomd | editor-first = Nicholas  | title = RSPB Nature Reserves | year = 1984 | location = Sandy, Beds | publisher = RSPB | isbn = 0-903138-12-3 }}
* {{cite book | last = Harrup | first = Simon |author2=Redman, Nigel | title = Where to watch birds in Britain | year = 2010 | location = London | publisher = Christopher Helm | isbn = 978-1-4081-1059-1 }}
* {{cite book | last = Liley | first = D | title = Development and the north Norfolk coast. Scoping document on the issues relating to access | url = http://www.northnorfolk.org/ldf/documents/Development_and_the_North_Norfolk_Coast.pdf | year = 2008 | location = Wareham, Dorset | publisher = Footprint Ecology | access-date = 2011-11-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120831135810/http://www.northnorfolk.org/ldf/documents/Development_and_the_North_Norfolk_Coast.pdf | archive-date = 2012-08-31 | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite book | last = Murphy | first = Peter | title = The English Coast: a history and a prospect | year =2009 | location = London | publisher = Continuum International Publishing | isbn = 978-1-84725-143-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Newton | first = Ian | title = Bird Migration: Collins New Naturalist Library (113) | year =2010 | location = London | publisher = Collins| isbn = 978-0-00-730732-6 }}
* {{cite book | last = Robertson | first = David | author2= Crawley, Peter|author3=Barker, Adam|author4=Whitmore, Sandrine | title = Norfolk Archaeological Unit Report No. 1045: Norfolk Rapid Coastal Zone Archaeological Survey | year = 2005 | location = Norwich | publisher = Norfolk Archaeological Unit | url = http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/norfolk-rczas/naurpt1045coastalsurvey.pdf }}
* {{cite book | last = Robinson | first = Bruce | title = The Peddars Way and Norfolk Coast Path: Issue 13 of Long distance route guide | year =1986 | location = London| publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office  | isbn = 0-11-701191-6 }}
* {{cite book | last= Shiel | first= Anna | author2= Rayment, Matthew|author3=Burton, Graham  | year= 2002 | title=  RSPB Reserves and Local Economies | url =https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/Reserves%20and%20Local%20Economies_tcm9-133069.pdf | location = Sandy, Beds | publisher = RSPB }}
* {{cite book | last = Taylor | first = Marianne |author2=Holden, Peter | title = RSPB where to discover nature in Britain and Northern Ireland | year =2009 | location = London| publisher = Christopher Helm | isbn = 978-1-4081-0864-2 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves-and-events/find-a-reserve/reserves-a-z/reserves-by-name/t/titchwellmarsh/index.aspx}}
* [http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/picture_gallery_tanks_at_titchwell_rusting_relics_of_wartime_norfolk_1_911815 ''Eastern Daily Press''] article about the tank remains
* [http://birdguides.com/webzine/article.asp?a=1418 Hard choices at Titchwell RSPB.] 2005 Birdguides article with aerial view, map, and video interview with Rob Coleman, the reserve's manager
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426064358/http://78.46.109.169/changes-at-rspb-titchwell-marsh RSPB video on the climate change project] narrated by [[Chris Packham]]

{{North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Titchwell Marsh}}
[[Category:Nature reserves in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Royal Society for the Protection of Birds reserves in England]]
[[Category:Birdwatching sites in England]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Coastal features of Norfolk]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Norfolk]]
[[Category:Military history of Norfolk]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1973]]