Editing Tiberius

{{short description|Roman emperor from AD 14 to 37}}
{{about|the second Roman emperor|the personal name|Tiberius (praenomen)|other persons named Tiberius and other uses|Tiberius (disambiguation)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| title        = [[Princeps]]
| image        = (Toulouse) Tibère -  Musée Saint-Raymond Ra 342 b.jpg
| alt          = White bust
| caption      = Bust, [[Musée Saint-Raymond]], Toulouse
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign        = 17 September 14 – 16 March 37
| predecessor  = [[Augustus]]
| successor    = [[Caligula]]
| birth_date   = 16 November 42 BC
| birth_place  = [[Rome]], [[Roman Italy|Italy]], [[Roman Republic]]
| death_date   = 16 March 37 AD (aged 77)
| death_place  = [[Misenum]], Italy, [[Roman Empire]]
| burial_place = [[Mausoleum of Augustus]], Rome
| spouses      = {{ubl|[[Vipsania Agrippina]] {{nwr|(m. 19 BC; div. 11 BC)}}|[[Julia the Elder]] {{nwr|(m. 11 BC; div. 2 BC)}}}}
| issue        = {{ubl|[[Drusus Julius Caesar]]|[[Germanicus]] (adopted)}}
| issue-link   = #Children and family
| issue-pipe   = more...
| full name    = {{ubl|Tiberius Claudius Nero (42 BC - AD 4)|Tiberius Julius Caesar (AD&nbsp;4–14)<ref name=name>{{Cite book |last=Cooley |first=Alison E. |url={{googlebooks|VlghAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |title=The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-521-84026-2 |page=489 |author-link=Alison E. Cooley}}</ref>}}
| regnal name  = Tiberius Caesar Augustus<!--Not a repository; full name as Roman emperor, no dates.-->{{Efn|Tiberius generally refrained from using the [[Nomen gentilicium|''nomen'']] [[gens Julia|Julius]],<ref name=name/> but he is still called as such in a few inscriptions.<ref>{{CIL|2|1660}}.</ref><ref>{{CIL|6|930}}.</ref>}}
| dynasty      = [[Julio-Claudian]]
| father       = {{ubl|[[Tiberius Claudius Nero (father of Tiberius Caesar)|Tiberius Claudius Nero]]|[[Augustus]] (adoptive)}}
| mother       = [[Livia]]
}}
{{Julio-Claudian dynasty|image=[[File:Great Cameo of France-removebg.png|150px]]|caption=[[Great Cameo of France]]}}

'''Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus'''{{efn|Sometimes referred to as '''Tiberius I''', in reference to the later [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern emperors]] [[Tiberius II Constantine]] and [[Tiberius III]].}} ({{IPAc-en|t|aɪ|ˈ|b|ɪər|i|ə|s}} {{respell|ty|BEER|ee|əs}}; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was [[Roman emperor]] from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather [[Augustus]], the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in [[Rome]] in 42 BC to Roman politician [[Tiberius Claudius Nero (father of Tiberius Caesar)|Tiberius Claudius Nero]] and his wife, [[Livia Drusilla]]. In 38 BC, Tiberius's mother divorced his father and married Augustus. Following the untimely deaths of Augustus's two grandsons and adopted heirs, [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar]], Tiberius was designated Augustus's successor. Prior to this, Tiberius had proved himself an able diplomat and one of the most successful [[Roman general]]s: his conquests of [[Pannonia]], [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]], [[Raetia]], and (temporarily) parts of [[Germania]] laid the foundations for [[Roman Empire|the empire]]'s northern frontier.

Early in his career, Tiberius was happily married to [[Vipsania]], daughter of Augustus's friend, distinguished general and intended heir, [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]. They had a son, [[Drusus Julius Caesar]]. After Agrippa died, Augustus insisted that Tiberius divorce Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' own daughter (Tiberius's step-sister) [[Julia the Elder|Julia]]. Tiberius reluctantly gave in. This second marriage proved scandalous, deeply unhappy, and childless; ultimately, Julia was sent into exile by her father. Tiberius adopted his nephew, the able and popular [[Germanicus]], as heir. On Augustus's death in 14, Tiberius became ''[[princeps]]'' at the age of 55. He seems to have taken on the responsibilities of head of state with great reluctance and perhaps a genuine sense of inadequacy in the role, compared to the capable, self-confident and charismatic Augustus.

From the outset, Tiberius had a difficult, resentful relationship with the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] and suspected many plots against him. Nevertheless, he proved to be an effective and efficient administrator. After the deaths of his nephew Germanicus in AD 19 and his son Drusus in 23, Tiberius became reclusive and aloof. In 26 he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his ambitious [[praetorian prefect]] [[Sejanus]], whom he later had executed for treason, and then Sejanus's replacement, [[Naevius Sutorius Macro|Macro]]. When Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Germanicus's son [[Caligula]], whose lavish building projects and varyingly successful military endeavours drained much of the wealth that Tiberius had accumulated in the public and Imperial coffers through good management.

Tiberius allowed the worship of his [[Roman imperial cult#Divus, deus and the numen|divine ''Genius'']] in only one temple, in Rome's eastern provinces, and promoted restraint in the empire-wide cult to the deceased Augustus. When Tiberius died, he was given a sumptuous funeral befitting his office, but no divine honours. He came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive and sombre ruler who never really wanted to be emperor; [[Pliny the Elder]] called him "the gloomiest of men".{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/28*.html#v XXVIII.5.23]}}{{sfn|Capes|1897|p=[https://archive.org/details/romanhistoryear03capegoog/page/n99 71]}}

== Early life ==

=== Family and youth ===

[[File:Livia y Tiberio M.A.N. 01.JPG|thumb|250px|Tiberius and his mother [[Livia]], AD 14–19, from [[Paestum]], [[National Archaeological Museum of Spain]], Madrid]]

Tiberius was born in [[Rome]] on 16 November 42&nbsp;BC to [[Tiberius Claudius Nero (father of Tiberius Caesar)|Tiberius Claudius Nero]] and [[Livia|Livia Drusilla]].{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=5}} Both of his biological parents belonged to the ''[[Claudia gens|gens Claudia]]'', an ancient [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] family that came to prominence in the early years of the republic.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=1}} His mother was also a member of the [[Livia gens|Livii]] family, an ancient [[Plebeians|plebeian]] but prominent family, through the adoption into it of his maternal grandfather.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=3}} Little is recorded of Tiberius's early life. In 39&nbsp;BC, his mother divorced his biological father and, despite being pregnant again by Tiberius Nero, married  [[Augustus|Octavian]], later known as Augustus. In 38&nbsp;BC his brother, [[Nero Claudius Drusus]], was born.{{sfn|Levick|1999|p=15}} In 32&nbsp;BC, Tiberius, at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at the ''[[rostra]]''. In 29&nbsp;BC, he rode in the triumphal chariot along with his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the [[Battle of Actium|defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium]].{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=6}}

=== Succession question ===

In 23&nbsp;BC, Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into even more civil conflict. Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus's heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] and [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (nephew of Augustus)|Marcellus]] would carry on his position in the event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became Augustus's chief problem.{{sfn|Southern|1998|pp=119–120}} In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. In 24&nbsp;BC, at the age of seventeen, Tiberius entered politics under Augustus's direction, receiving the position of ''[[quaestor]]'',{{sfn|Velleius|loc=2.94}} and was granted the right to stand for election as ''[[praetor]]'' and ''consul'' five years in advance of the age required by law.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=9}} Similar provisions were made for Drusus.{{sfn|Seager|2005|p=xiv}}

== Civil and military career ==

=== Early career and marriage ===

[[File:Portraitkopf der Vipsania Agrippina.png|thumb|180px|left|"Probable" portrait bust of Vipsania (recovered from [[Leptis Magna]], near [[Al-Khums]], Libya)<ref>from ''Africa Italiana'' 8 (1941), cited in Burns, Jasper (2003) ''[http://www.jasperburns.com/gasara.htm Vipsania on Ara Pacis]'',</ref>]]

Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greek [[rhetoric]] began. In 20&nbsp;BC, Tiberius went east to join [[Augustus]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Cassius Dio: Book 54, 7–8}}</ref> The [[Parthian Empire]] had previously captured the [[Military colours, standards and guidons|standards]] of the [[Roman legion|legions]] under the command of [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] (53&nbsp;BC) (at the [[Battle of Carrhae]]), Decidius Saxa (40&nbsp;BC), and [[Mark Antony]] (36&nbsp;BC) and, after negotiations with Parthia's King [[Phraates IV]], either Augustus<ref name=":0" /> or Tiberius,<ref>Suetonius: Tiberius, 9</ref> or perhaps both together, were able to reclaim them for Rome. Tiberius then led a sizeable force into [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], presumably to establish it as a Roman [[client state]] and end the threat it posed on the Roman-[[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=9}}

Tiberius married [[Vipsania Agrippina]], the daughter of Augustus's close friend and most famed general, [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]].{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=7}} He was appointed to the position of ''[[praetor]]'', and was sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused his forces in [[Gallia Narbonensis]] and along the German frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in the [[Alps]] and within [[Transalpine Gaul]], [[Conquest of the Alps|conquering Raetia]]. In 15&nbsp;BC he discovered the sources of the [[Danube]], and soon afterward the bend of the middle course.<ref>[[Strabo]], 7. I. 5, p. 292 {{full citation needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> Returning to Rome in 13&nbsp;BC, Tiberius was appointed as ''consul'', and around this same time his son, [[Drusus Julius Caesar]], was born.{{sfn|Levick|1999|p=42}}

Agrippa's death in 12&nbsp;BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus's request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married [[Julia the Elder]], Augustus's daughter and Agrippa's widow. Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she was married, and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour. Suetonius claims that when Tiberius ran into Vipsania again, he followed her home crying and begging forgiveness.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=7}} Soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again.<ref>[[#Seager2005|Seager 2005]], p. 20.</ref> Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus's death in 9&nbsp;BC, seemed the clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12&nbsp;BC he received military commissions in [[Pannonia]] and [[Germania]], both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy.

=== Military campaigns ===

[[File:Germania Enobarbo e Tiberio.jpg|thumb|300px|The campaigns of Tiberius, [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC)|Ahenobarbus]], and [[Gaius Sentius Saturninus|Saturninus]] in [[Germania]] between 6 BC and 1 BC]]

In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a [[pincer movement]] against the [[Marcomanni]]. Setting out northwest from [[Carnuntum]] on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed through [[Quadi]] territory in order to invade Marcomanni territory from the east. Meanwhile, general [[Gaius Sentius Saturninus]] would depart east from [[Moguntiacum]] on the [[Rhine]] with two or three legions, pass through newly annexed [[Hermunduri]] territory, and attack the Marcomanni from the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome's new conquests in Germania. He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in 7&nbsp;BC, and in 6&nbsp;BC was granted [[tribune|tribunician power]] (''tribunicia potestas'') and control in the East,{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/55*.html#9 LV.9]}} positions that Agrippa had held before him.

== Midlife ==

=== Retirement to Rhodes ===

In 6&nbsp;BC, while on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to [[Rhodes]].<ref>[[#Seager2005|Seager 2005]], pp. 23–24.</ref> The motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=10}} Some historians have speculated that Tiberius and Drusus were only ever intended as caretakers, and would have been swept aside once Julia's two sons by Agrippa, [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar|Lucius]], were adopted as Augustus's heirs and came of age.{{sfn|Levick|1999|p=29}} The promiscuous, and very public behaviour of his unhappily married wife, Julia,{{sfn|Velleius|loc=2.100}} may have also played a part.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/55*.html#9 LV.9]}} Tacitus understood this to be Tiberius's innermost reason for moving to Rhodes, a reflection of his hatred of Julia and his longing for Vipsania.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#53|I.53]]}} Tiberius, forbidden to see the woman he loved, found himself married to a woman he loathed, and publicly humiliated by her nighttime escapades in the [[Roman Forum]].<ref name=sag26 />

Whatever Tiberius's motives, his withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus's succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of a [[peaceful transition of power|peaceful transfer of power]] after Augustus's death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of ''[[Princeps]]'' survive.<ref name="sag26">[[#Seager2005|Seager 2005]], p. 26.</ref> Somewhat melodramatic stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness.<ref name="sag26" /> Tiberius's response was to anchor off the shore of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]] until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=11}} Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests.<ref>[[#Seager2005|Seager 2005]], p. 28.</ref>

=== Heir to Augustus ===

[[File:RomeElberiver.png|thumb|left|340px|In AD 1 Augustus sent his stepson Tiberius to subdue the Germanic tribes on the Rhine frontier. In his campaigns, Tiberius eventually extended the Roman border as far as the [[Elbe]] but was forced to cancel plans to conquer the Suevic [[Marcomanni]] when [[Bellum Batonianum|revolt]] broke out in Illyria in AD 6.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/v_alaudae.html | date = September 2010 | title = Legio V Alaudae | publisher = livius.org | access-date = 2017-08-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150426044251/https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/v_alaudae.html | archive-date = 2015-04-26 | url-status = live }}</ref>]]

With Tiberius's departure, succession rested solely on Augustus's two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD&nbsp;2 with the death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=13}} In AD&nbsp;4, Gaius was killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#3|I.3]]}}{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=15}} The death of Gaius initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted in 26 June as full son and heir,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seager |first=Robin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGzfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |title=Tiberius |date=2023 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-34730-4 |pages=37 |language=}}</ref> and in turn he was required to adopt his nephew [[Germanicus]], the son of his brother [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] and Augustus's niece [[Antonia Minor]].{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#3|I.3]]}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/55*.html#13 LV.13]}} Along with his adoption, Tiberius received [[tribunician power]] as well as a share of Augustus's ''maius imperium'', something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=21}}<ref>For the debate over whether Agrippa's ''imperium'' after 13&nbsp;BC was ''maius'' or ''aequum'', see, e.g., {{cite journal |author=E. Badian |date=1980|title=Notes on the ''Laudatio'' of Agrippa |journal=Classical Journal |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=97–109 [105–106]|jstor=3297371 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3297371}}</ref> In AD&nbsp;7, [[Agrippa Postumus]], a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of [[Pianosa]], to live in solitary confinement.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=15}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/55*.html#32 LV.32]}}

Thus, when in AD&nbsp;13, the powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus's own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without an [[interregnum]] or possible upheaval.{{sfn|Seager|2005|p=xv}}

However, according to [[Suetonius]], after a two-year stint in Germania, which lasted from AD 10–12,<ref name=Speidel>{{Cite book |last=Speidel |first=Micheal P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xc2PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |title=Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperor's Horseguard |date=2002|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-78255-9 |page=8}}</ref><blockquote>"Tiberius returned and celebrated the triumph which he had postponed, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turning to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presiding over the ceremonies."{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=20}} "Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out for [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] on the conclusion of the [[lustrum|lustral]] ceremonies."{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=21}}</blockquote>Thus, according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the declaration of his "co-Princeps" took place in the year AD 12, after Tiberius's return from Germania.<ref name="Speidel" /> "But he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private."{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=21}} Augustus died on 19 August AD&nbsp;14, a month before his 76th birthday and exactly 56 years after he first assumed the [[consulship]].{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Augustus''|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#100 100.1.]}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/56*.html#30 56.30.]}}{{sfn|Velleius|loc=2.123}} He was cremated with all due ceremony and, as had been arranged beforehand, [[apotheosis|deified]], his will read, and Tiberius, now a middle-aged man at 55, was confirmed as his sole surviving heir.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#8|I.8]]}} Tiberius peacefully took power, unchallenged by any rivals.{{sfn|Mattingly|1957|p=14}}

==Emperor==
=== Early reign ===
[[File:Aureus à l'effigie de Tibère.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Aureus]] of Tiberius, {{Circa|AD 27–30}}. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS / MAXIM. PONTIF.]]

On 17 September Tiberius called the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] in order to validate his position as ''[[Princeps]]'', and, as had [[Augustus]] before him, grant himself its powers.{{sfn|Levick|1999|pp=[https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi_0/page/68/mode/2up 68–81]. «The senatorial decree of 17 September was to make him ''Divi fiilius'', son of the deified Princeps, and the will imposed the title Augustus&nbsp;... Tiberius's powers lapsed on Augustus's death, required redefinition, or were surrendered on 17 September.»}}{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1|I.9–11]]}}<ref>Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). ''The Twelve Caesars'' (p. 118). Penguin.

"Tiberius used his Tribunician powers to convene the Senate and break the news of Augustus' death."</ref> Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of the ''[[Princeps]]'', but he lacked the titles of ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' and ''[[Pater Patriae]]'' ("Father of the country"), and refused the [[Civic Crown]].{{efn| A crown made from [[bay laurel|laurel]] and [[oak]]. It had been awarded to Augustus for "saving the lives of Roman citizens".}} Like Augustus before him, Tiberius may have sought to represent himself as a reluctant yet devoted public servant, no more than an ordinary citizen who wanted to serve the state and people to the best of his ability,{{sfn|Seager|2005|pp=44–45}} but his refusal of these titular, quasi-religious honours, and his reluctance to accept the full powers of a ''[[princeps]]'' were taken as insults to the elite who offered them; signs of hypocrisy, not humility. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves".{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#65|III.65]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#12|I.12–13]]}}{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=26}} Antagonism between Tiberius and his senate seems to have been a feature of his rule.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=24}} In his first few years as emperor, Tiberius seems to have wanted the Senate to act alone, with no reference to him or his responsibilities as "first Senator".{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#35|III.35]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#53|III.53–54]]}} His direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debates on what he actually meant, rather than passing his legislation.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#32|III.32]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#52|III.52]]}}

=== Germanicus ===
[[File:Germanicus.jpg|thumb|upright|A bust of the adopted son of Tiberius, [[Germanicus]], from the [[Louvre]], Paris]]

The Roman legions in Pannonia and Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised to them by Augustus, and showed early signs of mutiny when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#16|I.16–17]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#31|I.31]]}}

[[Germanicus]] and Tiberius's son, [[Drusus Julius Caesar]], were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line. Germanicus took charge of the mutinous troops and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, promising that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/57*.html#6 LVII.6]}} Germanicus's forces took over all the territory between the Rhine and the [[Elbe]]. They took control of the [[Teutoburg forest]], where three Roman legions and their auxiliary cohorts, led by [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]], [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|had been annihilated]] by Germanic tribes several years before. Germanicus took back the legionary [[aquila (Roman)|standards]] lost in that disaster, saving them from the disgrace of captivity.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#46|II.46]]}}{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#41|II.41]]}} These bold and successful actions increased Germanicus's already high popular standing.{{sfn|Shotter|2004|pp=35–37}} After his return to Rome, Germanicus was awarded a full [[Roman triumph|triumph]], which he celebrated in AD&nbsp;17. It was the first full triumph held since Augustus's own in 29&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#26|II.26]]}}{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#41|II.41]]}}

In AD&nbsp;18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, like Agrippa and Tiberius before him. This was interpreted as a sign that he would be Tiberius's successor;{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#43|II.43]]}} but Germanicus died just over a year later, having accused [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (consul 7 BC)|Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso]], the governor of Syria, of poisoning him.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#71|II.71]]}}

The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the new ''Princeps''. Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#16|III.16]]}} Whether the governor actually could connect the ''Princeps'' to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=52}}{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#15|III.15]]}}

In AD&nbsp;22, Tiberius shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus,{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#56|III.56]]}} and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD&nbsp;23, Drusus died in mysterious circumstances,{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#7|IV.7–8]]}}{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=62}} and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement. In AD&nbsp;26, Tiberius moved to an imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island of [[Capri]]. It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure and a Hellenised lifestyle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Houston |first=George W. |date=1985 |title=Tiberius on Capri |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/642441 |journal=Greece & Rome |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=179–196 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500030503 |jstor=642441 |s2cid=162308020 |issn=0017-3835|quote=We must imagine Tiberius not as brooding in isolation (though it is true enough he was a difficult man, not to say a grouchy one), but as entertaining visitors, discussing affairs, and taking up at least the more important of the obligations imposed upon him by state and family}}</ref>{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#67|IV.67]]}}

=== Tiberius in Capri, with Sejanus in Rome ===
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[[Sejanus|Lucius Aelius Sejanus]] had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became [[Praetorian Prefect]] in AD&nbsp;15. As Tiberius became more embittered with the position of ''[[Princeps]]'', he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD&nbsp;17 or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the [[Praetorian Guard]] responsible for the defence of the city, and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls [[Castra Praetoria|into the city itself]],{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=37}} giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops.

The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in the eyes of Tiberius, who thereafter refers to him as his ''Socius Laborum'' (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city,{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#2|IV.2]]}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/57*.html#21 LVII.21]}} and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Eventually, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD&nbsp;26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#67|IV.67]]}}

Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD&nbsp;25 to Tiberius's niece, [[Livilla]], though under pressure quickly withdrew the request.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#39|IV.39–41]]}} While Sejanus's [[Praetorian Guard|Praetorians]] controlled the imperial postal service, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius,{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#41|IV.41]]}} [[Livia]] may have checked Sejanus' overt powers, until her death in AD&nbsp;29.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 5#3|V.3]]}}

Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians (such as [[Curtius Atticus]]) in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widow [[Agrippina the Elder]] and two of her sons, [[Nero Julius Caesar]] and [[Drusus Caesar]] were arrested and exiled in AD&nbsp;30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, [[Caligula]], [[Agrippina the Younger]], [[Julia Drusilla]], and [[Julia Livilla]] were the only survivors.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=53–54}}

[[File:Villa Jovis (Restauriert).jpg|thumb|Ruins from the [[Villa Jovis]] on the island of [[Capri]], where Tiberius spent much of his final years, leaving control of the empire in the hands of the prefect [[Sejanus|Lucius Aelius Sejanus]].]]

In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius ''[[wikt:in absentia|in absentia]],''{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=65}} and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line to place himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position of ''Princeps'', or as a possible [[regent]].{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=65}} [[Livilla]] was later implicated in this plot and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for several years.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/57*.html#22 LVII.22]}}

The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming the [[Principate]] themselves, or serving as regent to the young [[Tiberius Gemellus]] or possibly even [[Caligula]].<ref name="boddington-sejanus">{{cite journal |last=Boddington |first=Ann |title=Sejanus. Whose Conspiracy? |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |date=1963 |doi=10.2307/293155 |jstor=293155 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/293155}}</ref> Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with.<ref name="boddington-sejanus" />

In AD&nbsp;31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week. As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he was replaced by [[Naevius Sutorius Macro]].{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/58*.html#10 LVIII.10]}}

[[Tacitus]] claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. The hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by the state. According to Tacitus;

{{blockquote|Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted the sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, no one dared to burn or to touch them.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s: The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#19|VI.19]]}}}}

Tacitus's extravagant portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians: [[Edward Togo Salmon]] notes in ''A History of the Roman World'':

{{blockquote|In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius's reign, not more than fifty-two persons were accused of treason, of whom almost half escaped conviction, while the four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate, not to the emperor's tyranny.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salmon |first=E. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ov1_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 |title=A History of the Roman World: From 30 BC to AD 138 |date=2013-08-21 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-96348-5 |page=133}}</ref>}}

While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, cruelty,{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=43, 44, 45}} and most of all his paranoia.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=60, 62–64}} While heavily sensationalised,<ref>Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (1984) ''Suetonius: The Scholar and His Caesars'', Yale University Press, {{ISBN|0-300-03000-2}}</ref> Suetonius's stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule.

[[File:Denarius of Tiberius (YORYM 2000 1953) obverse.jpg|thumb|A [[denarius]] of Tiberius. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS]]

=== Final years ===
The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius's image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius's withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through the leadership of the ''Princeps''. [[Suetonius]] records that he became [[paranoia|paranoid]],{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=60, 62–64}} and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. During this period there was a short invasion by [[Parthia]], and incursions on Roman territories by [[Dacia]]n and Germanic tribes.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=41}}

Little was done to plan or secure Tiberius's [[Order of succession|succession]]. The Julians and their supporters were diminished in numbers and political influence, thanks to Sejanus, and Tiberius's immediate heirs were dead. [[Caligula]], the sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius's own grandson, [[Tiberius Gemellus]], were possibly candidates.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#46|VI.46]]}} However, Tiberius only made a half-hearted attempt at the end of his life to make Caligula a [[quaestor]], and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/57*.html#23 LVII.23]}}

=== Death ===
[[File:Laurens Mort de Tibère (49 3 23).jpg|thumb|''The Death of Tiberius'' by [[Jean-Paul Laurens]]]]
Tiberius died in [[Misenum]] on 16 March AD&nbsp;37, months before his 78th birthday.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#50|VI.50–51]]}} While ancient sources agree on the date and location of his death, contradictory accounts exist of the precise circumstances.

Tacitus relates that the emperor appeared to have stopped breathing, and that Caligula, who was at Tiberius's villa, was being congratulated on his succession to the empire, when news arrived that the emperor had revived and was recovering his faculties. He goes on to report that those who had moments before recognized Caligula as Augustus fled in fear of the emperor's wrath, while Macro took advantage of the chaos to have Tiberius smothered with his own bedclothes.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#50|VI.50–51]]}}

Suetonius reports that, upon recovering after an illness, and finding himself deserted by his attendants, Tiberius attempted to rise from his couch, but fell dead. Suetonius further reports several rumours, including that the emperor had been poisoned by Caligula, starved, and smothered with a pillow.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=73}} [[Seneca the Elder]] also reports Tiberius having died a natural death.<ref>[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/10319/1/fulltext.pdf Romkey, Stephanie B.Sc, B.A. ''Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder and the Enigmatic Personality of Emperor Tiberius.'' McMaster University. August 2006.]</ref>

According to [[Cassius Dio]], Caligula, fearing that the emperor would recover, refused Tiberius's requests for food, insisting that he needed warmth, not food; then, assisted by Macro, he smothered the emperor in his bedclothes.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/58*.html lviii. 28]}}{{efn|Dio states that Tiberius died on the "twenty-sixth day of March. He had lived seventy-seven years, four months, and nine days, of which time he had been emperor twenty-two years, seven months, and seven days." Dio's calculations are accurate, but the number "26" is a mistake for "16".{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/58*.html lviii. 28]}}}}{{efn|[[Josephus]] states that "Tiberius died, after he had reigned twenty-two years, six months, and three days."<ref>[[Josephus]], ''[[The Jewish War]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book II|II, 9.]]</ref> Tiberius actually ruled 22 years, 6 months, and 25 days reckoning from Augustus's death.}}

Neither Josephus, Pliny, nor Philo relate the story of Tiberius's suffocation, stating simply the date of his death and/or the length of his reign. Modern medical analysis has concluded Tiberius most likely died as a result of [[myocardial infarction]].<ref>M. Pont, "Did Emperor Tiberius Die from Myocardiai Infarction?" Medicina nei Secoii 2 (1996), pg. 239</ref><ref>[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/10319/1/fulltext.pdf Romkey, Stephanie B.Sc, B.A. ''Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder and the Enigmatic Personality of Emperor Tiberius.'' McMaster University. August 2006.]</ref>

After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honours that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To the [[Tiber River|Tiber]] with Tiberius!" (the bodies of criminals were typically thrown into the river, instead of being buried or burnt).<ref>Death of Tiberius: Tacitus ''Annals'' 6.50; Dio 58.28.1–4; Suetonius, ''Tiberius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html#73 73] ''Gaius'' 12.2–3; Josephus ''AJ'' 18.225. Posthumous insults: Suetonius, ''Tiberius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html#75 75].</ref> However, the emperor was cremated, and his ashes were placed in the [[Mausoleum of Augustus]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Mausoleum_Augusti.html |title=A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome |last1=Platner |first1=Samuel Ball |last2=Ashby |first2=Thomas |year=1929 |chapter=Mausoleum Augusti |location=London |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=332–336 |access-date=30 June 2011}}</ref>

In his [[will (law)|will]], Tiberius nominated [[Caligula]] and [[Tiberius Gemellus]] as his joint heirs.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=76}} Caligula's first act on becoming ''[[Princeps]]'' was to void Tiberius's will.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html#1 LIX.1]}}

==Health and physical appearance==

[[File:Roman-Germanic Museum (11356991895).jpg|thumb|Bust of Tiberius from [[Romano-Germanic Museum]], [[Cologne]], AD 14–37]]
Suetonius describes Tiberius as being pale skinned, broad shouldered, [[handedness|left-handed]], and exceptionally strong and tall for a Roman, although he had poor posture.{{efn|At the time Suetonius was writing, the average Roman man would have been about five foot six.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/milan-average-height-not-changed-roman-era-1783394|title=The Roman City Where People Haven't Grown Taller for 2,000 Years|author=Thomson, Jess|website=[[Newsweek]] |date=23 February 2023}}</ref>}} Suetonius and Paterculus both write that he was beautiful in his youth.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=68}}{{sfn|Velleius|loc=Tiberius 97}}{{verification needed |reason=Tiberius 97 is not a sensible citation for Vell Pat|date=May 2025}} Even in adulthood, he was prone to severe [[acne]] outbreaks. He wore his hair cut short at the front and sides but long in the back so it covered the nape of his neck in a style similar to the [[mullet (haircut)|mullet]], which Suetonius claims was a family tradition of the Claudian gens.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=68}} This assertion is confirmed by busts of other Claudian men, who were depicted with the same hairstyle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collezionegalleriaborghese.it/en/opere/portrait-of-caligula|title=Portrait of Caligua|access-date = 16 August 2024|website = Galleria Borghese Museum}}</ref> Suetonius describes his eyes as being larger than average,{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=68}} while a passage in Pliny indicates they were grey or blue-grey;{{sfn|Pliny the Elder|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/11*.html#v XI.54]}} [[polychrome|polychromy]] restoration on a bust of Tiberius depict him with grey eyes and hair.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://emea01.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.relivehistoryin3d.com%2F2021%2F01%2F19%2Fhistory-in-3d-creates-a-series-of-accurate-reconstructions-of-first-12-roman-caesars%2F&data=05%7C02%7C%7Ced04ff6a24c04d2068fd08dcbfd1de2e%7C84df9e7fe9f640afb435aaaaaaaaaaaa%7C1%7C0%7C638596155307423311%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C0%7C%7C%7C&sdata=eRQWnruzmQ9xWiHpfTTLWwVdcI8W1qFEK6HKBcxgzeg%3D&reserved=0|title="HISTORY IN 3D" creates a series of accurate reconstructions of the first 12 Roman Caesars|website =History in 3D}}</ref> Suetonius reports he tended to [[Gesture#Motor (beat)|talk with his hands]], a habit others found unnerving, and which Augustus saw as an inherent character flaw.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=68}}

Both Cassius Dio and Tacitus record that by the time he became Emperor, Tiberius had gone bald. Tacitus further reports that the Emperor had lost most of his body fat and become abnormally thin, although he retained his physical strength. He also contracted a disfiguring facial ailment which may have been a severe case of [[herpes]], an outbreak of which affected the Empire during his reign; Tiberius banned kissing at public functions in an effort to curtail its spread.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=58}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jordantimes.com/news/features/first-kisses-may-have-helped-spread-cold-sore-virus-around-5000-years-ago|title=First kisses may have helped spread cold sore virus around 5,000 years ago|date=3 August 2022 |website=The Jordan Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Who Kissed First?|author=Lidz, Franz|work=The New York Times |date=13 February 2024 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/13/science/archaeology-sumeria-kissing.html}}</ref>{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4|IV]]}} Tacitus believed that embarrassment over his baldness and the disfigurement of his face may have been contributing factors to his retreat to Capri, and noted that he regularly attempted to cover his sores with [[plaster]].{{Dubious|date=September 2024}} Despite this, Suetonius reports that Tiberius enjoyed good general health for the duration of his reign.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=68}} Late in life he suffered from a poor pulse,{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=72}} which modern scholars believe may have been a sign of [[heart disease]].<ref>[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/10319/1/fulltext.pdf Romkey, Stephanie B.Sc, B.A. ''Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder and the Enigmatic Personality of Emperor Tiberius.'' McMaster University. August 2006.]</ref> Shortly before his death, he suffered an injury to his back while killing a boar with a [[javelin]] to open soldiers' games, which severely limited his mobility in his final days.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=72}}

Since the 20th century, much scholarship has been dedicated to Tiberius's psychological profile. Modern assessments tend to agree that he likely suffered from lifelong [[major depressive disorder]]. Additionally, while wine consumption was a regular part of Roman life, contemporary sources note he consumed more than was considered healthy by Roman standards; in the legions he earned the nickname "Biberius" (from ''bibere'', "to drink"). This has led modern writers to conclude he probably suffered from [[alcoholism]].<ref>[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/10319/1/fulltext.pdf Romkey, Stephanie, B.Sc, B.A. ''Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder and the Enigmatic Personality of Emperor Tiberius.'' McMaster University. August 2006.]</ref> As the Julio-Claudian Emperor who saw the most frontlines combat, and the one who actually led troops into battle, modern writers have concluded Tiberus' erratic and paranoid behavior later in life, as well as his alcohol intake, may have been the result of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]]. Proponents of this theory believe the tales of Tiberius's lurid sexual exploits were contemporary exaggerations of [[hypersexuality|sexual compulsivity]] as a means of coping with untreated trauma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://antigonejournal.com/2023/02/uncancelling-tiberius/|title=Uncancelling Tiberius|author=Roth, John|date=11 February 2023 |website=Antigone}}</ref> Other modern diagnoses offered for Tiberius include [[obsessive compulsive personality disorder]] and [[Schizoid personality disorder]]; the latter diagnoses was offered by [[Gregorio Marañón]] in a book-length psychological assessment of the Emperor, which further argued he suffered from some kind of [[anxiety disorder]].<ref>[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/10319/1/fulltext.pdf Romkey, Stephanie, B.Sc, B.A. ''Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder and the Enigmatic Personality of Emperor Tiberius.'' McMaster University. August 2006.]</ref>

==Legacy==
=== Historiography ===
[[File:Statua di tiberio da priverno, post 37 dc..JPG|thumb|upright|Statue of Tiberius from [[Priverno]], made shortly after AD 37, now in the [[Museo Chiaramonti]] of the [[Vatican Museums]]]]

Had he died before AD&nbsp;23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#6|IV.6]]}} Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterisation left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperial [[treasury]] with nearly 3 billion ''[[sesterces]]'' upon his death.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html#1 LIX.1]}}{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Caligula''|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#37 37]}} Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=37}} The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire, ensuring the imperial institutions introduced by his adoptive father would remain for centuries to come.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius|title=Tiberius &#124; Biography, Accomplishments, Facts, & Death|date=30 June 2023 }}</ref>

Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail: [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], [[Cassius Dio]] and [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus]]. Fragmentary evidence also remains from [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Strabo]] and [[Seneca the Elder]]. [[Philo of Alexandria]] speaks briefly of Tiberius's reign in [[Philo#Embassy to Gaius|Embassy to Gaius]]. Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as "brief and sketchy", but this book has been lost.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=61}}

==== Publius Cornelius Tacitus ====
{{See also|Tacitus}}

The most detailed account of this period was written by [[Tacitus]], whose ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus was a Roman senator, born during the reign of [[Nero]] in AD 56, and ''[[consul suffectus]]'' in AD 97. His text is largely based on the ''[[Acta Senatus]]'' (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the ''[[Acta Diurna]]'' (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital), as well as speeches by Tiberius himself, and the histories of contemporaries such as [[Marcus Cluvius Rufus]], [[Fabius Rusticus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]] (all of which are lost). Tacitus's narrative emphasises both political and psychological motivation. His characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative, and gradually worsens as his rule declines, identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his son [[Drusus Julius Caesar|Drusus]] in AD 23.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#6|IV.6]]}}

Tacitus describes Julio-Claudian rule as generally unjust and "criminal";{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s: The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#6|I.6]]}} he attributes the apparent virtues of Tiberius during his early reign to hypocrisy.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#50|VI.50–51]]}}
Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, corruption, and the growing [[tyranny]] among the governing classes of Rome. A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of the ''maiestas'' law under Augustus.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#72|I.72]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#74|I.74]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#27|II.27–32]], [[s: The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#49|III.49–51]], [[s: The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#66|III.66–69]]}} Ultimately, Tacitus's opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book:

{{blockquote|His character too had its distinct periods. It was a bright time in his life and reputation, while under Augustus he was a private citizen or held high offices; a time of reserve and crafty assumption of virtue, as long as Germanicus and Drusus were alive. Again, while his mother lived, he was a compound of good and evil; he was infamous for his cruelty, though he veiled his debaucheries, while he loved or feared Sejanus. Finally, he plunged into every wickedness and disgrace, when fear and shame being cast off, he simply indulged his own inclinations.{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#50|VI.50–51]]}}}}

==== Suetonius Tranquillus ====
[[File:Silver denarius of Tiberius 14CE 37CE found in India Indian copy of a the same 1st century CE Coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|An example of [[Indo-Roman trade and relations]] during the period: silver denarius of Tiberius (14–37) found in India and Indian copy of the same, 1st-century coin of [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] king [[Kujula Kadphises]] copying a coin of [[Augustus]].]]

[[Suetonius]] was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of [[Trajan]] and [[Hadrian]]. ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'' details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of [[Julius Caesar]] to the death of [[Domitian]] in AD&nbsp;96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by [[Aufidius Bassus]], [[Marcus Cluvius Rufus]], [[Fabius Rusticus]] and Augustus's own letters.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=43, 44, 45}}

His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary Tacitus, and delves into Tiberius's numerous alleged debaucheries while at Capri.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=43, 44, 45}} Nevertheless, Suetonius praises Tiberius's actions during his early reign, emphasising his modesty.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=26–32}}

==== Velleius Paterculus ====
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from [[Velleius Paterculus]], who served under Tiberius for eight years (from AD&nbsp;4) in Germany and Pannonia as ''[[praefect]]'' of cavalry and ''legatus''. Paterculus' ''Compendium of Roman History'' spans a period from the fall of [[Troy]] to the death of [[Livia]] in AD&nbsp;29. His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor{{sfn|Velleius|loc=2.94, 103–105, 129–130}} and Sejanus.{{sfn|Velleius|loc=2.127–128}} How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question, but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD&nbsp;31 as a friend of Sejanus.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Syme | first = Ronald | title = Seianus on the Aventine | journal = Hermes | volume = 84 | issue = 3 | pages = 257–266 | year = 1956 | publisher = Franz Steiner Verlag | jstor = 4474933 }}</ref>

=== Gospels, Jews, and Christians ===
[[File:Emperor Tiberius Denarius - Tribute Penny.jpg|thumb|300px|The ''[[tribute penny]]'' mentioned in the Bible is commonly believed to be a Roman [[denarius]] depicting the emperor Tiberius. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS / MAXIM. PONTIF.]]

According to the [[Gospel]]s, [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]] preached and was executed during the reign of Tiberius, by the authority of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman governor of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea province]]. ''[[Luke 3]]:1'',<ref>{{bibleref|Luke|3:1}}</ref> states that [[John the Baptist]] entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of Tiberius's reign. The city of [[Tiberias]], on the Western shore of the [[Sea of Galilee]] (also known as the ''Sea of Tiberias'') was named thus by [[Herod Antipas]] in Tiberius's honour.{{sfn|Josephus|loc=''Antiquities'' [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 2|XVIII.2.3]]}} It is referred to in ''[[John 6]]:23''<ref>{{bibleref|John|6:23}}</ref> and ''John 6:1''.<ref>{{bibleref|John|6:1}}</ref> The so-called "[[tribute penny]]" referred to in the [[Gospel of Matthew]]<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|22:19}}</ref> and the [[Gospel of Mark]]<ref>{{bibleref|Mark|12:15}}</ref> is popularly thought to be a silver ''[[denarius]]'' coin of Tiberius.<ref>{{cite book
| last = [[Sir William Smith]]
| title = The Old Testament History: From The Creation To The Return Of The Jews From Captivity |page =704
| publisher = [[Kessinger Publishing]], LLC |year=2010
| orig-year = 1896
| isbn = 978-1-162-09864-7
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = The Numismatist, Volume 29 |page= 536
| publisher = [[American Numismatic Association]]
| date = April 2010
| isbn = 978-1-148-52633-1
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Hobson
| first = Burton
| title = Coins and coin collecting |page =28
| publisher = [[Dover Publications]]
| date = April 1972
| isbn = 0-486-22763-4
}}</ref>

During Tiberius's reign, Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began [[proselytising]] Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments.<ref name="Jossa">{{cite book|last=Jossa|first=Giorgio|title=Jews or Christians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlBXVPnGxVkC&q=Jews+or+Christians%3F|year=2006|pages=123–126|publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=3-16-149192-0}}</ref> In AD 19 Tiberius ordered Jews of military age to join the Roman Army.<ref name="Jossa" /> He banished the rest of Rome's Jewish population, on pain of enslavement for life. [[Josephus]] credits the banishment to a quartet of Jewish con artists – one of whom had fled prosecution in Judea for financial crimes – who successfully conspired to [[scam]] a Roman Matron out of a large quantity of money, silk, and gold, ostensibly to be sent for dedication in the [[Second Temple]] in Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-18.html|title=Antiquities of the Jews - Book XVIII}}</ref><ref name="Jossa" />

There were no systematic Roman persecutions of Christians under Tiberius after [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Christ's crucifixion]].<ref name="Ed RICHARDSON">{{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=Ed |editor1-last=Donfried |editor1-first=Karl P. |editor2-last=Richardson |editor2-first=Peter |title=Judaism and Christianity in First-century Rome |date=1998 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=9780802842657 |page=205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATkvlPyonAkC&pg=PA205}}</ref> Jossa finds it "unthinkable" that Tiberius was aware of Christianity as a faith separate from Judaism.<ref name="Jossa" /> Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians began in the 40s, in Caligula's reign, and was complete by around AD 70 (the destruction of Jerusalem).<ref name="Jossa" />
[[File:Tiberio 14 - 37dC jpg.jpg|thumb|300px|Extent of the Roman Empire under Tiberius]]
The early Christian Church's view of Tiberius has generally been favourable. The 2nd-3rd Century Christian [[apologist]] [[Tertullian]] said Tiberius approached the Senate with a request to acknowledge Christ as a [[deity]], citing evidence of his [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], and his resurrection following his crucifixion. Early Church historian [[Eusebius]] said [[Pilate]] reported to Tiberius of the resurrection of Christ. Tiberius is said to have taken Pilate's report to the Senate.{{sfn|Williamson|1965|p=75}} Tiberius had to be content with the protection of Christians from malicious prosecution by senators; [[St. Jerome]] adds that this was under the penalty of death. Both he and [[Eusebius]] included Tertullian's account in their respective histories of the Christian Church, but no evidence of such protection survives in Roman law. Crake describes the episode as essentially a comment on deification by decree of the senate", in which few "would take seriously even Tertullian's version of events"<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal |last=Crake |first=J. E. A. |date=1965 |title=Early Christians and Roman Law |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1086690 |journal=Phoenix |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=61–70 |doi=10.2307/1086690 |jstor=1086690 |issn=0031-8299}}</ref>{{efn|The 20th-century Canadian historian J.E.A. Crake (1911–1983) said in 1963 at an annual meeting of the Classical Association of Canada that few "would take seriously even Tertullian's version of events" and that its "combination of legal inconsistency would have inspired a couple of pages of sarcasm from Tertullian."<ref name="doi.org"/>}}<ref>For review of sources on the early Church and Christianity in relation to Roman power-politics, see Barnes, T.D. (November 1968), ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Volume 58, Issue 1-2,  pp. 32–50 {{doi|10.2307/299693}}</ref> Translator [[G.A. Williamson]] said it "can be hardly doubted that Pilate sent such a report, but none of the extant versions is regarded as genuine."{{sfn|Williamson|1965|p=75}} The [[Christian History Institute]] does not list Tiberius as a [[Roman emperor]] who persecuted Christians. The first Roman emperor listed is [[Claudius]].<ref name=Christian>{{cite web|title=Persecution in the Early Church: A Gallery of the Persecuting Emperors|url=https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/persecution-in-early-church-gallery |publisher=Christian History Institute |ref=Christian History Institute |accessdate=March 21, 2022}}</ref>{{efn|According to the [[Christian History Institute]] from "A.D. 30 to A.D. 311, a period in which 54 emperors ruled the Empire, only about a dozen took the trouble to harass Christians. Furthermore, not until Decius (249–251) did any deliberately attempt an Empire-wide persecution. Until then, persecution came mainly at the instigation of local rulers, albeit with Rome's approval."<ref name=Christian/>}}

=== Archaeology ===
[[File:SperlongaVillaTiberio.jpg|thumb|232x232px|Remnants of Tiberius's villa at [[Sperlonga]], on the coast midway between Rome and Naples|left]]
Possible traces remain of renovations by Tiberius in the [[Gardens of Maecenas]], where he lived upon returning from exile in AD 2.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=15}} These persist inside the villa's likely ''[[triclinium]]''-''[[nymphaeum]]'', the so-called [[Auditorium of Maecenas]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Häuber |first1=Chrystina |title=The Horti of Maecenas on the Esquiline Hill in Rome |url=http://www.rom.geographie.uni-muenchen.de/texts/hm_text1.pdf |access-date=21 December 2019 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224222443/http://www.rom.geographie.uni-muenchen.de/texts/hm_text1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In an otherwise Late [[Roman Republic|Republican]]-era building, identifiable as such by its brickwork and flooring, the [[Dionysian Mysteries|Dionysian]]-themed landscape and nature frescoes lining the walls are reminiscent of the illusionistic early Imperial paintings [[Villa of Livia#Garden room fresco|in his mother's own subterranean dining room]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wyler |first1=Stéphanie |chapter=An Augustan Trend towards Dionysos: Around the ‘Auditorium of Maecenas' |editor1-last=Bernabe |editor1-first=Alberto |editor2-last=Herrero de Jáuregui |editor2-first=Miguel |editor3-last=San Cristóbal |editor3-first=Ana |editor4-last=Martín Hernández |editor4-first=Raquel |title=Redefining Dionysos|pages=541–553|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|date=2013|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/es/4979106/An_Augustan_trend_towards_Dionysos_around_the_Auditorium_of_Mecenas_}}</ref>

Tiberius's palace in Rome was on the [[Palatine Hill]]; its ruins still stand. Tiberius built a temple in Rome to the deified Augustus, and restored the [[theatre of Pompey]],{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 6#45|IV.45]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 3#72|III.72]]}}{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html#47 47]}} these works were not finished until the reign of Caligula.{{sfn|Suetonius, ''Caligula''|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#21 21]}} The remains of Tiberius's villa at [[Sperlonga]] include a [[grotto]], where the fragmentary [[Sperlonga sculptures]] were found. The hill-top ''[[Villa Jovis]]'' retreat at [[Capri]] has been preserved. The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas,{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#67|IV.67]]}} of which the ''Villa Jovis'' was the largest.

Tiberius refused to be officially worshipped as a living god. He promoted restraint in the official, empire-wide cult to the divinised Augustus, and established a priesthood, the ''[[Sodales Augustales]]'', to administer its rites. He allowed a single temple to honour both his own [[Genius (mythology)|''genius'']] and that of the Senate, at [[Smyrna]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gradel |first=Ittai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cBNREAAAQBAJ |title=Emperor Worship and Roman Religion |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-154149-0 |pages=15, 263–268: Gradel points out that no Roman was ever prosecuted for sacrificing to his emperor}}</ref>{{sfn|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#37|IV.37–38]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#55|IV.55–56]]}}

=== Popular culture ===
Tiberius has been represented in fiction, in literature, film and television, and in video games, often as a peripheral character in the central storyline. The following is a list of appearances Tiberius made in popular culture.

* He appears in the 1934 novel ''[[I, Claudius]]'' by [[Robert Graves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.booktalk.org/i-claudius.php |title=''I, Claudius'': From the Autobiography of Tiberius Claudius – Robert Graves|publisher=Booktalk.org |access-date=2008-09-20 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080618094451/http://www.booktalk.org/i-claudius.php |archive-date = 18 June 2008}}</ref> and the consequent [[BBC]] [[I, Claudius (TV series)|television series]] adaptation, where he is portrayed by [[George Baker (British actor)|George Baker]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/cinema/features/iclaudius.shtml |title=BBC Four Drama – ''I, Claudius'' |publisher=BBC |access-date=2008-09-20}}</ref>
* [[George R. R. Martin]], the author of ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series, has stated that central character [[Stannis Baratheon]] is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar, and particularly the portrayal by Baker.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://grrm.livejournal.com/310379.html?thread=17203563 |title=Not a Blog: It's the Pits|date=2013-01-21|access-date=2016-12-27}}</ref>
* In the 1968 [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] historical drama ''[[The Caesars (TV series)|The Caesars]]'', Tiberius (by [[André Morell]]) is the central character for much of the series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than in ''I, Claudius''.
* He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film [[The Inquiry (2006 film)|''The Inquiry'']], in which he is played by [[Max von Sydow]]. In addition, Tiberius has prominent roles in ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' (played by [[George Relph]] in his last starring role),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/character/ch0017920/ |title=Emperor Tiberius Caesar (Character) |publisher=Imdb.com |access-date=2008-09-20}}</ref> and in ''[[A.D. (miniseries)|A.D.]]'' (played by [[James Mason]]).
* He was featured in ''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]'' (1953), played by [[Ernest Thesiger]].
* He was featured in the 1979 film [[Caligula (film)|''Caligula'']], portrayed by [[Peter O'Toole]].
* He was an important character in [[Taylor Caldwell]]'s 1958 novel, ''[[Dear and Glorious Physician]]'', a biography of St [[Luke the Evangelist]], author of the third canonical Gospel.
* He was played by [[Kenneth Cranham]] in the 2015 TV series ''[[A.D. The Bible Continues]].''
* In the TV series ''[[Roman Empire (TV series)|Roman Empire]]'', Tiberius was portrayed by Craig Walsh-Wrightson. In the 2021 TV series ''[[Domina (TV series)|Domina]]'', he was played by [[Earl Cave]].
* The theft of the Gold Tiberius, an unintentionally unique commemorative coin commissioned by Tiberius which is stated to have achieved legendary status in the centuries hence, from a mysterious triad of occultists drives the plot of the framing story in [[Arthur Machen]]'s 1895 novel ''[[The Three Impostors]]''.

== Marriages and issue ==
[[File:MSR-Ra342d-DM (2).jpg|thumb|180px|Bust of [[Drusus Julius Caesar]], [[Musée Saint-Raymond]]]]

Tiberius married twice, first to the daughter of [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]], [[Vipsania Agrippina]]. His second marriage was after Agrippa's death to [[Augustus]]' daughter, [[Julia the Elder]]. Only his marriage with Agrippina produced a child who survived to adulthood, known as [[Drusus Julius Caesar]] (15–13&nbsp;BC – AD&nbsp;23). His marriage with Julia produced a child who died in infancy.<ref>{{harvnb|Balsdon|Levick|2012}}; {{harvnb|Zmeskal|2009|pp=71–72}}, listing Drusus Julius Caesar as "Drusus Claudius" and citing among others:
* {{harvnb|Tacitus, ''Annales''|loc=1.12.4}}; {{harvnb|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''|loc=7.2}};
* {{harvnb|Velleius|loc=2.93.2, 2.96.1}}; {{harvnb|Cassius Dio|loc=54.31.2}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Shaw |first=Millo L G |title=Drusus Caesar, the son of Tiberius |date=1990 |publisher=University of British Columbia |url=https://open.library.ubc.ca/soa/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0100757 |doi=10.14288/1.0100757 |degree=PhD }} Dates of birth at pp. i–ii. See pp. 8, 34–38 as to Drusus Julius Caesar's birth name and pp. 214ff as to Drusus' children.</ref>

In AD&nbsp;4, Tiberius adopted his nephew [[Germanicus|Germanicus Julius Caesar]] (15/16&nbsp;BC – AD&nbsp;19), the son of his brother [[Drusus the Elder|Nero Claudius Drusus]] and Augustus's niece [[Antonia Minor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Balsdon|Levick|2012}}; {{harvc |last=Momigliano |first=Arnaldo |last2=Cadoux |first2=Theodore John |last3=Levick |first3=Barbara |c=Iulius Caesar, Germanicus |year=2012 |in=''OCD''<sup>4</sup> |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3396 |mode=cs2 }}; {{harvc |last=Momigliano |first=Arnaldo |last2=Cadoux |first2=Theodore John |last3=Levick |first3=Barbara |c=Claudius Drusus, Nero |year=2012 |in=''OCD''<sup>4</sup> |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1622 |mode=cs2 }}; {{harvc |last=Cadoux |first=Theodore John |last2=Badian |first2=Ernst |c=Antonia (3) |year=2012 |in=''OCD''<sup>4</sup> |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.539 |mode=cs2 }}.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Caesar cut]]
* [[Clutorius Priscus]]
* [[Julio-Claudian family tree]]
* [[List of Roman emperors]]
* [[List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources]]

== Notes ==
{{notes}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
=== Primary sources ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*<!-- Dio -->{{Cite book |author=Cassius Dio |chapter=Book 55–58 |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/55*.html |title=[[Roman History (Cassius Dio)|Roman History]] |translator-last=Earnest Cary |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1927 |ref={{sfnref|Cassius Dio}} |orig-date={{circa}} 230}}
*<!-- Joseph JA -->{{Cite book |author=[[Josephus]] |chapter=Chapters XVIII |title=[[Antiquities of the Jews]] |translator-last=[[William Whiston]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1737 |ref={{sfnref|Josephus}} |orig-date={{circa}} 96 AD |chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII}}
*<!-- Plin NH -->{{Cite book |author=[[Gaius Plinius Secundus]] |title=[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]] |translator-last=H. Rackham |translator2-last=W.H.S. Jones |translator3-last=D.E. Eichholz |name-list-style=and |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1961 |ref={{sfnref|Pliny the Elder}} |orig-date={{circa}} 77 AD}}
*<!-- Suet Aug -->{{Cite book |author=[[Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus]] |chapter=Life of Augustus |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html |title=[[The Twelve Caesars]] |translator-last=[[John Carew Rolfe]] |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1913 |orig-date={{circa}} AD 121 |ref={{sfnref|Suetonius, ''Augustus''}} }}
*<!-- Suet Tib -->{{Cite book |author=[[Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus]] |chapter=Life of Tiberius |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html |title=[[The Twelve Caesars]] |translator-last=[[John Carew Rolfe]] |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1913 |orig-date={{circa}} AD 121 |ref={{sfnref|Suetonius, ''Tiberius''}} }}
*<!-- Suet Calig -->{{Cite book |author=[[Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus]] |chapter=Life of Caligula |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html |title=[[The Twelve Caesars]] |translator-last=[[John Carew Rolfe]] |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1913 |orig-date={{circa}} AD 121 |ref={{sfnref|Suetonius, ''Caligula''}} }}
*<!-- Tac Ann -->{{Cite book |author=[[Publius Cornelius Tacitus]] |title=[[The Annals]] |translator-last=Frederick W. Shipley |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1924 |url= |ref={{sfnref|Tacitus, ''Annales''}} |orig-date={{circa}} AD 110}}
*<!-- Vell Pat -->{{Cite book |author=[[Marcus Velleius Paterculus]] |chapter=Book II |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2D*.html# |title=The Roman History |translator-last=Frederick W. Shipley |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |year=1924 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/home.html |ref={{sfnref|Velleius}} |orig-date={{circa}} AD 30}}
{{Refend}}

=== Secondary material ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{harvc |last=Balsdon |first=J V P D |last2=Levick |first2=Barbara |c=Tiberius, Roman emperor |year=2012 |in=''OCD''<sup>4</sup> |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6440 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Capes |first=William Wolfe |url=https://archive.org/details/romanhistoryear03capegoog |title=Roman History: The Early Empire |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |year=1897 |series=Epochs of Ancient History |location=London |author-link=William Wolfe Capes}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Ehrenberg |first1=V. |last2=Jones |first2=A.H.M. |title=Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius |year=1955 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first1=Simon |display-editors=etal |title=The Oxford classical dictionary |year=2012 |url={{google books |id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ |plainurl=y}} |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |edition=4th |oclc=959667246 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref={{harvid|''OCD''<sup>4</sup>|2012}} }}
* {{Cite book |last=Levick |year=1999 |first=Barbara |title=Tiberius the Politician |edition=revised |publisher=Routledge |place=London |orig-year=1976 |isbn=0-415-21753-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi_0 |author-link=Barbara Levick}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Ernst |title=Tiberius |year=1960 |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York}} (Ernst Mason was a pseudonym of science fiction author [[Frederik Pohl]])
* {{Cite book |last=Mattingly |first=Harold |title=Roman Imperial Civilization |publisher=W W Norton & Company Inc |date=1957 |location=New York |isbn=0-393-00572-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Salmon |year=1968 |first=Edward T. |title=A History of the Roman World from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138 |edition=6th |publisher=Methuen |place=London |orig-year=1944 |isbn=0-416-10710-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofromanwo00salm |author-link=Edward Togo Salmon}}
* {{Cite book |last=Seager |year=2005 |first=Robin |title=Tiberius |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |place=Oxford |orig-year=1972 |isbn=1-4051-1528-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/tiberius00seag_0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shotter |year=2004 |first=David |title=Tiberius Caesar |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |place=London |orig-year=1992 |isbn=0-415-31946-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/tiberiuscaesar0000shot}}
* {{Cite book |last=Southern |first=Pat |title=Augustus |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |location=London |isbn=0-415-16631-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/augustus0000sout}}
* {{Cite book |last=Syme |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Syme |title=The Augustan Aristocracy |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1986 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-814859-3}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Syme |first=Ronald |date=1974 |title=History or Biography: The Case of Tiberius Caesar |journal=[[Historia (classical antiquity history journal)|Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte]] |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=481–496 |jstor=4435416}}
* {{Cite book |last=Syme |first=Ronald |title=Roman Papers |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1984 |isbn=0198148399 |volume=III |location=Oxford |pages=937–952 |chapter=History or Biography: the Case of Tiberius Caesar}}
*{{Cite book |last=Williamson |first=G.A. |title=The History of the Church Eusebius |date=1965 |publisher=Dorset Press |isbn=0-14-044-138-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Zmeskal |first=Klaus |title=Adfinitas |volume=1 |year=2009 |location=Passau |publisher=Verlag Karl Stutz |isbn=978-3-88849-304-1 |language=de }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Tiberius}}
* {{citation |last=Fagan |year=2001 |first=Garrett G. |title=Tiberius (A.D. 14–37) |work=[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]] |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/tiberius.htm |author-link=Garrett G. Fagan}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/tiberius.shtml "Tiberius (42 BC – 37 AD)"] at the [[BBC]]
* [https://omniatlas.com/maps/europe/160901/ "Maps of the Roman Empire under Tiberius at Omniatlas.com"]

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]|16 November|42&nbsp;BC|16 March|AD&nbsp;37}}

{{s-bef| before  = [[Augustus]]}}
{{s-ttl| title   = [[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
| years   = AD 14–37}}
{{s-aft| after   = [[Caligula]]}}

{{S-off}}
{{s-bef| before= [[Marcus Licinius Crassus (consul 14 BC)|M. Licinius Crassus]]| before2 = [[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Augur|Gn. Cornelius Lentulus Augur]]}}
{{s-ttl| title = [[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| with = [[Publius Quinctilius Varus|P. Quinctilius Varus]]| years = 13 BC }}
{{s-aft| after = [[Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus|M. Valerius Messalla Appianus]]| after2 = [[Publius Sulpicius Quirinius|P. Sulpicius Quirinius]] }}

{{s-bef| before  = [[Gaius Marcius Censorinus (consul)|G. Marcius Censorinus]]
| before2 = [[Gaius Asinius Gallus|G. Asinius Gallus]]}}
{{s-ttl| title   = Roman consul II
| with    = [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (consul 7 BC)|Gn. Calpurnius Piso]]
| years   = 7 BC }}
{{s-aft| after   = [[Decius Laelius Balbus|D. Laelius Balbus]]
| after2  = [[Gaius Antistius Vetus (consul 6 BC)|G. Antistius Vetus]]}}

{{s-bef| before  = [[Gaius Vibius Marsus|G. Vibius Marsus]]
| before2 = [[Lucius Voluseius Proculus|L. Voluseius Proculus]]}}
{{s-ttl| title   = Roman consul III
| with    = [[Germanicus|Germanicus Julius Caesar]]
| years   = AD 18}}
{{s-aft| after   = [[Lucius Seius Tubero|L. Seius Tubero]]
| after2  = [[Livineius Regulus]]}}

{{s-bef| before  = [[Marcus Valerius Messala Barbatus|M. Valerius Messala Barbatus]]
| before2 = {{nowrap|[[Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus|M. Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus]]}}}}
{{s-ttl| title   = Roman consul IV
| with    = [[Drusus Julius Caesar]]
| years   = AD 21 }}
{{s-aft| after   = [[Decimus Haterius Agrippa|D. Haterius Agrippa]]
| after2  = [[Gaius Sulpicius Galba|G. Sulpicius Galba]]}}

{{s-bef| before  = [[Lucius Naevius Surdinus|L. Naevius Surdinus]]
| before2 = [[Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 30)|G. Cassius Longinus]]}}
{{s-ttl| title   = Roman consul V
| with    = [[Sejanus|L. Aelius Sejanus]]
| years   = AD 31 }}
{{s-aft| after   = [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32)|Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus]]
| after2  = [[Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus|L. Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{New Testament people|collapsed}}
{{Ancient Olympic winners}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tiberius| ]]
[[Category:42 BC births]]
[[Category:37 deaths]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Romans]]
[[Category:1st-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Adult adoptees]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman adoptees]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman military personnel]]
[[Category:Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus]]
[[Category:Capri, Campania]]
[[Category:Children of Augustus]]
[[Category:Claudii Nerones]]
[[Category:Husbands of Julia the Elder]]
[[Category:Imperial Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Imperial Roman praetors]]
[[Category:Julii Caesares]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian dynasty]]
[[Category:People in the canonical gospels]]
[[Category:Roman-era Olympic competitors]]
[[Category:Roman quaestors]]
[[Category:Roman pharaohs]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman triumphators]]