Editing Theodosius II

{{short description|Eastern Roman emperor from 402 to 450}}
{{other uses}}
{{more citations needed|date=June 2017}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = Theodosius II Louvre Ma1036.jpg
| alt          = White head statue
| caption      = Bust of Theodosius II in the [[Louvre]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLuB7QPDm8C&pg=PA28 |title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Ar |date=1977 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |pages=28–29|isbn=978-0-87099-179-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lenaghan |first=J. |date=2012 |title=Portrait head of Emperor, Theodosius II (?). Unknown provenance. Fifth century. |url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=825 |access-date= |website=Last Statues of Antiquity |id=LSA-453}}</ref>
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]] of the [[Byzantine Empire|East]]
| reign        = 10 January 402 – 28 July 450<br/>(senior from 1 May 408)
| predecessor  = [[Arcadius]]
| successor    = [[Marcian]]
| regent       = {{Collapsible list|title={{nobold|[[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] (402–423)}}
| [[Priscus Attalus|Attalus]] (Rome, 409–410)
| [[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine III]] (Gaul, 409–411)
| [[Constans II (son of Constantine III)|Constans II]] (Gaul, 409–411)
| [[Constantius III]] (West, 421)}}[[Joannes]] (423–425)<br/>[[Valentinian III]] (425–455)
| reg-type     = [[Western Roman Empire|Western]]<br/>emperors
| birth_date   = 10 April 401
| birth_place  = 
| death_date   = 28 July 450 (aged 49)
| death_place  = 
| burial_place = [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], [[Constantinople]]
| spouse       = [[Aelia Eudocia]]
| issue        = {{plainlist|
*[[Licinia Eudoxia]]
*Flaccilla
*Arcadius (possibly)}}
| issue-link   = 
| issue-pipe   = 
| full name    = 
| dynasty      = [[Theodosian dynasty|Theodosian]]
| father       = [[Arcadius]]
| mother       = [[Aelia Eudoxia]]
| religion     = [[Nicene Christianity]]
| regnal name  = {{langx|la|[[Imperator]] [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Flavia (gens)|Flavius]] [[Theodosian dynasty|Theodosius]] [[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]}}<br/>{{langx|grc|[[Autokrator|Αὐτοκράτωρ]] καῖσαρ Φλάβιος Θεοδόσιος αὐγουστος}}{{sfn|Rösch|1978|pp=163-164}}
}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix= [[Saint]]
|name           = Theodosius II
|titles         = [[Right-Believing]], Emperor of the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Roman Empire]]
|feast_day      = [[July 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|29 July]]
|venerated_in   = [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
}}
'''Theodosius II''' ({{langx|grc|Θεοδόσιος}} {{Transliteration|el|Theodosios}}; 10 April 401 – 28 July 450), called "'''the [[Calligraphy|Calligrapher]]'''",{{Efn|The nickname Καλλιγράφος ([[Latin]]: ''Calligraphus'') appears in the chronicles of [[George the Monk]] ({{Circa}} 850, [[iarchive:georgiimonachic00boorgoog/page/604|''Chronicon'' II, 604]]), [[Michael Glykas]] ({{Circa}} 1150, [[iarchive:michaelisglycae00leungoog/page/483|''Annales'' IV, 261]]), and [[George Kodinos]] ({{Circa}} 1500, [[iarchive:georgiicodiniex00lambgoog/page/150|''Chronographia'', 76]]).}} was [[Roman emperor]] from 402 to 450. He was proclaimed ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' as an infant and ruled as the [[Eastern Empire]]'s sole emperor after the death of his father [[Arcadius]] in 408. His reign was marked by the promulgation of the [[Theodosian law code]] and the construction of the [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]]. He also presided over the outbreak of two great [[Christological]] controversies, [[Nestorianism]] and [[Eutychianism]].

== Early life ==

Theodosius was born on 10 April 401 as the only son of Emperor [[Arcadius]] and his wife [[Aelia Eudoxia]].<ref name="P">''[[PLRE]]'' 2, p. [[iarchive:prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-II/page/1100/mode/2up|1100]]</ref> On 10 January 402, at the age of 9 months, he was proclaimed co-''augustus'' by his father,<ref>''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'' [[iarchive:chronicon-p/page/59/mode/1up|402]].</ref> thus becoming the youngest to bear the imperial title [[Michael III|up to that point]]. On 1 May 408, his father died and the seven-year-old boy became the sole emperor of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire.

== Reign ==

=== Early reign ===
The government was at first administered by the [[Praetorian prefecture of the East|praetorian prefect]] [[Anthemius (praetorian prefect)|Anthemius]], under whose supervision the [[Theodosian Walls]] of Constantinople were constructed.

According to the sixth-century historian [[Procopius]] and eight-century chronicler [[Theophanes the Confessor]], the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] king [[Yazdegerd I]] (399–420) was appointed by Arcadius as the guardian of Theodosius, whom Yazdegerd treated as his own child, sending a tutor to raise him and warning that enmity toward him would be taken as enmity toward Persia.<ref>[[Alireza Shapour Shahbazi]], [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/byzantine-iranian-relations "Byzantine-Iranian relations"], ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', 15 December 1990.</ref> Though this story is assumed to be inconclusive, [[Antiochus (praepositus sacri cubiculi)|Antiochus]], a [[eunuch]] of Persian origin, became a tutor and an influence on Theodosius. He also became ''[[praepositus sacri cubiculi]]'' later but Theodosius dismissed him when he reached his adulthood.

In 414, Theodosius's older sister [[Pulcheria]] vowed perpetual virginity along with her sisters. She was proclaimed ''augusta'', and acted as a guardian of her brother. The guardianship ended when he reached his majority, but it is assumed that his sister continued to exert some influence during his reign. In June 421, Theodosius married [[Aelia Eudocia]], a woman of [[Athens|Athenian]] origin.{{sfn|Martindale|1980|p=408}} The two had a daughter named [[Licinia Eudoxia]], another named Flaccilla, and possibly a son called Arcadius.

In 423, the Western Emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]], Theodosius's uncle, died and the ''[[primicerius notariorum]]'' [[Joannes]] was proclaimed emperor. Honorius's sister [[Galla Placidia]] and her young son [[Valentinian III|Valentinian]], who had earlier fled to Constantinople to escape Honorius's hostility, sought Eastern assistance to claim the throne for Valentinian, and after some deliberation in 424 Theodosius opened the war against Joannes. On 23 October 425, Valentinian III was installed as emperor of the West with the assistance of the [[Magister Officiorum|''magister officiorum'']] [[Helion (magister officiorum)|Helion]], with his mother taking an influential role. To strengthen the ties between the two parts of the empire, Theodosius's daughter [[Licinia Eudoxia]] was betrothed to Valentinian. She married Valentinian III later on 29 October 437, and became empress of the western portion of the empire.

=== University and Law Code ===
In 425, Theodosius founded the [[University of Constantinople]] with 31 chairs (15 in Latin and 16 in Greek). Among the subjects were law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and rhetoric. It is likely that his wife Eudocia encouraged him in this matter and was behind the establishment of the university;{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}} she had been born in Athens, where the [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic School of Athens]] was the last great center for pagan, classical learning. Eudocia was known for her great intellect.

In 429, Theodosius appointed a commission to collect all of the laws since the reign of [[Constantine I]], and create a fully formalized system of law. This plan was left unfinished, but the work of a second commission that met in Constantinople, assigned to collect all of the general legislations and bring them up to date, was completed; their collection was published as the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'' in 438. The law code of Theodosius II, summarizing edicts promulgated since Constantine, formed a basis for the law code of Emperor [[Justinian I]], the {{Lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]}}, in the following century.

===Banishment of Eudocia===
[[File:Theodosius II solidus.jpg|thumb|291x291px|[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of Theodosius, minted in Constantinople {{Circa|435}}]]
Eudocia reached the height of her influence with the emperor from 439 to 441, a period in which, according to some sources, the emperor's sister Pulcheria was sidelined in favor of his wife. However, a separation ultimately occurred between the imperial couple between 441 and 444, with Eudocia's establishment in Jerusalem where she favored monastic [[Monophysitism]]. The reasons for her banishment are related by two conflicting tales.{{sfn|Cameron|1982}}

The sixth-century historian [[John Malalas]] explains Eudocia's departure in a legend involving a certain [[Phrygia]]n apple. Malalas wrote in his ''Chronicle'' that one day, the emperor was on his way to church when a man presented the emperor with an "apple huge beyond any exaggeration." The emperor thanked the man with 150 [[Solidus (coin)|solidi]], and promptly sent the apple to his wife as a present. Eudocia decided to give the apple to Paulinus, a friend of both her and the emperor. Paulinus, unknowing of where Eudocia had gotten the apple, thought it was fit for only the emperor, and gave it to him. Theodosius was suspicious, and asked Eudocia what she had done with the apple. "I ate it," she replied, and then Theodosius asked her to confirm her answer with an oath, which she did. Theodosius then presented her with the enormous apple. The emperor was enraged and suspected an affair between Eudocia and Paulinus; he had his lifelong friend Paulinus executed, and Eudocia asked to be exiled to Jerusalem.

But the contemporary historian [[Priscus]] and a sixth-century chronicler [[Marcellinus Comes]] relate a different story. In this version, Eudocia murdered the [[Domesticus (Roman Empire)|''comes domesticorum'']] Saturninus for killing her close associates on Theodosius' orders. In response, the emperor stripped her of her attendants and she went on to settle in Jerusalem.

[[File:34-manasses-chronicle.jpg|256x256px|thumb|right|Theodosius receives the Phrygian Apple and inquisits Eudocia about it. A scene from the 14th century [[Manasses Chronicle]].]]

===Wars with the Huns, Vandals, and Persians===
The situation between the Romans and the Sassanids deteriorated in 420 due to the Persian persecution of Christians, and the Eastern empire declared [[Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422|war against the Sasanian empire]] (421–422); the war ended in an indecisive stalemate, when the Romans were forced to accept peace as the Huns menaced [[Constantinople]].{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=90}}{{sfn|Greatrex|2002|p=36}} Peace was arranged in 422 without changes to the ''status quo''. The later wars of Theodosius were generally less successful.

The Eastern Empire was plagued by raids by the [[Huns]]. Early in Theodosius II's reign Romans used internal Hun discord to overcome [[Uldin]]'s invasion of the Balkans. The Romans strengthened their fortifications and in 424 agreed to pay 350 pounds of gold to encourage the Huns to remain at peace with the Romans. In 439 with the rise of [[Attila]] and [[Bleda]] to unify the Huns, the payment was doubled to 700 pounds.<ref>{{harvnb|Kelly|2009|p=140}}; {{harvnb|Bury|1958|pp=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/9*.html 271–273]}}, however, dates this treaty to 433.</ref>

Theodosius became engaged with the affairs of the West after installing Valentinian III as his Western counterpart. When Roman Africa [[Capture of Carthage (439)|fell]] to the [[Vandals]] in 439, Theodosius sent forces to [[Sicily]], intending to launch an attack on the Vandals at Carthage. In 441 seeing the borders without significant forces, the Huns attacked the Balkans, pushing as far as Naissus ([[Niš]]) and [[Serdika|Serdica]] ([[Sofia]]) and sacking nearly all the major cities on the middle [[Danube]]. This led to the expeditionary force in Sicily being recalled in 442.{{sfn|Kelly|2013b|p=223}}{{sfn|Bury|1958|p=255}} In 447 Huns [[Battle of the Utus|defeated]] the Roman armies in [[Vit (river)|Utus]] and [[Gallipoli|Chersonese]], and went through the Balkans, destroying among others the city of Serdica and reaching Athyra ([[Büyükçekmece]]) on the outskirts of Constantinople.{{sfn|Heather|2005|pp=[https://www.google.com/books?id=MmXFrafifw0C&pg=PA307 307–309]}} In 443 or 447, [[Anatolius (consul)|Anatolius]] negotiated a peace agreement; the Huns withdrew in exchange for humiliating concessions, including an annual tribute of 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 687&nbsp;kg) of gold and an additional payment of 6,000 pounds.<ref>{{harvnb|Bury|1958|p=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/9*.html 271f]}}, dates the treaty to 443; {{harvnb|Kelly|2009|pp=140, 309}}, however, puts it to 447; {{harvnb|Heather|2005|p=307}} has two separate treaties in 442/3 and 447.</ref> In 449, an Eastern Roman attempt to assassinate Attila failed, however the relations between the two did not deteriorate further.

===Theological disputes===
[[Image:Menologion of Basil 061.jpg|thumb|300px|Theodosius welcomes the relics of [[John Chrysostom]]; miniature from the early 11th century]]
Theodosius frequently attempted to resolve doctrinal controversies regarding the nature of [[Jesus|Christ]]. During a visit to [[Syria (region)|Syria]], Theodosius met the monk [[Nestorius]], a renowned preacher. Nestorius was appointed as [[archbishop of Constantinople]] in 428 and became involved in a [[Christology|Christological]] dispute between two groups. One group called the [[Virgin Mary]] ''[[Theotokos]]'' ("birth-giver of God"), based on God being born a man in Christ, and the other rejected the title, based on God being eternal and thus could not be born. Nestorius' compromise, the title ''Christotokos'' ("birth-giver of Christ"), was rejected; he was accused of separating Christ's divine and human natures, resulting in "two Christs", in a doctrine later called [[Nestorianism]]. Though initially enjoying Theodosius' favor, Nestorius was strongly opposed by Archbishop [[Cyril of Alexandria]] and eventually lost Theodosius's support. Nestorius had also alienated the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. At Nestorius's request, the emperor convened the [[First Council of Ephesus]] in 431 to allow Nestorius to contest Cyril's accusations of heresy. The council was divided between the Cyrillians and the Nestorians, with Theodosius ultimately favoring the Cyrillians. The council affirmed the title ''Theotokos'' and condemned Nestorius, who returned to his monastery in Syria and was eventually exiled to a remote monastery in Egypt.

Constantinopolitan abbot [[Eutyches]] reignited the theological dispute almost twenty years later by asserting the Monophysite view that Christ's divine and human nature were one. Eutyches was condemned by Archbishop [[Flavian of Constantinople]] but supported by the powerful [[Dioscurus of Alexandria]], Cyril's successor. The [[Second Council of Ephesus]] in 449 restored Eutyches and deposed Flavian. The [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonians]] opposed the decision, with [[Pope Leo I]] calling the council the "robber synod". Theodosius supported the outcome, but it was reversed by the [[Council of Chalcedon]] which was held a year after his death in 450.

==Death==
[[File:Ajanta Theodosius II 402-450.jpg|thumb|Coin of Theodosius II, found in the excavation of a monastery in [[Ajanta Caves]], [[India]]|284x284px]]
Theodosius died on 28 July 450<ref>[[Theodorus Lector]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=oxFKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA213 II, 64.]</ref> as the result of falling off his horse. On 25 November, his sister [[Pulcheria]] married the newly elected emperor [[Marcian]], a [[Domesticus (Roman Empire)|domesticus]] under the influential general [[Aspar]]. The eunuch [[Chrysaphius]] was executed or murdered shortly after by the new imperial couple.<ref>''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'' [[iarchive:chronicon-p/page/76/mode/1up|450.]]; [[Theophanes the Confessor]] 160</ref>

Like [[Constantine I]] and several of his successors, he was buried in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], in a [[Porphyry (geology)#Imperial sarcophagi|porphyry sarcophagus]] that was described in the 10th century by [[Constantine VII]] in the {{lang|la|[[De Ceremoniis]]}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author=A. A. Vasiliev|title=Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople|journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|volume=4|date=1848|pages=1, 3–26|doi=10.2307/1291047|jstor=1291047|url=https://lucazavagno.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/vasiliev.pdf}}</ref>

==Assessments and legacy==
[[File:Papyrus with handwriting of Theodosius II.webp|thumb|[[Papyrus]] with handwriting of Theodosius II. On the top right corner, the text reads ''bene valere te cupimus'', roughly meaning "we hope that you are in good health". This is the only surviving handwriting of a Roman emperor.{{sfn|Millar|2006|pp=20–23}}]]
Theodosius is often seen by both ancient and modern historians as being constantly pushed around by his sister, wife, and eunuchs, particularly [[Chrysaphius]] among them.{{sfn|Kelly|2013a|p=2–6}} In the later decades of his life, Chrysaphius rose to prominence as one of the emperor's favorites. He favored the pro-Monophysite policy, influenced the foreign policy towards the [[Huns]], and was resented by Pulcheria, general [[Zeno (consul 448)|Zeno]], and pro-Chalcedonian writers.{{sfn|Lee|2013|pp=97–98}} According to [[Theodorus Lector]], Theodosius was so unmindful of his surroundings that he accidentally signed his sister's note selling his wife, Eudocia, into slavery.{{sfn|Kelly|2013a|p=4–5}}

However, these views of Theodosius have been challenged in modern scholarship. Some historians argue that contrary to hostile ancient sources, Theodosius was more in control of his government.{{sfn|Elton|2009}} Others view that the government was controlled mostly by the high ranking civilian officials of the ''[[consistorium]]'', and not by Pulcheria or Eudocia.{{sfn|Harries|2013}} Historian [[Christopher Kelly (historian)|Christopher Kelly]] notes that the modern dismissal of Theodosius has origins in the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] disapproval,{{sfn|Kelly|2013a|p=5}} and argues that "the reign of Theodosius II should not be too quickly dismissed, simplified or partitioned."{{sfn|Kelly|2013a|p=64}}

Among ancient and medieval writers, Monophysites had a favorable opinion of Theodosius.{{sfn|Watts|2013}} Theodosius was also a very learned emperor, with a great aptitude for maths, history, astronomy and writing, hence his nickname "the Calligrapher" by some later historians. Theodosius has been described by [[Kenneth Holum]] as "a man of intelligence and sincerity but little backbone."{{sfn|Kelly|2013a|p=1-6}}

[[Saint]] [[Right-Believing]] Theodosius II the Younger is [[Calendar of saints|commemorated]] in [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] on 29 July.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ФЕОДОСИЙ II, ИМПЕРАТОР - Древо |url=http://drevo-info.ru/articles/27778.html |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=drevo-info.ru |language=ru}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Byzantine Empire|Monarchy|Biography}}
*[[List of Byzantine emperors]]
*[[Theodosian dynasty]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Bury|first=J.B.|title=History of the Later Roman Empire, vol. 1|year=1958|location=New York|publisher=Dover Books|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/home.html}}
* {{cite journal|last=Cameron|first=Alan|title=The empress and the poet: Paganism and politics at the court of Theodosius II|journal=Yale Classical Studies|volume=27|date=1982|pages=217–89|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511972928.008}}
* {{cite book|last=Elton|first=Hugh|editor1-last=Cain|editor1-first=Andrew|editor2-last=Lenski|editor2-first=Noel|year=2009|chapter=Imperial politics at the court of Theodosius II|title=The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity: The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity|publisher=Routledge|pages=133–142|isbn=0-7546-6725-1|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Power_of_Religion_in_Late_Antiquity/ARd9mp97V_UC?gbpv=1}}
* {{cite book|last=Greatrex|first=Geoffrey|title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630: A Narrative Sourcebook|publisher=Routledge|year=2002}}
* {{cite book|last=Harries|first=Jill|editor-last=Kelly|editor-first=Christopher|year=2013|chapter= Men Without Women: Theodosius' Consistory and the Business of Government|title=Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=67–89|isbn=1-107-03858-8|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Theodosius_II/DWwoAAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1}}
* {{cite book|last=Heather|first=Peter|title= The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians|year=2005|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0195159547}}
* {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=Christopher|year=2009|title=The End of Empire: Attila the Hun and the Fall of Rome|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393061963}}
* {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=Christopher|editor-last=Kelly|editor-first=Christopher|year=2013|chapter=Rethinking Theodosius|title=Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=2–64|isbn=1-107-03858-8| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWwoAAAAQBAJ|ref = {{harvid|Kelly|2013a}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=Christopher|editor-last=Kelly|editor-first=Christopher|year=2013|chapter=Stooping to conquer: The power of imperial humility|title=Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=221–243|isbn=1-107-03858-8| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWwoAAAAQBAJ|ref={{harvid|Kelly|2013b}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Lee|first=A.D.|year=2013|title=From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Millar|first=Fergus|year=2006|title=A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|pages=2–64|isbn=978-0-520-25391-9}}
* {{Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire|volume=2}}
* {{cite book |last=Ostrogorsky |first=George |year=1956 |title=History of the Byzantine State |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=Oxford, England }}
* {{cite book |last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. |series=The Church in history |volume=2 |location=Crestwood, NY |publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press |isbn = 978-0-88-141056-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book|editor1=S. Crogiez-Pétrequin|editor2=P. Jaillette|editor3=J.-M. Poinsotte|title=Codex Theodosianus V. Texte latin d'après l'édition de Mommsen. Traduction, introduction et notes|publisher=Brepols Publishers|year=2009|isbn=978-2-503-51722-3}}
* Vasiliki Limberis, ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople'' (London: Routledge, 1994) has a significant section about Theodosius II and his sister Pulcheria.
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Theodosius (emperors) |volume=26 |first=Maximilian Otto Bismarck |last=Caspari }}
* {{cite DCBL |wstitle=Theodosius II., emperor |first=George Thomas |last = Stokes }}
* "Theodosius II" in ''[[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], New York & Oxford, 1991, p.&nbsp;2051. {{ISBN|0195046528}}
* {{cite book | last = Rösch | first = Gerhard | title = Onoma Basileias: Studien zum offiziellen Gebrauch der Kaisertitel in spätantiker und frühbyzantinischer Zeit | language = de | series = Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia | publisher = Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften | year = 1978 | isbn = 978-3-7001-0260-1 }}
* {{cite book|last=Treadgold|first=Warren T.|title=A history of the Byzantine state and society|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1997|isbn=0-8047-2630-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Watts|first=Edward|editor-last=Kelly|editor-first=Christopher|year=2013|chapter= Theodosius II and his legacy in anti-Chalcedonian communal memory|title=Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=269–283|isbn=1-107-03858-8|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Theodosius_II/DWwoAAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/7*.html Reign of Theodosius II] (chapter of [[J. B. Bury]]'s History of the Later Roman Empire)
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.html Theodosian Code:] Sections concerning religious observances (English)
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Codex_Theodosianus.html George Long, "Codex Theodosianus"]
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/theo2.htm Nathan, Geoffrey, "Theodosius II (408–450 A.D.)"] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220321210844/http://www.roman-emperors.org/theo2.htm Archive]). ''[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]].''

{{Clear}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Theodosian dynasty]]|10 April|401|28 July|450}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Arcadius]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Eastern Roman emperor]]
| years = 408–450
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Marcian]]
}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Arcadius|Arcadius Augustus]] V
| before2 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] V
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Roman consul]]
| years = 403
| regent1 = [[Rumoridus]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] VI
| after2 = [[Aristaenetus (consul)|Aristaenetus]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Arcadius|Arcadius Augustus]] VI
| before2 = [[Anicius Petronius Probus]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul II
| years = 407
| regent1 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] VII
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Anicius Auchenius Bassus (consul 408)|Anicius Auchenius Bassus]]
| after2 = Philippus
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Anicius Auchenius Bassus (consul 408)|Anicius Auchenius Bassus]]
| after2 = Philippus
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul III
| years = 409
| regent1 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] VIII
| regent2 = [[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine Augustus]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Varanes (consul 410)|Varanes]]
| after2 = Tertullus
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Varanes (consul 410)|Varanes]]
| before2 = Tertullus
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul IV–V
| years = 411–412
| regent1 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] IX (412)
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Lucius (consul 413)|Lucius]]
| after2 = [[Heraclianus]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Constantius III|Constantius]]
| before2 = [[Constans (consul 414)|Constans]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul VI–VII
| years = 415–416
| regent1 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] X
| regent2 = [[Junius Quartus Palladius]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] XI
| after2 = [[Constantius III|Flavius Constantius]] II
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] XI
| before2 = [[Constantius III|Flavius Constantius]] II
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul VIII
| years = 418
| regent1 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] XII
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Monaxius]]
| after2 = [[Plinta]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Monaxius]]
| before2 = [[Plinta]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul IX
| years = 420
| regent1 = [[Constantius III|Constantius]] III
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Eustathius (consul)|Eustathius]]
| after2 = [[Agricola (consul 421)|Agricola]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Eustathius (consul)|Eustathius]]
| before2 = [[Agricola (consul 421)|Agricola]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul X
| years = 422
| regent1 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius Augustus]] XIII
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Asclepiodotus (consul 423)|Asclepiodotus]]
| after2 = [[Avitus Marinianus]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Castinus]]
| before2 = Victor
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul XI
| years = 425
| regent1 = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Caesar]]
| regent2 = [[Joannes|Iohannes Augustus]] (only in Rome)
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Theodosius Augustus XII
| after2 = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Augustus]] II
}}

{{s-bef
| before = Theodosius Augustus XI
| before2 = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Caesar]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul XII
| years = 426
| regent1 = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Augustus]] II
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Hierius (consul 427)|Hierius]]
| after2 = [[Ardabur (consul 427)|Ardabur]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Florentius (consul 429)|Florentius]]
| before2 = [[Dionysius (consul 429)|Dionysius]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul XIII
| years = 430
| regent1 = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Augustus]] III
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Anicius Auchenius Bassus (consul 431)|Anicius Auchenius Bassus]]
| after2 = [[Antiochus Chuzon|Antiochus]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]]
| before2 = [[Valerius (consul 432)|Valerius]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul XIV
| years = 433
| regent1 = [[Petronius Maximus]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Aspar]]
| after2 = [[Areobindus (consul 434)|Areobindus]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Aspar]]
| before2 = [[Areobindus (consul 434)|Areobindus]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul XV
| years = 435
| regent1 = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Augustus]] IV
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Anthemius Isidorus]]
| after2 = [[Senator (consul 436)|Flavius Senator]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] II
| before2 = [[Sigisvultus]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul XVI
| years = 438
| regent1 = [[Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Theodosius Augustus XVII
| after2 = Festus
}}

{{s-bef
| before = Theodosius Augustus XVI
| before2 = [[Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul
| years = 439
| regent1 = Festus
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Augustus]] V
| after2 = [[Anatolius (consul 440)|Anatolius]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Petronius Maximus]] II
| before2 = [[Paterius (consul 443)|Paterius]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = Roman consul XVII
| years = 444
| regent1 = [[Albinus (consul 444)|Caecina Decius Aginatius Albinus]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Augustus]] VI
| after2 = [[Nomus]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Theodosius 2}}
[[Category:Theodosius II| ]]
[[Category:Theodosian dynasty]]
[[Category:Deaths by horse-riding accident]]
[[Category:401 births]]
[[Category:450 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient child monarchs]]
[[Category:Ancient legislators]]
[[Category:5th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:5th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:5th-century Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:5th-century eastern Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Sons of Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Christian monarchs]]
[[Category:Byzantine royal saints]]