Editing Theodore Hall

{{Short description|American physicist and spy (1925–1999)}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Hall-theodore a.jpg
| caption = Hall's ID badge photo from [[Project Y|Los Alamos]]
| birth_name = Theodore Alvin Holtzberg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1925|10|20}}
| birth_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1999|11|1|1925|10|20}}
| death_place = [[Cambridge]], [[England]], UK
| known_for = [[Atomic spies|Atomic espionage]]
| education = [[Queens College, City University of New York|Queens College]]<br>[[Harvard University]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]])<br>[[University of Chicago]] ([[Master of Science|MS]])
| occupation = Physicist
| employer = [[Manhattan Project]]
| relatives = [[Edward N. Hall]] (brother)
}}

'''Theodore Alvin Hall''' (October 20, 1925&nbsp;– November 1, 1999) was an American physicist and an [[atomic spy]] for the [[Soviet Union]], who, during his work on United States efforts to develop the first and second [[atomic bomb]]s during [[World War II]] (the [[Manhattan Project]]), gave a detailed description of the "[[Fat Man]]" plutonium bomb, and of several processes for purifying [[plutonium]], to [[List of historical secret police organizations#Soviet Union|Soviet intelligence]].<ref name=Albright /> 

His brother, [[Edward N. Hall]], was a rocket scientist who led the U.S. Air Force's program to develop an [[intercontinental ballistic missile]], personally designing the Minuteman missile and convincing the Pentagon and President Eisenhower to adopt it as a key part of the nation's strategic nuclear triad.<ref name=Brother>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/world/ted-hall-espionage-fbi/ |title=One Brother Gave the Soviets the A-Bomb. The Other Got a Medal. |first=Dave |last=Lindorff |author-link=Dave Lindorff |magazine=[[The Nation]] |date=2022-01-04 |access-date=2022-10-06}}</ref>

==Early life==
Theodore Alvin Holtzberg was born in [[Far Rockaway, Queens|Far Rockaway]], [[New York City]] to a devout [[Jewish]] couple, Barnett Holtzberg and Rose Moskowitz. His father was a [[furrier]] who had emigrated to America to escape [[antisemitism|antisemitic]] [[pogrom]]s in the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="AlbrightKunstel">{{cite news |last1=Albright |first1=Joseph |last2=Kunstel |first2=Marcia |date=April 9, 1997 |title=The Boy Who Gave Away the Atomic Bomb |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/14/magazine/the-boy-who-gave-away-the-bomb.html |work=The New York Times Magazine |access-date=November 22, 2019 }}</ref> His mother was the American-born daughter of Eastern European Jewish immigrants.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ridenour |first1=Ron |title=Ted Hall Deserves a Nobel Peace Prize For Helping to Prevent a Nuclear Holocaust in the 1950s |url=https://covertactionmagazine.com/2023/10/23/ted-hall-deserves-a-nobel-peace-prize-for-helping-to-prevent-a-nuclear-holocaust-in-the-1950s/ |website=Covertactionmagazine |access-date=12 March 2025}}</ref> She  died while Theodore was a teenager and a student at Harvard University. The [[Great Depression]] hurt Barnett's business significantly; when it was no longer able to support the household, the family moved to [[Washington Heights, Manhattan|Washington Heights]] in [[Upper Manhattan]].<ref name=Albright />

Even at a young age, Theodore showed an impressive aptitude for mathematics and science, mostly being tutored by his elder brother Edward, who was 11 years his senior. After skipping three grades at Public School 173 in Washington Heights, in the fall of 1937, Hall entered the [[Townsend Harris High School]] for gifted boys.<ref name=Albright /> He attended the [[1939 New York World's Fair]] and was deeply impressed by the Soviet pavilion and a copy of the [[Mayakovskaya (Moscow Metro)|Mayakovskaya Metro station]]. After graduation from high school, he was accepted into [[Queens College, City University of New York|Queens College]] at the age of 14 in 1940, and transferred to [[Harvard University]] in 1942 as junior physics major, where he graduated at the age of 18 in 1944.<ref name=Goodrow>{{cite journal|last=Goodrow|first=Genevieve|author2=Richard Hopkin |title=Who was .... Theodore Hall?|journal=Biologist|date=December 2003|volume=50|issue=6|pages=282–283}}</ref><ref name=Sulick />

In the fall of 1936, despite the protests of their parents, Edward, his brother, legally changed both his and Theodore's last name to Hall in an effort to avoid antisemitic hiring practices he was experiencing that were prevalent at the time.<ref name=Albright /><ref name=Sulick>{{cite book|last=Sulick|first=Michael|title=Spying in America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War|year=2012|publisher=Georgetown University Press|location=Washington DC|isbn=978-1-58901-926-3|pages=243–251}}</ref>

==Manhattan Project==
[[File:Los Alamos aerial view.jpeg|thumb|left|Modern-day [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]] aerial view]]
[[File:Implosion Nuclear weapon.svg|thumb|right|Basic design of an [[Nuclear weapon design#Implosion-type weapon|implosion-type]] atomic bomb]]

At the age of 18, on the recommendation of [[John Hasbrouck Van Vleck|Prof. John Van Vleck]], Hall was hired as the youngest physicist to be recruited to work on the [[Manhattan Project]] at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]].<ref name=Goodrow /><ref name=nytobit/> At Los Alamos, after first helping to determine the critical mass of uranium used for "[[Little Boy]]",<ref name=Albright>{{cite book|last=Albright|first=Joseph|title=Bombshell: The Secret Story of America's Unknown Atomic Spy Conspiracy|year=1997|publisher=Times Book|location=New York|isbn=081292861X|author2=Marcia Kunstel|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/bombshellsecrets00albr}}</ref> Hall was assigned to conduct experiments on and tests of the implosion system ("Fat Man"). He was eventually, while still a teen, put in charge of a team working on that difficult task.

Hall later claimed that as it became clear in the summer of 1944 that Germany was losing the war and would not ever manage to develop an atomic bomb, he became concerned about the consequences of an American monopoly on atomic weapons once the war ended. He was especially worried about the possibility of the emergence of a fascist government in the United States, should it have such a nuclear monopoly and want to keep it that way.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://spartacus-educational.com/Theodore_Hall.htm|title = Theodore Hall (Ted Hall)}}</ref> He was not alone. It was widely known inside the confines of Los Alamos, that [[Lieutenant general (United States)|Lieutenant General]] [[Leslie Groves]], director of the Manhattan Project, had revealed to a group of top physicists there at a dinner that the real target of the US atom bomb was the [[Soviet Union]],<ref name="Leaving the bomb project, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">{{cite journal |last1=Rotblat |first1=Joseph |title=Leaving the bomb project |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=August 1985 |volume=41 |issue=40th Anniversary Issue |page=18 |doi=10.1080/00963402.1985.11455991 |bibcode=1985BuAtS..41g..16R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwYAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA18 |access-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> a shocking statement that led one top physicist, [[Josef Rotblat]], to resign from the Project, and others like [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Leo Szilard]] to vainly petition first Roosevelt, and later Truman to halt it, not use it on people in Japan, or to inform the Soviets about it.

On the pretext of returning to his home in New York City for his 19th birthday in October 1944, Ted Hall visited the headquarters of [[Amtorg Trading Corporation|Amtorg]], the Soviet Union trading company located in a loft building on 24th Street in Midtown Manhattan. There an American worker for Amtorg gave him the name and address of [[Sergey Nikolaevich Kurnakov|Sergey Kurnakov]], a military writer for ''Soviet Russia Today'' and ''Russky Golos''—the same contact that was also recommended to his Harvard friend, roommate and eventually initial spy courier [[Saville Sax]], by the head of a Soviet Cultural center in New York, Artkino. Unaware initially that Kurnakov was an [[NKVD]] agent, Hall handed him a report on the scientists who worked at Los Alamos, the conditions at Los Alamos, and the basic science behind the bomb.<ref name=Haynes>{{cite book|last=Haynes|first=John Earl|title=Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America|url=https://archive.org/details/spiesrisefallofk00john|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, CT|isbn=978-0300164381|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spiesrisefallofk00john/page/110 110–117]|author2=Harvey Klehr |author3=Alexander Vassiliev }}</ref> Saville Sax subsequently delivered the same report to the Soviet Consulate, which he visited under the guise of inquiring about relatives still in the Soviet Union. The two eventually met with [[Anatoli Yatskov|Anatoly Yatskov]], the New York station chief operating under the cover of being a Consular clerk, who two weeks later transmitted the information about both young men to NKVD headquarters in Moscow using a [[one-time pad]] [[cipher]].<ref name=Haynes /> After officially becoming an informant for the Soviet Union, Hall was given the code-name MLAD, a [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] root meaning "young", and Sax, who was almost a year older than Hall, was given the code-name STAR, a Slavic root meaning "old".{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Kurnakov reported in November 1944:
{{blockquote|Rather tall, slender, brown-haired, pale and a bit pimply-faced, dressed carelessly, boots appear not cleaned for a long time, slipped socks. His hair is parted and often falls on his forehead. His English is highly cultured and rich. He answers quickly and very fluently, especially to scientific questions. Eyes are set closely together; evidently, [[Neurasthenia|neurasthenic]]. Perhaps because of premature mental development, he is witty and somewhat sarcastic but without a shadow of undue familiarity and cynicism. His main trait&nbsp;— a highly sensitive brain and quick responsiveness. In conversation, he is sharp and flexible as a sword&nbsp;... He comes from a Jewish family, though doesn't look like a Jew. His father is a furrier; his mother is dead&nbsp;... He is not in the army because, until now, young physicists in government jobs at a military installation were not being drafted. Now, he is to be drafted but has no doubts that he will be kept at the same place, only dressed in a military uniform and with a correspondingly lower salary.<ref>Sergei Kurnakov, report to NKVD headquarters (November, 1944)</ref>}}

{{multiple image
| width = 150
| footer = Espionage information procured by [[Klaus Fuchs]] and Theodore Hall, and to a lesser extent by [[David Greenglass]], led to the first Soviet device, "[[RDS-1]]", closely resembling Fat Man, even in its external shape.
| image1 = A-bomb (RDS-1).jpg
| alt1 = RDS-1
| caption1 = RDS-1
| image2 = Fat Man (replica of nuclear bomb).jpg
| alt2 = "Fat Man"
| caption2 = "Fat Man"
}}

Unbeknownst to Hall, [[Klaus Fuchs]], a Los Alamos colleague, and others still unidentified, were also spying for the Soviet Union; none seems to have known of the others. Sax acted as Hall's [[courier]] until spring of 1945 when, because he was returning to full-time student status at Harvard, he was replaced by [[Lona Cohen]].<ref name=Sulick /><ref name=McKnight>{{cite book|last=McKnight|first=David|title=Espionage and the Roots of the Cold war: The Constitutional Heritage|year=2002|publisher=Frank Cass Publishers|location=London|isbn=0-7146-5163-X|page=177}}</ref> [[Igor Kurchatov]], a scientist and the head of the [[Soviet atomic bomb project|Soviet atomic bomb effort]], probably used information provided by Klaus Fuchs to confirm corresponding information provided earlier by Hall. Despite other scientists giving information to the Soviet Union, Hall was the only known scientist to give details on the design of an atomic bomb until recent revelations{{when|date=December 2021}} of the role of [[Oscar Seborer]].<ref name=Albright />

==Career after Los Alamos==
In June 1946, Hall's security clearance was revoked by the US Army, not over suspicions of being a Soviet asset but because of discovery of a letter he had received from his British sister-in-law, his brother Edward's wife Edith, who inquired jokingly of him: "I hear you're working on something that goes up with a big bang! Can you send us one of them for Guy Fawkes Day?" as well as left-wing publications he had been receiving at Los Alamos over the prior year that overworked censors had apparently overlooked at the time. Furloughed out of the military with an honorable discharge and a citation from President Truman for the achievements of the Army's Special Engineering Detachment at Los Alamos, Hall headed that fall for the [[University of Chicago]], where he finished out his master's and doctoral degrees in physics, met his wife, and started a family.<ref name=Albright /><ref name=Goodrow /> After graduating he became a [[biophysics|biophysicist]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cowell |first=Alan |date=1999-11-10 |title=Theodore Hall, Prodigy and Atomic Spy, Dies at 74 |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/10/world/theodore-hall-prodigy-and-atomic-spy-dies-at-74.html |access-date=2023-09-29 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In Chicago, as a graduate student research assistant he pioneered important techniques in X-ray microanalysis. In 1952, he left the University of Chicago's Institute for Radiobiology and Biophysics to take a research position in biophysics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering in New York City.<ref name=AlbrightKunstel/> In 1962, he became unsatisfied with his equipment and the techniques available to him. He then moved to [[Vernon Ellis Cosslett]]'s electron microscopy research laboratory at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] in England.<ref name=Hastedt>{{cite book|last=Hastedt|first=Glenn|title=Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: An Encyclopedia of American Espionage|url=https://archive.org/details/spieswiretapssec00hast|url-access=limited|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=978-1851098071|page=[https://archive.org/details/spieswiretapssec00hast/page/n372 352]}}</ref> At Cambridge he created the Hall Method of continuum normalization, developed for the specific purpose of analyzing thin sections of biological tissue.<ref name=Goodrow /> He remained working at Cambridge until he retired at the age of 59 in 1984.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jackson |first=Harold |date=1999-11-16 |title=Theodore Hall |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/1999/nov/16/guardianobituaries.haroldjackson |access-date=2023-09-29 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Hall later became active in obtaining signatures for the [[Stockholm Appeal|Stockholm Peace Pledge]].<ref name=Hastedt />

==Death==
[[File:Brothers Edward (L) and Theodore Hall together in Palos Verdes, CA circa 1980s.jpg|thumb|Brothers Edward (L) and Ted Hall at the Ed Hall residence in [[Palos Verdes, California]] circa 1980s (Hall family photo)]]

On November 1, 1999, Theodore Hall died at the age of 74, in [[Cambridge, England]]. He was survived by his wife and three daughters. Although he had suffered from [[Parkinson's disease]], he ultimately succumbed to [[renal cancer]], likely acquired as a result of the experimental work he was doing with plutonium in his year working on the "Gadget" used for the Trinity test.<ref name=nytobit>{{cite news |author=Alan S. Cowell |author-link=Alan S. Cowell |title=Theodore Hall, Prodigy and Atomic Spy, Dies at 74  |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E7DE103AF933A25752C1A96F958260 |quote=Theodore Alvin Hall, who was the youngest physicist to work on the atomic bomb project at Los Alamos during World War II and was later identified as a Soviet spy, died on Nov. 1 in Cambridge, England, where he had become a respected, if not a truly leading, pioneer in biological research. He was 74. |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 10, 1999 |access-date=June 26, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Harold Jackson |author-link=Harold Jackson (writer) |title=Theodore Hall. US scientist-spy who escaped prosecution and spent 30 years in biological research at Cambridge |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/1999/nov/16/guardianobituaries.haroldjackson |quote=Theodore Hall, who has died at the age of 74, was the American atomic scientist discovered by the United States authorities to have been a wartime Soviet spy – but who was never prosecuted. The information he gave Moscow was at least as sensitive as that which sent Julius and Ethel Rosenberg to the electric chair. But the Americans decided not to charge Hall because of the security and legal difficulties of disclosing that they had penetrated some of the Soviet Union's most secure diplomatic codes. Subsequently, and with the tacit consent of the British security authorities, Hall spent more than 30 years as a respected researcher at Cambridge University until he retired in 1984, aged 59.|newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=November 16, 1999 |access-date=December 19, 2010 }}</ref>

==FBI investigation==
The US Army's Signal Intelligence Service [[Venona project]], decrypted some Soviet messages and in January 1950 uncovered one cable identifying Hall and Sax by name as Soviet spies (albeit misspelled as Teodor Kholl and Savil Sachs), but until the document's public release along with many other pages of Soviet wartime spy cables in July 1995,<ref name=Kross>{{cite magazine|last=Kross|first=Peter|title=The Venona project revealed espionage in the United States after WWII – until it was in turn compromised|magazine=Military History|date=July 1, 2006|volume=23|issue=5|page=70}}</ref> nearly all of the espionage regarding the Los Alamos nuclear weapons program was attributed to Klaus Fuchs. Hall was questioned by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in March 1951 but was not charged. The FBI and Justice Department claimed this was because their only evidence was the Venona document and that the US did not want to let the Soviets know they had broken their elaborate and supposedly "unbreakable" code. [[Alan H. Belmont]], the number-three man in the FBI, claims he decided at that time that information coming out of the Venona project would be inadmissible in court as [[hearsay]] evidence, so its value in the case was not worth compromising the program.<ref name="Dornan2012" />

However, journalist [[Dave Lindorff]], writing in ''[[The Nation]]'' on January 4, 2022, obtained through the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]], Hall's FBI file in 2021. This 130-page file included communications between FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] to the head of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, Gen. [[Joseph Carroll (DIA)|Joseph F. Carroll]], showing that Carroll had effectively blocked Hoover's intended pursuit of Hall and Sax, probably fearing that Hall's arrest would have, in the political climate of the [[McCarthyism|McCarthy Era]], forced the Air Force to furlough and lose their top missile expert, Edward Hall. Carroll, a former top aide to Hoover before he became the first head of the USAF OSI, ultimately allowed Hoover's agents to question Ed Hall on June 12, 1951 (with an OSI officer monitoring the interview). Within several weeks of that session, the Air Force, which had conducted and completed its own investigation into Edward Hall's loyalty (having their own investigators question him four times), promoted him to Lt. Colonel, and later Colonel, and elevated him from assistant director to director of its missile development program. The promotions were a clear slap in the face to Hoover. Ed Hall went on to complete the development of the Minuteman missile program, and then retired. In 1999 the Air Force honored him seven years before his death, by adding him to the Air Force Aerospace Hall of Fame.<ref name=Brother/>

Lindorff co-produced the 2022 documentary film ''[[A Compassionate Spy]]'' based on Hall's life and spying.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/a-compassionate-spy-steve-james-ted-hall-1235210819/ |title='A Compassionate Spy' Review: Steve James Doc Is a Nuanced Portrait of Love and Espionage |first=Daniel |last=Fienberg |magazine=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=2022-09-02 |access-date=2022-10-06}}</ref>  In 2023, Lindorff wrote the book ''Spy for No Country: The Story of Ted Hall, the Teenage Atomic Spy Who May Have Saved the World''.

===Statements in 1990s===
[[File:Decision to maintain contact with Theodore Hall 1944.gif|thumb|right|200px|Report on recruiting of Theodore Hall from the [[Venona project]]]]

The Venona project became public knowledge in July 1995.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Venona Documents |url=https://www.nsa.gov/Helpful-Links/NSA-FOIA/Declassification-Transparency-Initiatives/Historical-Releases/Venona/ |access-date=2023-07-25 |website=www.nsa.gov}}</ref>

In a written statement published in 1997, Hall came very close to admitting that the Soviet spy cable identifying him as a Soviet asset was accurate, although obliquely, saying that in the immediate postwar years, he felt strongly that "an American monopoly" on nuclear weapons "was dangerous and should be avoided":

{{blockquote|To help prevent that monopoly I contemplated a brief encounter with a Soviet agent, just to inform them of the existence of the A-bomb project. I anticipated a very limited contact. With any luck, it might easily have turned out that way, but it was not to be.<ref>{{cite news |first=Alan |last=Cowell |date=10 November 1999 |title=Theodore Hall, prodigy and atomic spy, dies at 74 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |type=obituary |page=C‑31 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/10/world/theodore-hall-prodigy-and-atomic-spy-dies-at-74.html}}</ref>}}

A year before his death, he gave a more direct confession in an interview for the TV-series ''[[Cold War (TV series)|Cold War]]'' on [[CNN]] in 1998, saying:

{{blockquote|I decided to give atomic secrets to the Russians because it seemed to me that it was important that there should be no monopoly, which could turn one nation into a menace and turn it loose on the world as ... Nazi Germany developed. There seemed to be only one answer to what one should do. The right thing to do was to act to break the American monopoly.<ref name="Dornan2012">{{cite book |first=Ellen |last=Dornan |year=2012 |title=Forgotten Tales of New Mexico |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-1-60949-485-8 |pages=77 ff  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NtlHl58HNZEC&pg=PA77}}</ref>}}

==List of publications==
* {{cite journal
| last1         = Steveninck
| first1        = Reinhard
| last2        = Steveninck
| first2       = Margaret
| last3 = Hall
| first3 = Theodore
| last4 = Peters
| first4 = Patricia
| year         = 1974
| title        = A chlorine-free embedding medium for use in X-ray analytical electron microscope localisation of chloride in biological tissues
| journal      = Histochemistry
| volume       = 38
| issue        = 2
| pages        = 173–180
| doi          = 10.1007/BF00499664
| pmid = 4205647
| s2cid = 2866621
}}
* {{cite journal
| last1         = Normann
| first1        = Tom
| last2        = Hall
| first2       = Theodore
| year         = 1978
| title        = Calcium and sulphur in neurosecretory granules and calcium in mitochondria as determined by electron microscope X-ray microanalysis
| journal      = Cell and Tissue Research
| volume       = 186
| issue        = 3
| pages        = 453–463
| doi          = 10.1007/BF00224934
| pmid = 627026
| s2cid = 19456444
}}
* {{cite journal
| last1         = Civan
| first1        = Mortimer
| last2        = Hall
| first2       = Theodore
| last3 = Gupta
| first3 = Brij
| year         = 1980
| title        = Microprobe study of toad urinary bladder in absence of serosal K+
| journal      = The Journal of Membrane Biology
| volume       = 55
| issue        = 3
| pages        = 187–202
| doi          = 10.1007/BF01869460
| pmid = 6774097
| s2cid = 23781565
}}
* Dow, Julian, Gupta, Brij, & Hall, Theodore (1981). Microprobe analysis of Na, K, Cl, P, S, Ca, Mg and H<sub>2</sub>O in frozen-hydrated sections of anterior caeca of the locust, ''Schistocerca gregaria''. ''Journal of Insect Physiology'', ''27''(9), 629-639. doi: [[doi:10.1016/0022-1910(81)90111-6|10.1016/0022-1910(81)90111-6]]
* {{cite journal
| last1         = Dow
| first1        = Julian
| last2        = Gupta
| first2       = Brij
| last3 = Hall
| first3 = Theodore
| last4 = Harvey
| first4 = William
| year         = 1984
| title        = X-ray microanalysis of elements in frozen-hydrated sections of an electrogenic K + transport system: The posterior midgut of tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) in vivo and in vitro
| journal      = The Journal of Membrane Biology
| volume       = 77
| issue        = 3
| pages        = 223–241
| doi          = 10.1007/BF01870571
| pmid = 6699905
| s2cid = 24753487
}}

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Klaus Fuchs]]
* [[Oscar Seborer]]
* [[Saville Sax]]
* [[Lona Cohen]]
* [[Morris Cohen (spy)]]
* [[Manhattan Project]]
* [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]]
* [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
* [[Oppenheimer security hearing]]
* [[Atomic spies]]
* [[Soviet espionage in the United States]]
* [[Nuclear espionage]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==

* [[Dave Lindorff]], ''Spy for No Country: The Story of Ted Hall, the Teenage Atomic Spy Who May Have Saved the World'' (2023)
* [[Dave Lindorff]], "Brothers against the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|Bureau]]: Ted Hall, the Soviet Union's youngest atomic spy, his rocket scientist brother [[Edward N. Hall|Ed]], and the untold story of how [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s biggest [[Manhattan Project]] bust was shut down", ''[[The Nation]]'', vol. 314, no. 1 (January 10–17, 2022), pp.&nbsp;26–31.
*[[Joseph Albright (journalist)|Joseph Albright]], Marcia Kunstel, ''Bombshell: The Secret Story of America's Unknown Atomic Spy Conspiracy'' (1997)
*Brij Gupta, ''"Theodore Alvin Hall: a biographical sketch and personal appreciation"'' [https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1575 Scanning microscopy, vol. 5 pp. 369-378] (1991)

==External links==
* [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/14/magazine/the-boy-who-gave-away-the-bomb.html "The Boy Who Gave Away The Bomb"], ''The New York Times Magazine'' (September 14, 1997)
* [http://cryptome.org/fbi-nsa.htm#IV.B FBI]: Memo Prosecution: Disadvantages (February 1, 1956)
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607215311/http://www.historyhappens.net/archival/manproject/joanhalldoc/joanhall.htm |date=June 7, 2007 |title="A Memoir of Ted Hall" }} (by Joan Hall, wife)
* [https://www.lanl.gov/media/publications/national-security-science/0325-betrayal-treason-lies-spies Los Alamos National Laboratory]: History: Spies
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060828130103/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FHall%2C+Theodore+%28Ted%29 Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]: Annotated bibliography for Theodore Hall
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2904_venona.html "Secrets, Lies, and Atomic Spies"], PBS Transcript, Airdate: February 5, 2002
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt21376858 "A Compassionate Spy"], Documentary, Release date: August 4, 2023
{{Soviet Spies}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hall, Theodore}}
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