Editing The Book of Healing

{{Short description|Scientific and philosophical encyclopedia by Avicenna}}
{{Redirect|al-Shifa}}

{{Infobox book
| name           = The Book of Healing
| image          = 
| image_size     = 
| alt            = 
| caption        = 
| author         = [[Ibn Sina]]
| title_orig     = {{Noitalic|كتاب الشفاء}}
| orig_lang_code = ar
| language       = Arabic
| subject        = 
| genre          = [[Natural Philosophy]]
| published      = 1027 (Arabic)
| pages          = 
| oclc           = 
| dewey          = 
| congress       = 
| native_wikisource = 
| wikisource     = 
}}
{{Avicenna sidebar}}
'''''The Book of Healing''''' ({{Langx|ar|کتاب الشفاء|translit=Kitāb al-Shifāʾ}}; {{Langx|la|Sufficientia}}; also known as {{Italics correction|'''''The Cure''''' or '''''Assepha'''''}}) is a [[Islamic science|scientific]] and [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophical]] [[encyclopedia]] written by [[Avicenna|Abu Ali ibn Sīna]] (also known as Avicenna). He most likely began to compose the book in 1014, completed it around 1020,<ref name="Shifa">{{cite web|title=Ibn Sina Abu 'Ali Al-Husayn|url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ibn%20Sina-REP.htm#is8|access-date=2014-08-05|publisher=Muslimphilosophy.com}}</ref> and published it in 1027.<ref name="Goodman" /><ref name="Goodman2" />

This work is Ibn Sina's major work on [[science]] and [[philosophy]], and is intended to "cure" or "heal" ignorance of the soul. Thus, despite its title, it is not concerned with medicine, in contrast to Avicenna's earlier ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (5 vols.) which is, in fact, medical.

The book is divided into four parts: [[logic]], [[natural science]]s, [[mathematics]] (a [[quadrivium]] of [[Islamic mathematics|arithmetic, geometry]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]]), and [[Islamic metaphysics|metaphysics]].<ref name="Goodman2">Goodman, Lenn Evan. 1992. ''Avicenna''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|0-415-01929-X}}. p. 31.</ref> It was influenced by ancient [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosophers]] such as [[Aristotle]]; [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] thinkers such as [[Ptolemy]]; and earlier [[Science and technology in Iran|Persian]]/[[Muslims|Muslim]] scientists and philosophers, such as [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), [[Al-Farabi]] (Alfarabi), and [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Al-Bīrūnī]].

==Sciences==

===Astronomy===
In [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], the book proposes the theory that [[Venus]] is closer to [[Earth]] than the [[Sun]].

===Chemistry===
Ibn Sina's theory on the formation of [[metal]]s combined the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|alchemical]] [[sulfur-mercury theory of metals]] (although he was a critic of [[alchemy]]) with the [[Mineralogy|mineralogical]] theories of [[Aristotle]] and [[Theophrastus]]. He created a synthesis of ideas concerning the nature of the [[mineral]] and [[metal]]lic states.<ref name=Nasr>{{citation|last=Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]|title=The achievements of IBN SINA in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy|journal=Islam & Science|volume=1|date=December 2003}}</ref>

===Earth sciences===
[[Stephen Toulmin|Toulmin]] and [[June Goodfield|Goodfield]] (1965), commented on Avicenna's contribution to [[geology]]:<ref name="Goodfield">[[Stephen Toulmin|Toulmin, Stephen]]. and [[June Goodfield]]. 1965. ''The Ancestry of Science: The Discovery of Time''. Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]]. p. 64.

([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 The Contribution of Ibn Sina to the development of Earth sciences] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314204805/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 |date=2010-03-14 }}.)</ref><blockquote>Around A.D. 1000, Avicenna was already suggesting a hypothesis about the origin of mountain ranges, which in the Christian world, would still have been considered quite radical eight hundred years later</blockquote><!--
<ref name=Nasr>{{citation|last=Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]|title=The achievements of IBN SINA in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy|journal=Islam & Science|volume=1|date=December 2003}}</ref>
-->
;Paleontology

Ibn Sina also contributed to [[paleontology]] with his explanation of how the [[Rock (geology)|stoniness]] of [[fossil]]s was caused. [[Aristotle]] previously explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations, which Ibn Sina modified into the theory of [[Petrifaction|petrifying]] fluids (''succus lapidificatus''), which was elaborated on by [[Albertus Magnus]] in the 13th century and accepted in some form by most [[naturalist]]s by the 16th century.<ref>{{citation|title=The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology|first=M. J. S.|last=Rudwick|year=1985|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=0-226-73103-0|page=24}}</ref> Ibn Sina made the following observation on the theories held at the time on fossils and the [[petrifaction]] of plants and animals:

{{blockquote|"If what is said concerning the petrifaction of animals and plants is true, the cause of this (phenomenon) is a powerful mineralizing and petrifying virtue which arises in certain stony spots, or emanates suddenly from the earth during earthquake and subsidences, and petrifies whatever comes into contact with it. As a matter of fact, the petrifaction of the bodies of plants and animals is not more extraordinary than the transformation of waters."}}

===Psychology===
{{See also|Avicennism|The Canon of Medicine}}

In ''The Book of Healing'', Avicenna discusses the [[mind]], its [[existence]], the mind–body relationship, [[Sensation and perception psychology|sensation]], [[perception]], etc. He writes that at the most common level, the influence of the mind on the body can be seen in voluntary movements, in that the body obeys whenever the mind wishes to move the body. He further writes that the second level of influence of the mind on the body is from [[emotion]]s and the [[Will (philosophy)|will]]. As an example, he states that if a plank of wood is placed as a bridge over a [[chasm]], a person could hardly creep over it without falling if that person only pictures themself in a possible fall so vividly that the "natural power of limbs accord with it."

He also writes that strong [[negative emotion]]s can have a negative effect on the vegetative functions of an individual and may even lead to death in some cases. He also discusses [[hypnosis]] (''al Wahm al-Amil''), stating that one could create conditions in another person so that they accepts the reality of hypnosis. Avicenna was also the first to divide human [[perception]] into the five external [[sense]]s (the classical senses of [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]], [[Visual perception|sight]], [[Olfaction|smell]], [[taste]] and [[Somatosensory system|touch]] known since [[ancient history]]) and the five internal senses which he discovered himself:<ref name="Amber-365">Haque, Amber. 2004. "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists." ''[[Journal of Religion and Health|Journal of Religion & Health]]'' 43(4):357–77.</ref>{{Rp|366}}

# ''[[sensus communis]]'' ('common sense'), which integrates sense data into [[percept]]s; 
# the imaginative faculty, which conserves the perceptual images;
# [[imagination]], which acts upon these images by combining and separating them, serving as the seat of the practical [[intellect]];
# ''wahm'' ([[instinct]]), which perceives qualities (such as good and bad, love and hate, etc.) and forms the basis of a person's character whether or not influenced by [[reason]]; and 
# ''ma'ni'' ([[intention]]s), which conserve all these notions in [[memory]].

Avicenna also gives [[Islamic psychology|psychological]] explanations for certain [[Somatic psychology|somatic illnesses]], always linking the physical and psychological illnesses together. He describes [[melancholia]] (i.e. [[Depression (mood)|depression]]) as a type of [[mood disorder]] in which the person may become suspicious and develop certain types of [[phobia]]s. He states that [[anger]] heralds the transition of melancholia to [[mania]], and explains that [[humidity]] inside the head can contribute to mood disorders. He recognizes that this occurs when the amount of [[breath]] changes: [[happiness]] increases the breath, which leads to increased moisture inside the [[Human brain|brain]], but if this moisture goes beyond its limits, the brain would lose control over its [[rationality]] and lead to [[mental disorder]]s. He also writes about symptoms and treatments for [[nightmare]], [[epilepsy]], and weak [[memory]].<ref name="Amber-365" />{{Rp|366}}

Avicenna often used psychological methods to treat his patients.<ref name="Amber-365" />{{Rp|366}} One such example is when a Persian prince had melancholia, suffering from the [[delusion]] that he was a [[cow]]. He would moo and cry out, "Kill me so that a good stew may be made of my flesh," and would never eat anything. Avicenna was persuaded to take the case. Avicenna sent a message to the patient, asking him to be happy as the butcher was coming to slaughter him, and the sick man rejoiced. When Avicenna approached the prince with a knife in his hand, he asked "where is the cow so I may kill it." The patient then mooed like a cow to indicate where he was. The patient was laid on the ground for slaughter. When Avicenna approached the patient, pretending to be ready to slaughter him, he said, "the cow is too lean and not ready to be killed. He must be fed properly and I will kill it when it becomes healthy and fat." The patient was then offered food which he ate eagerly, and gradually "gained strength, got rid of his delusion, and was completely cured."<ref name="Amber-365" />{{Rp|376}}

==Philosophy==
{{main|Avicennism}}

In the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]], due to Avicenna's successful reconciliation of [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Neoplatonism]] along with [[Kalam]], [[Avicennism]] eventually became the leading school of [[early Islamic philosophy]] by the 12th century, with Avicenna becoming a central authority on philosophy.<ref>Fancy, Nahyan A. G.  2006. "[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615 Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |date=2015-04-04 }}" ([[doctoral dissertation]]). [[University of Notre Dame]]. pp. 80-81.</ref>

Avicennism was also influential in [[medieval Europe]], particular his doctrines on the nature of the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] and his [[existence]]-[[essence]] distinction, along with the debates and censure that they raised in [[Scholasticism|scholastic Europe]]. This was particularly the case in [[Paris]], where Avicennism was later [[proscribed]] in 1210. Nevertheless, his [[Muslim psychology]] and theory of knowledge influenced [[William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris|William of Auvergne]] and [[Albertus Magnus]], while his [[metaphysics]] influenced the thought of [[Thomas Aquinas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm#H5 |title=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037) |publisher=Iep.utm.edu |date=2013-08-02 |access-date=2014-08-05}}</ref>

===Logic===
Avicenna discussed the topic of [[logic in Islamic philosophy]] extensively in his works, and developed his own [[system of logic]] known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to [[Aristotelian logic]]. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world.<ref>I. M. Bochenski (1961), "On the history of the history of logic", ''A history of formal logic'', p. 4-10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame, [[Indiana University Press]]. ([[cf.]] [http://www.ontology.co/islamic-philosophy.htm Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology])</ref> After the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], his writings on logic were also an important influence on Western medieval writers such as [[Albertus Magnus]].<ref>Richard F. Washell (1973), "Logic, Language, and Albert the Great", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''34''' (3), pp. 445–450 [445].</ref>

He wrote on the [[hypothetical syllogism]]<ref name=Goodman/><ref name=Goodman2 /> and on the [[propositional calculus]], which were both part of the Stoic logical tradition.<ref>Goodman, Lenn Evan (1992); ''Avicenna'', p. 188, [[Routledge]], {{ISBN|0-415-01929-X}}.</ref> He developed an original theory of “[[Temporal logic|temporally]] [[Modal logic|modalized]]” [[Syllogism|syllogistic]]<ref name="Britannica">"[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 History of logic: Arabic logic]." {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012144108/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 |date=2007-10-12 }} ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> and made use of [[inductive reasoning|inductive logic]], such as the [[Mill's Methods|methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation]] which are critical to the [[scientific method]].<ref name="Goodman">Goodman, Lenn Evan. 2003. ''Islamic Humanism''. [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-19-513580-6}}. p. 155.</ref>

===Metaphysics===
Early [[Islamic metaphysics]], imbued as it is with [[Islamic theology]], distinguishes more clearly than [[Aristotelianism]] the difference between [[essence]] and [[existence]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}} Whereas ''[[existence]]'' is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, ''[[essence]]'' endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Ibn Sīnā, particularly that part relating to [[metaphysics]], owes much to [[al-Farabi]]. The search for a truly definitive Islamic philosophy can be seen in what is left to us of his work.

Following al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of [[being]], in which he distinguished between essence (''mahiat'') and existence (''[[wujud]]''). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an [[Causality|agent-cause]] that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.<ref name="Islam in Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia| title=Islam |year=2007| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | access-date=November 27, 2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-69190/Islam}}</ref>

Avicenna's proof for the [[existence of God]] was the first [[ontological argument]], which he proposes in the "Metaphysics" section of ''The Book of Healing''.<ref name=Johnson>Steve A. Johnson (1984), "Ibn Sina's Fourth Ontological Argument for God's Existence", ''The Muslim World'' '''74''' (3-4), 161–171.</ref><ref name=Morewedge>{{citation|last=Morewedge|first=P.|title=Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Malcolm and the Ontological Argument|journal=Monist|year=1970 |volume=54|issue=2 |pages=234–49|doi=10.5840/monist197054212 }}</ref> This was the first attempt at using the method of [[a priori (philosophy)|a priori proof]], which utilizes [[Intuition (knowledge)|intuition]] and [[reason]] alone. Avicenna's proof of God's existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a [[cosmological argument]] and an ontological argument. "It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent". The proof is also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent."<ref>Mayer, Toby. 2001. "Ibn Sina's 'Burhan Al-Siddiqin'." ''[[Journal of Islamic Studies]]'' 12(1):18–39. [[Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies]]. {{doi|10.1093/jis/12.1.18}}.</ref>

===Philosophy of science===
{{Further|Avicennism|The Canon of Medicine}}

In the "Al-Burhan" ('On Demonstration') section of the book, Avicenna discusses the [[philosophy of science]] and describes an early [[scientific method]] of [[inquiry]]. He discusses [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' and significantly diverges from it on several points. Avicenna explains the issue of a proper [[methodology]] for [[scientific inquiry]] and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asks how a scientist would arrive at "the initial [[axiom]]s or [[Hypothesis|hypotheses]] of a [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]] science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the [[first principle]]s: the ancient [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] method of [[inductive reasoning|induction]] ('''''istiqra'''''), and the method of [[Hypothesis|examination]] and [[experiment]]ation ('''''tajriba'''''). Avicenna criticizes Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain [[premises]] that it purports to provide." In its place, he develops a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."<ref>{{citation|last=McGinnis|first=Jon|title=Scientific Methodologies in Medieval Islam|journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy|volume=41|issue=3|date=July 2003|pages=307–327|doi=10.1353/hph.2003.0033|s2cid=30864273 |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/697064}}</ref>

==Sections of the text==
Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in [[Cairo]], 1952–83, originally under the supervision of Ibrahim Madkour; some of these editions are given below.<ref name="Shifa"/>

* [[Avicennism#Avicennian logic|''Al-Mantiq'' (''Logic'')]], Part 1, al-Ahwani, Cairo: al-Matba’ah al-Amiriyah, 1952. (Volume I, Part 1 of al-Shifa’.)
* ''Al-‘Ibarah'' (''[[De Interpretatione|Interpretation]]''), edited by M. El-Khodeiri. Cairo: Dar al-Katib al-Arabi, 1970. (Volume 1, Part 3 of al-Shifa’.)
* ''Al-Qiyas'' (''[[Prior Analytics|Syllogism]]''), edited by S. Zayed and I. Madkour, Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1964. (Volume I, Part 4 of al-Shifa’.)
** Shehaby, N., trans. 1973. ''The Propositional Logic of Ibn Sina'', Dordrecht: Reidel.
* ''Al-Burhan'' (''[[Posterior Analytics|Demonstration]]''), edited by A. E. Affifi. Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1956. (Volume I, Part 5 of al-Shifa’.)
* ''Al-Jadal'' (''[[Dialectic]]''), edited by A.F. Al-Ehwany. Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1965. (Volume I, Part 6 of al-Shifa’.)
* ''Al-Khatabah'' (''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]''), edited by S. Salim, Cairo: Imprimerie Nationale, 1954. (Volume I, Part 8 of al-Shifa’.)
* [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|''Al-Ilahiyat'' (''Theology'')]], edited by M.Y. Moussa, S. Dunya and S. Zayed, Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1960;
** R. M. Savory and D. A. Agius, ed. and trans. 1984. ‘Ibn Sina on Primary Concepts in the Metaphysics of al-Shifa’, in ''Logos Islamikos'', Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies;
** Anawati, G. C., trans. 1978, 1985. "La metaphysique du Shifa’ [The Metaphysics of al-Shifa’]," (''Etudes Musulmanes'' 21 and 27). Paris: Vrin. (Vol. I, Books 1-5; Vol. II. Books 6-10.)
** Marmura, Michael E. 2005. ''The Metaphysics of the Healing''. A parallel English-Arabic text, with introduction and annotation by M. E. Marmura. Provo, UT: [[Brigham Young University Press]].
* [[On the Soul|''Al-Nafs'' (''The Soul'')]], edited by G. C. Anawati and S. Zayed. Cairo: Organisme General des Imprimeries Gouvernementales, 1975;
** Rahman, F., ed. 1959. ''Avicenna's De Anima, Being the Psychological Part of Kitab al-Shifa’'', London: Oxford University Press, 1959. (Volume 1, part 6 of al-Shifa’.)

==In English Translation==
BYU's Islamic Translation Series includes two parts of ''The Healing''.

* {{cite book | author=Avicenna | translator-first=Michael E. | translator-last= Marmura | title=The Metaphysics of The Healing | location= Provo, Utah | publisher=Brigham Young University | year=2005}}
* {{cite book | author=Avicenna | translator-first=Jon | translator-last= McGinnis | title=The Physics of The Healing: A Parallel English-Arabic Text in Two Volumes | location= Provo, Utah | publisher=Brigham Young University | year=2010}}

==See also==
* [[Avicenna]]
** ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
** [[Early Islamic philosophy]]
** [[Islamic science]]
* [[Medical literature]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Avicenna}}
{{Islamic medicine}}
{{Islamic philosophy}}
{{Islamic astronomy}}

==External links==
*[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/ Ibn Sina (Avicenna) — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.ontology.co/avicenna.htm Avicenna on the subject and the object of metaphysics] with a list of English translations of his philosophical works
* (AR) {{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/kitabalshifafiki00unse/page/72 | title = Kitab al-Shifa fi [kidha] tariff huquq al-Mustafa | language = ar | via = [[Internet Archive|archive.org]]}}

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