Editing Thar Desert

{{Short description|Arid region in India and Pakistan}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}

{{Infobox ecoregion
|name = Thar Desert<br /><small>Great Indian Desert</small>
|image = Thar desert Rajasthan India.jpg
|image_size = 
|image_alt = 
|caption = Thar Desert in [[Rajasthan]], India
|map = Ecoregion IM1304.png
|map_size = 
|map_alt = 
|map_caption = Map of the Thar Desert ecoregion
|ecozone = [[Indomalayan realm|Indomalayan]]
|biome  = [[Deserts and xeric shrublands]]
|animals = 
|bird_species = 
|mammal_species = 
|border = [[Northwestern thorn scrub forests]]
|border1 = [[Rann of Kutch|Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh]]
|area = 238254
|country = [[India]]
|country1 = [[Pakistan]]
|state = India: [[Rajasthan]]
|state2 = [[Gujarat]] 
|state3 = [[Haryana]]
|state4 = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|state5 = <br />Pakistan: [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]
|state6 = [[Sindh]]
|region_type = States of India and provinces of Pakistan
|elevation = 
|geology = 
|seas = 
|rivers = 
|climate =Hot 
|soil = 
|conservation = vulnerable<ref name = wwf>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im1304|name=Thar Desert}}</ref>
|global200 = 
|habitat_loss = 
|habitat_loss_ref = 
|coordinates = {{Coord|27|N|71|E|scale:5000000_source:GNS|display=title, inline}}
|protected = 41,833 km<sup>2</sup> (18
|protected_ref = )<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Eric |last1=Dinerstein |first2=David |last2=Olson |first3=Anup |last3=Joshi |first4=Carly |last4=Vynne |first5=Neil D. |last5=Burgess |display-authors=2 |year=2017 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 [Supplemental material 2 table S1b] |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 }}</ref>
|embedded = 
}}

The '''Thar Desert''', also known as the '''Great Indian Desert''', is an [[arid]] region in the north-western part of the [[Indian subcontinent]] that covers an area of {{convert|200000|km2|abbr=on}} in India and Pakistan. It is the world's [[List of deserts by area|18th-largest desert]], and the world's 9th-largest hot [[Subtropics|subtropical desert]].

About 85% of the Thar Desert is in India, and about 15% is in Pakistan.<ref name="Sinha1996">{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=R. K. |last2=Bhatia |first2=S. |last3=Vishnoi |first3=R. |name-list-style=amp |year=1996 |title=Desertification control and rangeland management in the Thar desert of India |journal=RALA Report No. 200 |pages=115–123 }}</ref> <!-- redundant In India, it covers about {{convert|170000|km2|abbr=on}}, and the remaining {{convert|30000|km2|abbr=on}} of the desert is within Pakistan. --> The Thar Desert is about 4.56% of the total geographical area of India. More than 60% of the desert lies in the Indian state of [[Rajasthan]]; the portion in India also extends into [[Gujarat]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], and [[Haryana]]. The portion in Pakistan extends into the provinces of [[Sindh]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=K. K. |first2=S. P. |last2=Mehra |title=Faunal Ecology and Conservation of the Great Indian Desert |year=2009 |chapter=The Thar of Rajasthan (India): Ecology and Conservation of a Desert Ecosystem |editor-last=Sivaperuman |editor1-first=C. |editor2-last=Baqri |editor2-first=Q. H. |editor3-last=Ramaswamy |editor3-first=G. |editor4-last=Naseema |editor4-first=M. |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin Heidelberg |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-87409-6_1 |isbn=978-3-540-87408-9 }}</ref> and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] (the portion in the latter province is referred to as the [[Cholistan Desert]]). The [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] lies to the north, west and northeast of the Thar desert, the [[Rann of Kutch]] lies to its south, and the [[Aravali Range]] borders the desert to the east.

The most recent [[paleontological]] discovery in 2023 from the Thar Desert in India, dating back to 167 million years ago, pertains to a [[herbivorous]] dinosaur group known as [[Dicraeosauridae|dicraeosaurids]]. This discovery marks the first of its kind to be unearthed in India and is also the oldest specimen of the group ever recorded in the global [[fossil]] record.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Oldest Plant-Eating Dinosaur Has Been Found in India |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/19/science/india-fossil-discovery.html |access-date=23 August 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=19 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

== History of desertification ==

===Ice-age desertification ===
{{anchor | Ice | Tibet }}
During the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] 20,000 before present, an approximately {{convert|2400000|km2|sqmi}} ice sheet covered the [[Tibetan Plateau#==Glaciology|Tibetan Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal|first=Matthias|last=Kuhle|year=1998|title=Reconstruction of the 2.4 Million km<sup>2</sup> Late Pleistocene Ice Sheet on the Tibetan Plateau and its Impact on the Global Climate|journal=Quaternary International|volume=45/46|pages=71–108|doi=10.1016/S1040-6182(97)00008-6|bibcode=1998QuInt..45...71K}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhle|first=M|year=2004|chapter=The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) ice cover in High and Central Asia|title=Development in Quaternary Science 2c (Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica)|editor1-last=Ehlers|editor1-first=J.|editor2-last=Gibbard|editor2-first=P.L.|pages=175–99}}</ref><ref name=K1999>{{cite journal|last=Kuhle|first=M.|year=1999|journal=GeoJournal|volume=47|issue=1–2|title=Tibet and High Asia V. Results of Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology, Paleo-Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene|pages=3–276|doi=10.1023/A:1007039510460| s2cid=128089823 }}
See chapter entitled: "Reconstruction of an approximately complete Quaternary Tibetan Inland Glaciation between the Mt. Everest and Cho Oyu Massifs and the Aksai Chin. – A new glaciogeomorphological southeast-northwest diagonal profile through Tibet and its consequences for the glacial isostasy and Ice Age cycle".</ref> causing excessive [[radiative forcing]] i.e. the ice in Tibet reflected at least four times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher [[latitude]]s, which  further cooled overlying atmosphere at that time.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kuhle|first=M.|year=1988|title=The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages – An Autocycle Hypothesis|journal=GeoJournal|volume=17|issue=4|id=Tibet and High-Asia I. Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions (I)|pages=581–96|doi=10.1007/BF00209444| s2cid=129234912 }}</ref> This impacted the regional climate. Without the [[thermal low]] pressure caused by the heating, there was no [[monsoon]] over the [[Indian subcontinent]]. This lack of monsoon caused [[pluvial|extensive rainfall]] over the [[Sahara]], expansion of the Thar Desert, more dust deposited into the [[Arabian Sea]], a lowering of the [[life zone|biotic life zones]] on the Indian subcontinent, and animals responded to this shift in climate with the [[Javan rusa]] deer migrating into India.<ref name=K2001>{{cite journal|first=Matthias|last=Kuhle|year=2001|title=The Tibetan Ice Sheet; its Impact on the Palaeomonsoon and Relation to the Earth's Orbital Variations|journal=Polarforschung|volume=71|pages=1–13|issue=1/2}}</ref>

===Desertification due to drying up of Sarasvati river===
{{anchor | Sarasvati | Saraswati | IVC }} 
[[File:Sarasvati river.jpg|thumb|left|Vedic and present-day Gagghar-Hakra river-course, with [[Aryavarta]]/[[Kuru Kingdom]], and (pre-)Harappan Hakkra/Sutlej-Yamuna paleochannels as proposed by {{harvtxt|Clift et al.|2012}} and {{harvtxt|Khonde et al.|2017}}.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|See [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Satellite-image-of-the-Indus-River-system-showing-the-study-sites-Stars-indicate_fig1_229062223 Clift et al. (2012) map] and [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-05745-8/figures/1 Honde te al. (2017) map].}} See also [https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/Sir+Creek/@27.9238648,69.0488446,1290954m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x39527a0557ec4543:0x9e7e9966b79d473b!8m2!3d23.8379562!4d68.2376719 this] satellite image.<br />
1 = ancient river<br/>
2 = today's river<br/>
3 = today's Thar desert<br/>
4 = ancient shore<br/>
5 = today's shore<br/>
6 = today's town<br/>
7 = dried-up Harappan Hakkra course, and pre-Harappan Sutlej paleochannels ({{harvtxt|Clift et al.|2012}}).]]
10,000-8,000 years ago a paleo channel of [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]] - identified with the paleo [[Sarasvati River]], after confluence with [[Sutlej]] flowed into the [[Nara Canal|Nara river]] - a [[Distributary|delta channel]] of the [[Indus River]], changed its course, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a system of monsoon-fed rivers which did not reach the sea and now ends in the Thar desert.{{sfn|Giosan et al.|2012}}{{sfn|Maemoku|Shitaoka|Nagatomo|Yagi|2013}}{{sfn|Clift et al.|2012}}{{sfn|Singh et al.|2017}}

Around 5,000 years ago when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished further, the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] (IVC) prospered in this area,{{sfn|Giosan et al.|2012}}{{sfn|Clift et al.|2012}}{{sfn|Singh et al.|2017}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|In contrast to the mainstream view, {{harvtxt|Chatterjee|Ray|Shukla|Pande|2019}} suggest that the river remained perennial till 4,500 years ago.}} with the rise of numerous IVC urban sites at [[Kalibangan]] ([[Rajasthan]]), [[Banawali]] and [[Rakhigarhi]] ([[Haryana]]), [[Dholavira]] and [[Lothal]] ([[Gujarat]]) along this course.{{sfn|Sankaran|1999}}<ref group=web name=PIB>[http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=94098 Mythical Saraswati River], Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 20 March 2013.{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009182551/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=94098 |date=9 October 2016}}</ref>

4,000 years ago when monsoons diminished even further, the dried-up Harkra become an intermittent river, and the urban Harappan civilisation declined, becoming localized in smaller agricultural communities.{{sfn|Giosan et al.|2012}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|name="Giosan"|{{harvtxt|Giosan et al.|2012}}:
* "Contrary to earlier assumptions that a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, identified by some with the mythical Sarasvati, watered the Harappan heartland on the interfluve between the Indus and Ganges basins, we show that only monsoonal-fed rivers were active there during the Holocene."
* "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene
* "The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."
{{harvtxt|Valdiya|2013}} dispute this, arguing that it was a large perennial river draining the high mountains as late as 3700–2500 years ago. {{harvtxt|Giosan|Clift|Macklin|Fuller|2013}} have responded to, and rejected, Valdiya's arguments.}}{{sfn|Clift et al.|2012}}{{sfn|Maemoku|Shitaoka|Nagatomo|Yagi|2013}}{{sfn|Singh et al.|2017}}

==Geography==
[[File:Thar Desert satellite.jpg|thumb|A [[NASA]] satellite image of the Thar Desert, with the India–Pakistan border]]
[[File:Thar Desert.JPG|thumb|View of the Thar Desert]]
The northeastern part of the Thar Desert lies between the [[Aravalli Hills]]. The desert stretches to Punjab and Haryana in the north, to the [[Great Rann of Kutch]] along the coast, and to the alluvial plains of the [[Indus River]] in the west and northwest. Much of the desert area is covered by huge, shifting sand dunes that receive [[sediment]]s from the alluvial plains and the coast. The sand is highly mobile due to the strong winds that rise each year before the onset of the [[monsoon]]. The [[Luni River]] is the only river in the desert.<ref>{{cite book |last=Laity |first=J. J. |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtAbzLLTcwcC&pg=PA30 |title=Deserts and Desert Environments |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781444300741 }}</ref> Rainfall is {{convert|100|to|500|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} per year, almost all of it between June and September.<ref name="Sinha1996"/>

Saltwater lakes within the Thar Desert include the [[Sambhar Lake|Sambhar]], Kuchaman, [[Didwana]], [[Pachpadra Lake|Pachpadra]], and [[Phalodi]] in Rajasthan and [[Kharaghoda]] in Gujarat. These lakes receive and collect rainwater during monsoon and evaporate during the dry season. The salt comes from the weathering of rocks in the region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ramesh |first1=R. |last2=Jani |first2=R. A. |last3=Bhushan |first3=R. |name-list-style=amp |year=1993 |title=Stable isotopic evidence for the origin of salt lakes in the Thar desert |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=117–123 |doi=10.1006/jare.1993.1047 |bibcode=1993JArEn..25..117R }}</ref>

Lithic tools belonging to the prehistoric [[Aterian]] culture of the [[Maghreb]] have been discovered in [[Middle Paleolithic]] deposits in the Thar Desert.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gwen Robbins Schug, Subhash R. Walimbe|title=A Companion to South Asia in the Past|date=2016|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xv-CwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1119055471|access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref>

===Climate===
The climate is arid and subtropical. Average temperature varies with season, and extremes can range from near-freezing in the winter to more than 50&nbsp;°C in the summer months. Average annual rainfall ranges from 100 to 500&nbsp;mm, and occurs during the short July-to-September southwest monsoon.<ref name = wwf/>

The desert has both a very dry part (the Marusthali region in the west) and a semidesert part (in the east) that has fewer sand dunes and slightly more precipitation.<ref>Sharma, K. K., S. Kulshreshtha, A. R. Rahmani (2013). ''Faunal Heritage of Rajasthan, India: General Background and Ecology of Vertebrates''. Springer Science & Business Media, New York.</ref>

===Desertification control===
[[File:GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg|thumb|Greening desert with plantations of [[jojoba]] at [[Fatehpur, Shekhawati]]]]
[[File:Greeningdesert1.jpg|thumb|Checking of shifting sand dunes through plantations of ''[[Acacia tortilis]]'' near [[Laxmangarh]] town]]
[[File:Indira Gandhi Canal.jpg|thumb|[[Indira Gandhi Canal]] flowing in Thar Desert near Sattasar village, [[Bikaner district]], Rajasthan]]
[[File:Tharparkar1 Pakistan.jpg|thumb|Due to severe weather conditions, few highways are in the Thar Desert. Shown here is a road in [[Tharparkar]] district of Sindh, Pakistan.]]
The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year, so it is prone to [[wind erosion]]. High-velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some of it on neighboring fertile lands, and causing [[sand dunes]] within the desert to shift. To counteract this problem, sand dunes are stabilised by first erecting micro [[windbreak]] barriers with scrub material and then by [[afforestation]] of the treated dunes—planting the seedlings of shrubs (such as [[Calligonum polygonoides|phog]], [[Cassia auriculata|senna]], and [[Ricinus communis|castor oil plant]]) and trees (such as [[Acacia senegal|gum acacia]], ''[[Prosopis juliflora]]'', and [[Albizzia lebbeck|lebbek tree]]). The 649-km-long [[Indira Gandhi Canal]] brings fresh water to the Thar Desert.<ref name="Sinha1996"/> It was built to halt any spreading of the desert into fertile areas.

===Protected areas===
There are several [[protected area]]s in the Thar Desert:
* '''In India''':
** The [[Desert National Park]], in Rajasthan, covers {{convert|3162|km2|abbr=on}} and represents the Thar Desert [[ecosystem]];<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahmani |first=A. R. |year=1989 |title=The uncertain future of the Desert National Park in Rajasthan, India |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=237–244 |doi=10.1017/S0376892900009322 |s2cid=83995201 }}</ref> it includes 44 villages.<ref name=Singh2007/> Its diverse [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] includes the [[great Indian bustard]] (''Chirotis nigricaps''), [[blackbuck]], [[chinkara]], fox, [[Bengal fox]], wolf, and [[caracal]]. Seashells and massive [[fossilized]] tree trunks in [[Akal Wood Fossil Park]] record the geological history of the desert.
** The [[Tal Chhapar Sanctuary]] covers {{convert|7|km2|abbr=on}} and is an [[Important Bird Area]].<ref name=Singh2007/> It is located in the [[Churu district]], {{convert|210|km|abbr=on}} from [[Jaipur]], in the [[Shekhawati]] region of Rajasthan. This sanctuary is home to large populations of blackbuck, fox, caracal, [[partridge]], and [[sand grouse]].
** The [[Sundha Mata Conservation Reserve]] covers {{convert|117.49|km2|abbr=on}} and is located in the [[Jalore District]] of Rajasthan.<ref>WII (2015). [http://www.wii.gov.in/nwdc_conservation_reserves Conservation Reserves] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150410212243/http://www.wii.gov.in/nwdc_conservation_reserves |date=10 April 2015 }} Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.</ref>
* '''In Pakistan''':
** The [[Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary]] covers {{convert|6300|km2|abbr=on}};<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghalib |first1=S. A. |last2=Khan |first2=A. R. |last3=Zehra |first3=M. |last4=Abbas |first4=D. |display-authors=1 |year=2008 |title=Bioecology of Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary, Districts Ghotki, Sukkur and Khairpur, Sindh |journal=Pakistan Journal of Zoology |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=37–43 |issn=0030-9923 }}</ref> it is located in is located in [[Mirpurkhas District]].<ref name="wildlifeofpakistan.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/sanctuaries.html|title=Protected Areas|access-date=21 April 2020|archive-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203175230/http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/sanctuaries.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> It contains the largest population of the endangered [[mugger crocodile]] in Pakistan.<ref name="wildlifeofpakistan.com"/>
** The [[Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary]] located in [[Badin District]] is an Important Bird Area and [[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar Site]], with 30 species of mammals, 112 bird species, 20 reptiles, and 22 important plant species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ghalib |first1=S. A. |last2=Khan |first2=M. Z. |last3=Hussain |first3=S. A. |last4=Zehra |first4=A. |last5=Samreen |first5=N. |last6=Tabassum |first6=F. |last7=Jabeen |first7=T. |last8=Khan |first8=A. R. |last9=Sharma |first9=L. |last10=Bhatti |first10=T. |display-authors=1 |year=2014 |title=Current distribution and status of the mammals, birds and reptiles in Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary, Sindh |url=https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PK2014000864 |journal=International Journal of Biology and Biotechnology (Pakistan) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=601–611 |issn=1810-2719 |access-date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412045554/https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PK2014000864 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
** The [[Lal Suhanra National Park|Lal Suhanra Biosphere Reserve and National Park]] is a [[UNESCO]] declared biosphere reserve,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/asia-and-the-pacific/pakistan/lal-suhanra/|title=Lal Suhanra|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=28 December 2016}}</ref> which covers {{Convert|65,791|ha|mi2|abbr=}} the [[Cholistan Desert|Cholistan]] region of the Greater Thar Desert.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=PAK+01|title=UNESCO – MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory|website=unesco.org|access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref>

==Biodiversity==

=== Fauna ===
Some [[wildlife]] species that are fast vanishing in other parts of India are found in the desert in large numbers, including the [[blackbuck]] (''Antilope cervicapra''), [[chinkara]] (''Gazella bennettii''), and [[Indian wild ass]] (''Equus hemionus khur'') in the [[Rann of Kutch]]. This may be partly because they are well adapted to this environment: they are smaller than similar animals that live in other environments, and they are mainly nocturnal. It may also be because [[grasslands]] in this region have not been transformed into cropland as fast as in other regions, and because a local community, the [[Bishnoi]]s, has made special efforts to protect them.

Other mammals in the Thar Desert include a subspecies of [[red fox]] (''[[White-footed fox|Vulpes vulpes pusilla]]'') and the [[caracal]], and a number of reptiles dwell there too.

The region is a haven for 141 species of [[Bird migration|migratory]] and resident desert birds, including [[harrier (bird)|harrier]]s, [[falcon]]s, [[buzzard]]s, [[kestrel]]s, [[vulture]]s, [[short-toed eagle]]s (''Circaetus gallicus''), [[tawny eagle]]s (''Aquila rapax''), [[greater spotted eagle]]s (''Aquila clanga''), and [[laggar falcon]]s (''Falco jugger'').

The [[Indian peafowl]] is a resident breeder in the Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the [[Punjab (Pakistan)]]. It can be seen sitting on khejri or [[Sacred fig|pipal]] trees in villages.

The [[Great Indian Bustard]] (Ardeotis nigriceps), one of the world’s heaviest flying birds, inhabits the Thar Desert of Rajasthan. Critically endangered, it thrives in open grasslands and semi-arid regions.
{{gallery
|File:Peacock Thathawata.JPG|Peacock on a [[khejri]] tree
|File:Peafowl eating pieces of Chapati in Tharparkar.jpg|Peafowl eating pieces of'' [[chapati]]'' in [[Tharparkar District]], Sindh
|File:Blackbuck male female.jpg|Blackbuck male and female
|File:Chinkara.jpg|The chinkara or Indian gazelle is found across the Thar Desert.
}}

=== Flora ===
[[File:Khumbhi (local name for mushroom in Tharparkar).jpg|alt=Vessel full of mushroom |thumb|Local [[mushrooms]] (''khumbi'')  from [[Tharparkar District|Tharparkar]], Sindh]]
[[File:Khejri.jpg|thumb|''[[Prosopis cineraria]]'' or ''khejri'' or ''kandi'']]
The natural vegetation of this dry area is classified as [[northwestern thorn scrub forest]] (i.e. small, loosely-scattered patches of greenery).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Champion |first1=H. G. |first2=S. K. |last2=Seth |year=1968 |title=A revised survey of the forest types of India |publisher=Government of India Press |oclc=549213 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Negi |first=S. S. |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrP3-4IFtMUC&pg=PA182 |title=Biosphere Reserves in India: Landuse, Biodiversity and Conservation |publisher=Indus Publishing Company |location=Delhi |isbn=9788173870439 }}</ref> The densities and sizes of these green patches increase from west to east, following an increase in rainfall. The primary vegetation of the Thar Desert is composed of trees, [[shrub]]s, and [[perennial]] herb species, including:<ref name=Kaul1970>{{cite book |last=Kaul |first=R. N. |year=1970 |title=Afforestation in arid zones |series=Monographiiae Biologicae |volume=20 |location=The Hague |oclc=115047 }}</ref>
*Trees and shrubs: ''[[Aerva javanica]]'', ''[[Balanites roxburghii]]'', ''[[Calotropis procera]]'',  ''[[Capparis decidua]]'', ''[[Clerodendrum multiflorum]]'', ''[[Commiphora mukul]]'', ''[[Cordia sinensis]]'', ''[[Crotalaria burhia]]'', ''[[Euphorbia caducifolia]]'', ''[[Euphorbia neriifolia]]'', ''[[Grewia tenax]]'', ''[[Leptadenia pyrotechnica]]'', ''[[Lycium barbarum]]'', ''[[Maytenus emarginata]]'', ''[[Mimosa hamata]]'', ''[[Suaeda fruticosa]]'', ''[[Vachellia jacquemontii]]'', ''[[Ziziphus nummularia]]'' and ''[[Ziziphus zizyphus|Z. zizyphus]]''.
*Herbs and grasses: ''[[Ochthochloa]] compressa'', ''[[Dactyloctenium scindicum]]'', ''[[Cenchrus biflorus]]'', ''[[Cenchrus setiger]]'', ''[[Lasiurus scindicus]]'', ''[[Cynodon dactylon]]'', ''[[Panicum turgidum]]'', ''[[Panicum antidotale]]'', ''[[Dichanthium annulatum]]'', ''[[Sporobolus marginatus]]'', ''[[Saccharum spontaneum]]'', ''[[Cenchrus ciliaris]]'', ''[[Desmostachya bipinnata]]'', ''[[Eragrostis]]'' species, ''[[Ergamopagan]]'' species, ''[[Phragmites]]'' species, ''[[Tribulus terrestris]]'', ''[[Typha]]'' species, ''[[Sorghum halepense]]'', ''[[Citrullus colocynthis]]''

The [[endemic]] floral species include ''[[Calligonum polygonoides]]'', ''[[Prosopis cineraria]]'', ''[[Acacia nilotica]]'', ''[[Tamarix aphylla]]'', and ''[[Cenchrus biflorus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=T. I. |last2=Frost |first2=S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Floral biodiversity: a question of survival in the Indian Thar Desert |journal=Environmentalist |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=231–236 |doi=10.1023/A:1017991606974 |s2cid=82472637 }}</ref>

==People==
{{Main|Thar people}}
The [[Thar people]] are the natives of the area.  The Thar Desert is the most widely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name=Singh2007>Singh, P. (ed.) (2007). [http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/tf11_grass.pdf "Report of the Task Force on Grasslands and Deserts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210071534/http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/tf11_grass.pdf |date=10 December 2011 }}. Government of India Planning Commission, New Delhi.</ref> In India, the inhabitants comprise [[Hindu]]s, [[Jain]]s, [[Sikh]]s, and [[Muslim]]s. In Pakistan, inhabitants include both Muslims and Hindus.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1167315|title=Mithi: Where a Hindu fasts and a Muslim does not slaughter cows|last=Raza|first=Hassan|date=5 March 2012|work=Dawn}}</ref>

About 40% of the total population of [[Rajasthan]] lives in the Thar Desert.<ref name=Gupta2008>Gupta, M. L. (2008). ''Rajasthan Gyan Kosh''. 3rd Edition. Jojo Granthagar, Jodhpur. {{ISBN|81-86103-05-8}}</ref> The main occupations of the inhabitants are agriculture and [[animal husbandry]].

[[Jodhpur]], the largest city in the region, lies in the scrub forest zone at the desert's perimeter. [[Bikaner]] and [[Jaisalmer]] are the largest cities located entirely in the desert.
{{gallery
|File:gaduliya.jpg|A girl from the [[Gadia Lohar]]s nomadic tribe of [[Marwar]], cooking her food.
|File:Thar life.jpg|Thar life
|File:Désert-du-Thar.jpg|Desert tribes near Jaisalmer, India
}}
[[File:Camel rides in Jaisalmer, Thar Desert 15.jpg|left|thumb|Camel riding in Thar Desert]]

=== Water and housing in the desert ===
In the true desert areas, the only sources of water for animals or humans are small, scattered ponds - some that are natural (''tobas'') and some that are human-made (''[[johad]]s''). The persistence of [[water scarcity]] heavily influences life in all areas of the Thar, prompting many inhabitants to adopt a [[nomads|nomadic]] lifestyle.{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} Most of the permanent human settlements are located near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills. Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar Desert. Much of it tastes sour due to dissolved minerals. Potable water is mostly available only  deep underground. When wells are dug that happen to yield sweet tasting water, people tend to settle near them, but such wells are difficult and dangerous to dig, sometimes claiming the lives of the well-diggers.{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}}

Crowded housing conditions are common in some areas.
{{gallery
|File:House in the Thar.JPG|Huts in the Thar Desert
|File:Johad.JPG|[[Johad]]s are common water sources
|File:GRAVIS employees at Taanka.JPG|Tanks for drinking water
}}
<!--=== Recreation ===-->

==Economy==
===Agriculture===
The Thar is one of the most heavily populated desert areas in the world with the main occupations of its inhabitants being agriculture and animal husbandry.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raza |first1=Fawwad |title=Modern Agriculture Techniques in the Desert of THAR - Scientia Magazine |url=https://scientiamag.org/modern-agriculture-techniques-in-the-desert-of-thar/ |access-date=1 November 2024 |date=31 March 2021}}</ref>

Agricultural production is mainly from [[kharif crops]], which are grown in the summer season and seeded in June and July. These are then harvested in September and October and include [[Pearl millet|bajra]], [[pulses]] such as [[guar]], [[jowar]] (''[[Sorghum vulgare]]''), maize (''[[zea mays]]''), [[sesame]] and [[Bambara groundnut|groundnuts]].

The Thar region of Rajasthan is a major opium production and consumption area.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://main.icmr.nic.in/sites/default/files/icmr_bulletins/bulljan-mar08.pdf |title=ICMR Bulletin vol.38, No.1-3, Pattern and Process of Drug and Alcohol Use in India |access-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328054240/https://main.icmr.nic.in/sites/default/files/icmr_bulletins/bulljan-mar08.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/video/will-rajasthan-opium-farmers-vote-for-change-1401355-2018-12-03 |title=Will Rajasthan opium farmers vote for change? |access-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510113738/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/video/will-rajasthan-opium-farmers-vote-for-change-1401355-2018-12-03 |archive-date=10 May 2022}}</ref>
{{gallery
|File:Grain millet, early grain fill, Tifton, 7-3-02.jpg|Bajra is the main [[kharif crop]] in Thar.
|File:4 KLM Mustard.jpg|Mustard fields in a village of Shri Ganganagar district (Rajasthan, India).
}}
{{clear}}

===Livestock===
{{gallery
|File:Tharparkar 02.JPG|[[Tharparkar cattle|Thari]] cow breed originating from [[Tharparkar District|Tharparkar]], Sindh, popular since [[World War I]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://afs.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle/tharparkar|title=Breeds of Livestock - Tharparkar Cattle — Breeds of Livestock, Department of Animal Science|website=afs.okstate.edu|access-date=2019-08-05}}</ref>
|File:Cows in India 2007.JPG|Cattle in the Thar Desert
}}

===Agroforestry===
[[File:Khejro Lopping.JPG|thumb|Lopping of ''khejri'' tree for fodder and fuel in [[Harsawa]] village]]

<!--<ref>[http://www.ecoworld.com/Home/Articles2.cfm?TID=341 "Arid Agriculture: State-of-the-Art Agro-Forestry vs. Deserts on the March"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061219083939/http://www.ecoworld.com/Home/Articles2.cfm?TID=341 |date=19 December 2006 }}. Brook & Gaurav Bhagat 14 August 2003</ref>-->

''P. cineraria'' wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high-quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Its roots also encourage [[nitrogen]] fixation, which produces higher crop yields.
[[Image:Rohida1.jpg|thumb|''Tecomella undulata'' tree in the village of [[Harsawa]]]]

===Ecotourism===
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2011}}
Desert safaris on camels have become increasingly popular around Jaisalmer. Domestic and international tourists frequent the desert seeking adventure on camels for one to several days. This [[ecotourism]] industry ranges from cheaper backpacker treks to plush Arabian-Nights-style campsites replete with banquets and cultural performances. During the treks, tourists are able to view the fragile and beautiful ecosystem of the Thar Desert. This form of tourism provides income to many operators and camel owners in Jaisalmer, as well as employment for many camel trekkers in the desert villages nearby. People from various parts of the world come to see the Pushkar ka Mela (Pushkar Fair) and oases.
{{gallery
|File:Thar Khuri.jpg|Camel ride in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer, India
|File:Purple Skies of Jaisalmer.jpg|Sunrise in the desert
}}

===Industry===
The government of India initiated departmental exploration for oil in 1955 and 1956 in the Jaisalmer area,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/2nd/2planch18.html |title=PlanningCommission.NIC.in |access-date=16 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060414235126/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/2nd/2planch18.html |archive-date=14 April 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Oil India Limited discovered natural gas in 1988 in the [[Jaisalmer basin]].<ref>[http://oilindia.nic.in/ourcomp_spread_rajasthan.htm OilIndia.NIC.in] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630062216/http://oilindia.nic.in/ourcomp_spread_rajasthan.htm |date=30 June 2006}}</ref> <!-- Also known for their fine leather [[messenger bag]]s made from wild camels native to the area. -->

== History ==
The [[Desert National Park]] in [[Jaisalmer district]] has a collection of 180-million-year- old animal and plant fossils.

[[Jaisalmer State]]'s historical foundations are in the large empire ruled by the Bhati dynasty. The empire stretched from what is now  [[Ghazni]]<ref name="tod_197198">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.114834 |title=Rajasthan or the Central and Western Rajpoot States, Volume 2, page 197-198 |publisher=Higginbotham And Co. Madras|date=2018-08-14}}</ref> in modern-day Afghanistan to what is [[Sialkot]], [[Lahore]] and [[Rawalpindi]] in modern-day Pakistan<ref name="IGI">{{cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V21_278.gif |title=Imperial Gazetter of India, Volume 21, page 272 - Imperial Gazetteer of India - Digital South Asia Library |publisher=Dsal.uchicago.edu |date=2013-02-18 |access-date=22 November 2013}}</ref> to the region that is [[Bhatinda]] and [[Hanumangarh]] in modern-day India.<ref name="Bh_gov1">{{cite web |url=http://bathinda.nic.in/html/district_at_a_glance.html#N10024 |title=Bhatinda Government: District at A glance- Origin |publisher=Bhatinda Government |date=2018-08-14 |access-date=14 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110050936/http://bathinda.nic.in/html/district_at_a_glance.html#N10024 |archive-date=10 January 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The empire crumbled over time because of continuous invasions from central Asia. According to Satish Chandra, the Hindu Shahis of Afghanistan made an alliance with the Bhatti rulers of Multhan because they wanted to end the slave raids that were made by the Turkic ruler of Ghazni, but the alliance was broken apart by Alp Tigin in 977 CE. Bhati dominions continued to shift southwards: they ruled Multan, then finally got pushed into Cholistan and Jaisalmer, where Rawal Devaraja built [[Derawar Fort|Dera Rawal / Derawar]].<ref name="RajGz">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.71381 |title=Provincial Gazetteers Of India: Rajputana  |publisher=Government of India |date=2018-08-14}}</ref> Jaisalmer was founded as the new capital in 1156 by [[Rawal Jaisal|Maharawal Jaisal Singh]] and the state took its name from the capital. On 11 December 1818 Jaisalmer became a [[British protectorate]] through the [[Rajputana Agency]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_princes_A-J.html| title = Princely States of India}}</ref><ref name="RajGzb">{{cite web|date=2018-08-14|title=Provincial Gazetteers Of India: Rajputana|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.71381|publisher=Government of India}}</ref>

Because the kingdom's main source of income had long been levies on [[Caravan (travellers)|caravan]]s, its economy suffered after [[Bombay]] became a major port, and sea trade largely replaced trade along the traditional land routes. Maharawals Ranjit Singh and Bairi Sal Singh tried to reverse the economic decline, but the kingdom nevertheless became impoverished. To make matters worse, there was a severe [[drought]] and a resulting [[famine]] from 1895 to 1900, during the reign of Maharawal Salivahan Singh, which caused the widespread loss of the livestock upon which the increasingly agriculturally based kingdom had come to rely.

In 1965 and 1971, population exchanges took place in the Thar between India and Pakistan; 3,500 Muslims shifted from the Indian section of the Thar to Pakistani Thar, whilst thousands of Hindu families also migrated from Pakistani Thar to the Indian section.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7imPH4KVJUC&q=arif+hasan+thar+desert+migration&pg=PA15|title=Migration and Small Towns in Pakistan|last1=Hasan|first1=Arif|last2=Raza|first2=Mansoor|publisher=IIED|year=2009|isbn=9781843697343|pages=15–16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://himalmag.com/just-another-border/|title=Not just another border|last=Maini|first=Tridivesh Singh|date=15 August 2012|work=Himal South Asian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newslens.pk/families-separated-pak-india-border-yearn-see-loved-ones/|title=Families separated by Pak-India border yearn to see their loved ones|last=Arisar|first=Allah Bux|date=6 October 2015|work=News Lens Pakistan|access-date=25 December 2016|archive-date=25 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225150022/http://www.newslens.pk/families-separated-pak-india-border-yearn-see-loved-ones/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Map of Vedic India.png|thumb|The position of Thar Desert (orange colour) in [[Vedic period|Iron Age Vedic India]]]]
[[File:Sarasvati river.jpg|thumb|Present-day Gagghar-Hakra river-course, with paleochannels as proposed by (Clift et al. (2012)).<ref>See [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Satellite-image-of-the-Indus-River-system-showing-the-study-sites-Stars-indicate_fig1_229062223 map]</ref><br />
1 = ancient river<br/>
2 = today's river<br/>
3 = today's Thar desert<br/>
4 = ancient shore<br/>
5 = today's shore<br/>
6 = today's town<br/>
7 = paelochannels (Clift et al. (2012))]]

== See also ==
{{Portal bar|Environment|India}}
[[File:Jaisalmer Amar Sagar.jpg|thumb|Amar Sagar, near [[Jaisalmer]]]]

* [[Arid Forest Research Institute]]
* Arid Lands Information Network
* [[Aridification]]
* [[Cholistan Desert]]
* [[Nara desert]]
* [[Cyclone Phet]] – tracked directly over the desert
* [[Deforestation]]
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Tharparkar#History|History of Thar]]
* [[List of deserts by area]]
* [[Marwar]]
* [[Pokhran]]
* [[Thari people]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

=== Web ===
{{reflist|group=web}}

== Sources ==
* {{Cite journal | last1 =Chatterjee | first1 =Anirban|last2=Ray|first2=Jyotiranjan S.|last3=Shukla|first3=Anil D.|last4=Pande|first4=Kanchan|date=20 November 2019| title =On the existence of a perennial river in the Harappan heartland| journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9|issue=1 |pages=17221 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-53489-4 |pmid=31748611 |pmc=6868222 |issn=2045-2322|bibcode=2019NatSR...917221C}}
* {{citation | last1 =Clift | first1 =Peter D. | ref ={{sfnref|Clift et al.|2012}} | last2 =Carter | first2 =Andrew | last3 =Giosan | first3 =Liviu | last4 =Durcan | first4 =Julie | display-authors =etal | year =2012 | title =U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River | journal =Geology | volume =40 | issue =3 | pages =211–214 | doi =10.1130/g32840.1 | bibcode =2012Geo....40..211C | s2cid =130765891 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Giosan | year =2012 | ref={{sfnref|Giosan et al.|2012}} | title =Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization | journal =PNAS|volume= 109 |issue=26 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.1112743109 |pages=E1688–E1694 | display-authors =etal  | pmid =22645375 | pmc=3387054 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109E1688G| doi-access =free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 =Giosan | first1 =Liviu | last2 =Clift | first2 =Peter D. | last3 =Macklin | first3 =Mark G. | last4 =Fuller | first4 =Dorian Q. | title =Sarasvati II | journal =Current Science | date =10 October 2013 | volume =105 | issue =7 | pages =888–890 | jstor =24098502 | url =https://www.jstor.org/stable/24098502 }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Khonde | first1 =Nitesh  | last2 =Kumar Singh | first2 =Sunil | last3 =Maur | first3 =D. M. | last4 =Rai | first4 = Vinai K. | last5 =Chamyal | first5 =L. S. | last6 =Giosan | first6 =Liviu | year =2017 | title =Tracing the Vedic Saraswati River in the Great Rann of Kachchh | journal =Scientific Reports | volume =7 | issue =1 | page =5476 | doi =10.1038/s41598-017-05745-8 | pmid =28710495 | pmc =5511136 | bibcode =2017NatSR...7.5476K |ref={{sfnref|Khonde et al.|2017}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Maemoku |first1=Hideaki |last2=Shitaoka |first2=Yorinao |last3=Nagatomo |first3=Tsuneto |last4=Yagi |first4=Hiroshi |editor1=Giosan, Liviu |editor2=Fuller, Dorian Q. |editor3=Nicoll, Kathleen |editor4=Flad, Rowan K. |editor5=Clift, Peter D. |title=Climates, Landscapes, and Civilizations |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7aw5mfscBMC |series=American Geophysical Union Monograph Series 198 |year=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-70443-1 |chapter=Geomorphological Constraints on the Ghaggar River Regime During the Mature Harappan Period}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sankaran |first=A. V. |title=Saraswati – The ancient river lost in the desert |journal=Current Science |volume=77 |number=8 |date=25 October 1999 |pages=1054–1060 |jstor=24103577 |url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040919123504/http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm |archive-date=19 September 2004 }}
* {{cite journal |last =Singh |first=Ajit |year=2017 |title=Counter-intuitive influence of Himalayan river morphodynamics on Indus Civilisation urban settlements |journal=Nature Communications |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=1617 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01643-9 |pmid=29184098 |pmc=5705636 |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.1617S |display-authors=etal |ref={{sfnref|Singh et al.|2017}} }}
* {{cite journal |last=Valdiya |first=K.S. |year=2013 |title=The River Saraswati was a Himalayan-born river |journal=Current Science |volume=104 |issue=1 |page=42 |url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/104/01/0042.pdf }}

== Further reading ==

<!-- these may have been used by editors as a bibliography -->
* Bhandari M. M. ''Flora of The Indian Desert'', MPS Repros, 39, BGKT Extension, New Pali Road, Jodhpur, India.
* Zaigham, N. A. (2003). [http://comsats.org/Publications/Books_SnT_Series/03.%20Water%20Resources%20in%20the%20South%20-%20Present%20Scenario%20and%20Future%20Prospects%20(Nov.%202003).pdf#page=66 "Strategic sustainable development of groundwater in Thar Desert of Pakistan"]. Water Resources in the South: Present Scenario and Future Prospects, Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South, Islamabad.
* Govt. of India. Ministry of Food & Agriculture booklet (1965)—"Soil conservation in the Rajasthan Desert"—Work of the Desert Afforestation Research station, Jodhpur.
* Gupta, R. K. & Prakash Ishwar (1975). ''Environmental analysis of the Thar Desert''. English Book Depot., Dehra Dun.
* Kaul, R. N. (1967). "Trees or grass lands in the Rajasthan: Old problems and New approaches". ''Indian Forester'', 93: 434–435.
* Burdak, L. R. (1982). "Recent Advances in Desert Afforestation". Dissertation submitted to Shri R. N. Kaul, Director, Forestry Research, F.R.I., Dehra Dun.
* Yashpal, Sahai Baldev, Sood, R.K., and Agarwal, D.P. (1980). "Remote sensing of the 'lost' Saraswati river". ''Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences'' (Earth and Planet Science), V. 89, No. 3, pp.&nbsp;317–331.
* Bakliwal, P. C. and Sharma, S. B. (1980). "On the migration of the river Yamuna". ''Journal of the Geological Society of India'', Vol. 21, Sept. 1980, pp.&nbsp;461–463.
* Bakliwal, P. C. and Grover, A. K. (1988). "Signature and migration of Sarasvati river in Thar desert, Western India". ''Record of the Geological Survey of India'' V 116, Pts. 3–8, pp.&nbsp;77–86.
* Rajawat, A. S., Sastry, C. V. S. and Narain, A. (1999-a). "Application of pyramidal processing on high resolution IRS-1C data for tracing the migration of the Saraswati river in parts of the Thar desert". in "Vedic Sarasvati, Evolutionary History of a Lost River of Northwestern India", ''Memoir Geological Society of India'', Bangalore, No. 42, pp.&nbsp;259–272.
* Ramasamy, S. M. (1999). "Neotectonic controls on the migration of Sarasvati river of the Great Indian desert". in "Vedic Sarasvati, Evolutionary History of a Lost River of Northwestern India", ''Memoir Geological Society of India'', Bangalore, No. 42, pp.&nbsp;153–162.
* Rajesh Kumar, M., Rajawat, A. S. and Singh, T. N. (2005). "Applications of remote sensing for educidate the Palaeochannels in an extended Thar desert, Western Rajasthan", 8th annual International conference, Map India 2005, New Delhi.

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Wikivoyage inline}}
* {{WWF ecoregion|id=im1304|name=Thar Desert}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160302095323/http://www.dharssi.org.uk/travel/india/jaisalmer.html Dharssi.org.uk], Photos of the Thar Desert
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080216005407/http://www.avgustin.net/gallery.php?id=44 Avgustin.net], Photos of the Thar Desert in Pakistan side

{{Geography of India}}
{{Geography of Pakistan}}
{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{Sindh topics}}
{{Deserts}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Thar Desert| ]]
[[Category:Deserts of India]]
[[Category:Deserts of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Deserts and xeric shrublands]]
[[Category:Natural regions of India]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ergs]]
[[Category:Geography of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Geography of Sindh]]
[[Category:Tharparkar District]]
[[Category:Environment of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Environment of Sindh]]
[[Category:Indomalayan ecoregions]]