Editing Taxidermy

{{Short description|Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display}}
{{about|practice of stuffing and mounting animals|field of biology|Taxonomy (biology)|
other uses}}

[[File:Primate Taxidermy, Rahmat International Wildlife Museum and Gallery.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Primate and pachyderm taxidermy at the [[Rahmat International Wildlife Museum & Gallery]], [[Medan]], [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]]]

'''Taxidermy''' is the [[Art (skill)|art]] of preserving an [[animal]]'s body by mounting (over an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]]) or stuffing, for the purpose of display or study. Animals are often, but not always, portrayed in a lifelike state. The word ''taxidermy'' describes the process of preserving the animal, but the word is also used to describe the end product, which are called '''taxidermy mounts''' or referred to simply as "taxidermy".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Learning to Look: Taxidermy in Museums – MSU Museum |url=https://museum.msu.edu/ltl-taxidermy/ |access-date=2023-10-10 |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216174436/https://museum.msu.edu/ltl-taxidermy/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The word ''taxidermy'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Ancient Greek]] words {{lang|grc|τάξις}} {{Lang|grc-latn|taxis}} (order, arrangement) and {{lang|grc|δέρμα}} {{Lang|grc-latn|derma}} (skin).<ref name=Harper>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=taxidermy |title=taxidermy |author=Harper, Douglas |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=17 July 2010 }}</ref> Thus ''taxidermy'' translates to "arrangement of skin".<ref name=Harper/>

Taxidermy is practiced primarily on [[vertebrates]]<ref name="RogersSchmidt1989">{{cite book |author1=Stephen P. Rogers |author2=Mary Ann Schmidt |author3=Thomas Gütebier |title=An Annotated Bibliography on Preparation, Taxidermy, and Collection Management of Vertebrates with Emphasis on Birds |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4h9QgAACAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Carnegie Museum of Natural History |isbn=978-0-911239-32-4}}</ref> ([[mammals]], [[birds]], [[fish]], [[reptiles]], and less commonly on [[amphibians]]) but can also be done to larger [[insects]] and [[arachnids]]<ref name="Beard1890">{{cite book |author=Daniel Carter Beard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpICAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA242 |title=The American Boys Handy Book |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons |year=1890 |pages=242, 243}}</ref> under some circumstances. Taxidermy takes on a number of forms and purposes including [[trophy hunting|hunting trophies]] and [[natural history museum]] displays. Unlike meat harvesting, taxidermy does not require killing an animal that could have otherwise remained alive.  [[Museum]]s use taxidermy as a method to record species, including those that are extinct and threatened,<ref>{{cite web |title=Life After Death: Extinct Animals Immortalized With Taxidermy |url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/magazine/150715-ngm-taxidermy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716225303/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/magazine/150715-ngm-taxidermy |archive-date=2015-07-16 |access-date=2015-07-16 |website=National Geographic}}</ref> in the form of [[#Study skins|study skins]] and life-size mounts. Taxidermy is sometimes also used as a means to memorialize pets.<ref name="Psychology Today">{{cite web |last1=Pierce |first1=Jessica |date=January 5, 2012 |title=Would You Like Your Pet Stuffed, Freeze-dried, or Cryonically Preserved? |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/all-dogs-go-heaven/201201/would-you-your-pet-stuffed-freeze-dried-or-cryonically-preserved |access-date=2 March 2017 |website=Psychology Today |publisher=Sussex Publishers, LLC}}</ref>

A person who practices taxidermy is called a '''taxidermist'''. They may practice professionally, catering to [[museum]]s and sportspeople ([[hunter]]s and [[fishermen|fishers]]), or as amateurs ([[hobbyist]]s). A taxidermist is aided by familiarity with [[anatomy]], [[sculpture]], [[painting]], and [[Tanning (leather)|tanning]].

==History==
[[File:5.5.12TeddyRooseveltTaxidermyKitByLuigiNovi3.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s taxidermy kit, private collection]]

{{Main|History of taxidermy}}

===Tanning and early stuffing techniques===
Preserving animal skins has been practiced throughout human history. For example, [[Animal mummy|embalmed animals]] have been found with Egyptian mummies.
Although [[embalming]] incorporates lifelike poses, it is not considered taxidermy. In the [[Middle Ages]], crude examples of taxidermy were displayed by [[astrologers]] and [[apothecaries]]. The earliest methods of preservation of birds for [[Cabinet of curiosities|natural history cabinets]] were published in 1748 by [[René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur|René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur]] in France. Techniques for mounting were described in 1752 by M. B. Stollas. There were several pioneers of taxidermy in France, Germany, Denmark, and England. For a while, clay was used to shape some of the soft parts, but this made specimens heavy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Péquignot|first=Amandine|date=2006|title=The History of Taxidermy: Clues for Preservation|url=|journal=Collections: A Journal for Museum and Archives Professionals|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=245–255|doi=10.1177/155019060600200306|s2cid=191989601|issn=1550-1906|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Practical Taxidermy">{{cite book|author=Mantagu Browne|title=Practical Taxidermy – A Manual of Instruction to the Amateur in Collecting, Preserving, and Setting up Natural History Specimens|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMF9CgAAQBAJ&q=Taxidermy.clay.heavy.&pg=PT152|date=31 July 2015|publisher=Read Country Book|isbn=978-1-4733-7689-2}}</ref>

By the 18th century, a majority of towns had a [[Tanning (leather)|tannery]] business.<ref name="Authors2016">{{cite book|title=Taxidermy Vol.12 Tanning – Outlining the Various Methods of Tanning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q8lDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT3|date=26 August 2016|publisher=Read Books Limited|isbn=978-1-4733-5355-8|pages=3–}}</ref>  It was around the same time, with the work of [[Jean-Baptiste Bécœur]] in particular, that taxidermy became a more serious practice. [[Louis Dufresne]], a taxidermist at the {{lang|fr|[[Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle|Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle]]}} in France, rediscovered Bécœur's taxidermy process using [[arsenic]]al soap and made it known through an article in the ''Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle'' (1803–1804). This technique enabled the museum to build an immense collection of taxidermy birds.<ref name="Maynard2017">{{cite book|author=C. J. Maynard|title=Manual of Taxidermy – A Complete Guide in Collecting and Preserving Birds and Mammals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-KYyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT3|date=25 August 2017|publisher=Read Books Limited|isbn=978-1-4733-3900-2}}</ref> In the 19th century, some hunters took their trophies to [[upholstery]] shops, where the upholsterers would sew up the animal skins and stuff them with rags and cotton. The term "stuffing" or a "stuffed animal" evolved from this crude form of taxidermy. Professional taxidermists prefer the term "mounting" to "stuffing". More sophisticated cotton-wrapped [[armature (sculpture)|wire bodies]] supporting sewn-on cured skins soon followed.

Dufresne's methods spread to England in the early 19th century, where updated and non-toxic methods of preservation were developed by some of the leading naturalists of the day, including [[Rowland Ward]] and Montague Brown.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/13067/11-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-taxidermy|title=11 Things You Probably Didn't Know About Taxidermy|date=2012-11-13|access-date=2017-09-13|language=en}}</ref> Ward established one of the earliest taxidermy firms, Rowland Ward Ltd. of [[Piccadilly, Warwickshire|Piccadilly]]. However, the art of taxidermy remained relatively undeveloped, and the specimens remained stiff and unconvincing.<ref name="Taxidermy Specimens">{{cite book|title=Taxidermy Vol.10 Collecting Specimens – The Collection and Displaying Taxidermy Specimens|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Kr77DAAAQBAJ&q=However%2C+the+art+of+taxidermy+remained+relatively+undeveloped%2C+and+the+specimens+that+were+created+remained+stiff+and+unconvincing&pg=PT3|date=26 August 2016|publisher= Tobey Press|isbn=978-1-4733-5354-1}}</ref>

===Taxidermy as art===

[[File:Moose and deer heads at the Big Texan steakhouse.jpg|thumb|Taxidermied moose and deer heads at the [[Big Texan Steak Ranch]] in Amarillo, Texas]]
The golden age of taxidermy was during the [[Victorian era]], when mounted animals became a popular part of interior design and decor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Davie, Oliver| title=Methods in the art of taxidermy| publisher=David McKay|place=Philadelphia| year=1900| url=https://archive.org/stream/methodsinartofta00daviuoft#page/n7/mode/2up}}</ref> English [[ornithologist]] [[John Hancock (ornithologist)|John Hancock]] is considered to be the father of modern taxidermy.<ref name="Pray2015">{{cite book|author=Leon Pray|title=Taxidermy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8J9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP8|date=31 July 2015|publisher=Read Books Limited|isbn=978-1-4733-7688-5|pages=8–}}</ref> An avid collector of birds, which he had shot personally, he began modeling them with clay and casting in plaster.

For the [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851 in [[London]], he mounted a series of stuffed birds as an exhibit. They generated much interest among the public and scientists alike who considered them superior to earlier models, and they were regarded as the first lifelike and artistic specimens on display.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhsn.ncl.ac.uk/news/cms/john-hancock-biography-goddard/|title=John Hancock: A Biography by T. Russell Goddard (1929)|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214074009/http://www.nhsn.ncl.ac.uk/news/cms/john-hancock-biography-goddard/|archive-date=2013-12-14}}</ref> A judge remarked that Hancock's exhibit "... will go far towards raising the art of taxidermy to a level with other arts which have hitherto held higher pretensions".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taxidermy4cash.com/Articles.html|title=Taxidermy Articles}}</ref>

Hancock's display sparked great national interest in taxidermy, and amateur and professional collections for public view proliferated rapidly. Displays of birds were particularly common in middle-class Victorian homes – even [[Queen Victoria]] amassed an impressive bird collection. Taxidermy was also increasingly used by the bereaved owners of dead pets to 'resurrect' them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.morbidoutlook.com/lifestyle/articles/2002_06_memento.html|title=Morbid Outlook – Memento Mori Animalia}}</ref>

===Anthropomorphic taxidermy===
[[File:Potter'sRabbitSchool.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2<!--size for very low image-->|[[Walter Potter]]'s ''Rabbit School'', 1930s]]
In the late 19th century, a style known as [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] taxidermy became popular. A 'Victorian whimsy', mounted animals were dressed as people or displayed as if engaged in human activities. An early example of this genre was displayed by Herman Ploucquet, from [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]], at the [[Great Exhibition]] in London.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Henning|first=Michelle|year=2007| title= Anthropomorphic taxidermy and the death of nature: The curious art of Hermann Ploucquet, Walter Potter and Charles Waterton. |journal=Victorian Literature and Culture| volume= 35|issue=2|pages=663–678|doi=10.1017/S1060150307051704|s2cid=59405158| url=http://uwe-repository.worktribe.com/previewfile/1030346/Download.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Taxidermy frogs playing pool.jpg|thumb|Taxidermy frogs playing pool.]]
The best-known practitioner in this genre was the English taxidermist [[Walter Potter]], whose most famous work was ''The Death and Burial of [[Cock Robin]]''. Among his other scenes were "a rat's den being raided by the local police rats ... [a] village school ... featuring 48 little rabbits busy writing on tiny [[Slate (writing)|slate]]s, while the Kittens' Tea Party displayed feline etiquette and a game of [[croquet]]."<ref>{{cite news|last=Morris|first=Pat|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=7 December 2007|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2007/dec/07/art|title=Animal magic|access-date=2009-02-14|location=London}}</ref> Apart from the simulations of human situations, he had also added examples of bizarrely deformed animals such as [[Polycephaly#Goats and sheep|two-headed lambs]] and [[Polymelia#Other animals|four-legged chickens]]. Potter's museum was so popular that an extension was built to the platform at [[Bramber railway station]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.steyningmuseum.org.uk/potters.htm | title = Mr Potter of Bramber | last = Ketteman |first = Tony | access-date = 2009-02-14}}</ref>

Other Victorian taxidermists known for their iconic anthropomorphic taxidermy work are William Hart and his son Edward Hart.<ref name="Kovels">
{{cite web|url=https://www.kovels.com/news-news-news/stuffed-squirrels-fight-for-high-prices.html|title=Stuffed Squirrels Fight for High Prices|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=2 October 2013|website=Kovels.com|publisher=Kovels Auction House|access-date=12 October 2017}}</ref> They gained recognition with their famous series of [[dioramas]] featuring boxing squirrels. Both William and Edward created multiple sets of these dioramas. One 4-piece set of boxing squirrel dioramas (circa 1850) sold at auction in 2013 for record prices. The four dioramas were created as a set (with each diorama portraying the squirrels at a different stage during their boxing match); however, the set was broken up and each was sold separately at the same auction. The set was one of a number they created over the years featuring boxing squirrels.<ref name="Kovels"/>

Famous examples of modern anthropomorphic taxidermy include the work of artist [[Adele Morse]], who gained international attention with her "[[Stoned Fox]]" sculpture series,<ref name="Taxidermy art p. 14">{{cite book|author=Robert Marbury|title=Taxidermy Art: A Rogue's Guide to the Work, the Culture, and How to Do It Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoJLBAAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Artisan|isbn=978-1-57965-558-7|page=14}}</ref> and the work of artist [[Sarina Brewer]], known for her Siamese twin squirrels and flying monkeys partaking in human activities.<ref name="Crave"/>

===20th century===
[[File:Mother moose and calf diorama - Manitoba Museum (6908025191).jpg|thumb|right| Mother [[Western moose|moose]] and calf diorama, [[Manitoba Museum]]]]

In the early 20th century, taxidermy was taken forward under the leadership of artists such as [[Carl Akeley]], James L. Clark, William T. Hornaday, Coleman Jonas, Fredrick, and William Kaempfer, and [[Leon Pray]]. These and other taxidermists developed anatomically accurate figures which incorporated every detail in artistically interesting poses, with mounts in realistic settings and poses that were considered more appropriate for the species. This was quite a change from the caricatures popularly offered as hunting trophies.{{Citation needed|date=October 2017}}

Additional modern uses of Taxidermy have been the use of "Faux Taxidermy" or fake animal heads that draw on the inspiration of traditional taxidermy. Decorating with sculpted fake animal heads that are painted in different colors has become a popular trend in interior design.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/09/faux-taxidermy-decor_n_3245609.html |title = HuffPost is now a part of Verizon Media|website = [[HuffPost]]|date = 9 May 2013}}</ref>

===Rogue taxidermy===
[[File:Stuffed griffin.jpg|thumb|An example of rogue taxidermy in the form of a [[griffin]], exhibited in the [[Zoological Museum, Copenhagen]]]]
{{for|the album by folk punk band Days N Daze|Rogue Taxidermy (album)}}
Rogue taxidermy (sometimes referred to as "taxidermy art"<ref name=Crossroads>{{Cite news|url= http://www.startribune.com/rogue-taxidermy-at-the-crossroads-of-art-and-wildlife/279318712/|title=Rogue Taxidermy, at the crossroads of art and wildlife|last=Ode|first=Kim|date=15 October 2014|work=[[Star Tribune]]|department=Variety section|access-date=12 December 2016}}</ref>) is a form of [[mixed media]] [[sculpture]].<ref name="Crave">{{cite web|url=http://www.craveonline.com/art/940843-profile-sarina-brewer-rogue-taxidermy|title=Crave Profile: Sarina Brewer and Rogue Taxidermy|last=Rivera|first=Erica|publisher=[[CraveOnline]]LLC|date=8 April 2016|website=CraveOnline|access-date=12 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201064100/http://www.craveonline.com/art/940843-profile-sarina-brewer-rogue-taxidermy|archive-date=1 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Dirge 2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.dirgemag.com/renaissance-handcrafts-fine-arts-celebrates-dark-culture/|title=The Renaissance of Handcrafts and Fine Arts Celebrates Dark Culture|last=Lundy|first=Patricia|date=16 February 2016|website=Dirge magazine|access-date=3 November 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112131437/http://www.dirgemag.com/renaissance-handcrafts-fine-arts-celebrates-dark-culture/|archive-date=12 January 2017}}</ref> Rogue taxidermy art references traditional trophy or natural history museum taxidermy, but is not always constructed out of taxidermied animals;<ref name="Crave"/><ref name="Dirge 2016"/> it can be constructed entirely from synthetic materials.<ref name="Crave"/><ref name=Audubon>{{cite web|url=http://www.audubon.org/news/when-taxidermy-goes-rogue/|title=When Taxidermy Goes Rogue|last=Langston|first=Erica|website=Audubon|publisher=[[National Audubon Society]]|date=30 March 2016|access-date=24 November 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411142406/http://www.audubon.org/news/when-taxidermy-goes-rogue/|archive-date=11 April 2016}}</ref> Additionally, rogue taxidermy is not necessarily [[Figurative art|figurative]], as it can be abstract and does not need to resemble an animal.<ref name="Crave"/> It can be a small decorative object or a large-scale room-sized installation. There is a very broad spectrum of styles within the genre, some of which falls into the category of mainstream art.<ref name="Crave"/><ref name="Brown University">{{cite web|url=https://www.brown.edu/campus-life/arts/bell-gallery/exhibitions/dead-animals-or-curious-occurrence-taxidermy-contemporary-art|title=The Curious Occurrence Of Taxidermy In Contemporary Art|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=23 January 2016|website=Brown University|publisher=David Winton Bell Gallery|access-date=24 November 2017}}</ref> "Rogue taxidermy" describes a wide variety of work, including work that is classified and exhibited as fine art.<ref name=Audubon/> Neither the term, nor the genre, emerged from the world of traditional taxidermy.<ref name="Dirge 2016"/> The genre was born from forms of fine art that utilize some of the components found in the construction of a traditional taxidermy mount.<ref name="Dirge 2016"/> The term "rogue taxidermy" was coined in 2004 by an artist collective called The Minnesota Association of Rogue Taxidermists.<ref name=Audubon/><ref name=Vice>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/women-are-dominating-the-rogue-taxidermy-scene-666/|title=Women Are Dominating the Rogue Taxidermy Scene|last=Voon|first=Claire|date=14 October 2014|work=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]]|access-date=19 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011192501/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/4w75jj/women-are-dominating-the-rogue-taxidermy-scene-666|archive-date=11 October 2017}}</ref>
The Minneapolis-based group was founded by artists [[Sarina Brewer]], Scott Bibus, and Robert Marbury as a means to unite their respective mediums and differing styles of sculpture.<ref name=Vice/><ref name="New York Times">"{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/03/arts/design/head-of-goat-tail-of-fish-more-than-a-touch-of-weirdness.html|title=Head of Goat, Tail of Fish, More Than a Touch of Weirdness|last=Topcik|first=Joel|date=3 January 2005|website=The New York Times|access-date=19 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529170848/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/03/arts/design/head-of-goat-tail-of-fish-more-than-a-touch-of-weirdness.html|archive-date=29 May 2015}}</ref>
The definition of rogue taxidermy set forth by the individuals who formed the genre (Brewer, Bibus, and Marbury) is: "A genre of pop-surrealist art characterized by mixed media sculptures containing conventional taxidermy-related materials that are used in an unconventional manner".<ref name=Crossroads/><ref name=Culturised>{{cite web|url=http://www.culturised.co.uk/2017/06/morality-and-taxidermy-in-art-between-monstrous-and-the-beautiful|title=Mortality and Taxidermy in Art|last=Gyldenstrom|first=Freja|publisher=Culturised|date=17 June 2017|website=culturised.co.uk|access-date=19 January 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003180624/http://www.culturised.co.uk/2017/06/morality-and-taxidermy-in-art-between-monstrous-and-the-beautiful|archive-date=3 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="Sarina Brewer Art">{{cite web|url=http://www.sarina-brewer.com|title=The History of Rogue Taxidermy|website=The Taxidermy Art of Sarina Brewer|access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> Interest in the collective's work gave rise to an artistic movement referred to as the Rogue Taxidermy art movement, or alternately, the Taxidermy Art movement.<ref name="Dirge 2016"/><ref name=Culturised/><ref name="illusion magazine">{{cite web|url=http://illusion.scene360.com/weird/90764/rogue-taxidermy-art|title=Rogue Taxidermy Artists Who Create Imaginative Sculptures|last=Evans|first=Hayley|publisher=Scene 360 LLC|date=22 February 2016|website=illusion magazine|access-date=19 January 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018141447/http://illusion.scene360.com/weird/90764/rogue-taxidermy-art|archive-date=18 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=Niittynen>{{cite journal|last=Niittynen|first=Miranda|date=2015|title=Animal Magic; Sculpting Queer Encounters through Rogue Taxidermy Art|url=http://genderforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/201509CompleteIssueAnimals.pdf|journal=Gender Forum: Internet Journal for Gender Studies|volume=55|pages=14–34|issn=1613-1878|access-date=19 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002215039/http://genderforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/201509CompleteIssueAnimals.pdf|archive-date=2 October 2017}}</ref> Apart from describing a genre of fine art,<ref name="Dirge 2016"/><ref name="Crave"/><ref name="illusion magazine"/> the term "rogue taxidermy" has expanded in recent years and has also become an adjective applied to unorthodox forms of traditional taxidermy such as [[#Anthropomorphic taxidermy|anthropomorphic mounts]] and composite mounts where two or more animals are spliced together.<ref name=CataWiki>{{cite web|url=https://www.catawiki.com/stories/2143-chimaera-taxidermy-the-weird-and-the-wonderful-07-03-2017|title=Chimaera Taxidermy – The Weird and the Wonderful|last=Leggett|first=David|publisher=CataWiki Auction House|date=7 April 2017|website=CataWiki|access-date=19 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119210532/https://www.catawiki.com/stories/2143-chimaera-taxidermy-the-weird-and-the-wonderful-07-03-2017|archive-date=19 January 2018}}</ref><ref name="CBC radio">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-october-25-2017-1.4369486/wednesday-october-25-2017-full-episode-transcript-1.4371965|title=Dead Animals into Art|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=25 October 2017|website=CBC Radio|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=19 January 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026125304/http://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-october-25-2017-1.4369486/wednesday-october-25-2017-full-episode-transcript-1.4371965|archive-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> (e.g.; sideshow gaffs of conjoined "[[freak]]" animals and mounts of [[jackalopes]] or other fictional creatures) In addition to being the impetus for the art movement, the inception of the genre also marked a resurgence of interest in conventional (traditional) forms of taxidermy.<ref name=CataWiki/><ref name="CBC radio"/>

==Methods==

=== Traditional skin-mount ===
[[File:Taxidermied Lion and Blue Wildebeest, Namibia.jpg|thumb|Two examples of traditional skin-mounts, a [[Panthera leo melanochaita|Lion]] and [[Blue Wildebeest]] from [[Namibia]]]]

The methods taxidermists practice have been improved over the last century, heightening taxidermic quality and lowering toxicity. The animal is first skinned in a process similar to removing the skin from a chicken prior to cooking. This can be accomplished without opening the body cavity, so the taxidermist usually does not see internal organs or blood. Depending on the type of skin, preserving chemicals are applied or the skin is tanned. It is then either mounted on a mannequin made from wood wool and wire, or a polyurethane form. Clay is used to install glass eyes and can also be used for facial features like cheekbones and a prominent brow bone. Modeling clay can be used to reform features as well; if the appendage was torn or damaged, clay can hold it together and add muscle detail. Forms and eyes are commercially available from a number of suppliers. If not, taxidermists carve or cast their own forms.<ref name="Milgrom2010">{{cite book|author=Melissa Milgrom|title=Still Life: Adventures in Taxidermy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wr10W1_1C5IC&q=cast+form&pg=PA222
|date=8 March 2010|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-48705-2}}</ref>

Taxidermists seek to continually maintain their skills to ensure attractive, lifelike results. Mounting an animal has long been considered an art form, often involving months of work; not all modern taxidermists trap or hunt for prized specimens.<ref>{{cite video | people = Morgan Mathews (director) | title = Taxidermy: Stuff the World | medium = documentary film | publisher = Century Films |date = 2005}}</ref>

Animal specimens can be frozen, then thawed at a later date to be skinned and tanned. Numerous measurements are taken of the body. A traditional method that remains popular today involves retaining the original skull and leg bones of a specimen and using these as the basis to create a mannequin made primarily from wood wool (previously tow or hemp wool was used) and galvanised wire. Another method is to mould  the carcass in plaster, and then make a copy of the animal using one of several methods. A final mould is then made of polyester resin and glass cloth, from which a [[polyurethane]] form is made for final production. The carcass is then removed and the mould is used to produce a cast of the animal called a 'form'. Forms can also be made by sculpting the animal first in clay. Many companies produce stock forms in various sizes. Glass eyes are then usually added to the display, and in some cases, artificial teeth, jaws, tongue, or for some birds, artificial beaks and legs can be used.

===Freeze-dried mount===
[[File:Freeze-dried rattlesnake.jpg|thumb|Example of [[Dermestidae|dermestid beetle]] damage to a freeze-dried taxidermy mount of a rattlesnake]]

An increasingly popular trend is to [[freeze dry|freeze-dry]] the animal. For all intents and purposes, a freeze-dried mount is a mummified animal. The internal organs are removed during preparation; however, all other tissue remains in the body. (The skeleton and all accompanying musculature is still beneath the surface of the skin) The animal is positioned into the desired pose, then placed into the chamber of a special freeze-drying machine designed specifically for this application. The machine freezes the animal and also creates a vacuum in the chamber. Pressure in the chamber helps vaporize moisture in the animal's body, allowing it to dry out. The rate of drying depends on [[vapor pressure]]. (The higher the pressure, the faster the specimen dries.)<ref name="Freezeco">{{cite web|url=https://www.freezedryco.com/taxidermy_freeze_drying.html|title=Feeze Dry Taxidermy|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=freezedryco.com|access-date=5 May 2017}}</ref> Vapor pressure is determined by the temperature of the chamber; the higher the temperature, the higher the vapor pressure is at a given [[Vacuum#Outgassing|vacuum]].<ref name="Freezeco"/> The length of the dry-time is important because rapid freezing creates less tissue distortion (i.e.; shrinkage, warping, and wrinkling)<ref name="Freezeco"/> The process can be done with reptiles, birds, and small mammals such as cats, rodents, and some dogs. Large specimens may require up to six months in the freeze dryer before they are completely dry. Freeze-drying is the most popular type of pet preservation. This is because it is the least invasive in terms of what is done to the animal's body after death, which is a concern of owners (Most owners do not opt for a traditional skin mount).
In the case of large pets, such as dogs and cats, freeze-drying is also the best way to capture the animal's expression as it looked in life (another important concern of owners). Freeze-drying equipment is costly and requires much upkeep. The process is also time-consuming; therefore, freeze-drying is generally an expensive method to preserve an animal. The drawback to this method is that freeze-dried mounts are extremely susceptible to insect damage. This is because they contain large areas of dried tissue (meat and fat) for insects to feed upon. Traditional mounts are far less susceptible because they contain virtually no residual tissues (or none at all). Regardless of how well a taxidermy mount is prepared, all taxidermy is susceptible to insect damage. Taxidermy mounts are targeted by the same [[Dermestidae|beetles]] and [[Tineola bisselliella|fabric moths]] that destroy wool sweaters and fur coats and that infest grains and flour in pantries.<ref name=bugs>{{cite web|url= https://www.nps.gov/museum/publications/conserveogram/03-11.pdf|title= Identifying Museum Insect Pest damage |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=November 2008 |publisher=National Park Service|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref>

===Reproduction mount===
[[File:reproduction rhino head.jpg|thumb|Reproduction mount of a rhinoceros made of fiberglass]]

Some methods of creating a trophy mount do not involve preserving the actual body of the animal. Instead, detailed photos and measurements are taken of the animal so a taxidermist can create an exact replica in resin or [[Fiberglass molding|fiberglass]] that can be displayed in place of the real animal. No animals are killed in the creation of this type of trophy mount. One situation where this is practiced is in the world of sport fishing where [[catch and release]] is becoming increasingly prevalent. Reproduction mounts are commonly created for (among others) [[trout]], [[bass (fish)|bass]], and large saltwater species such as the [[swordfish]] and [[blue marlin]]. Another situation where reproduction trophies are created is when endangered species are involved. Endangered and protected species, such as the [[rhinoceros]], are hunted with rifles loaded with tranquilizer darts rather than real bullets. While the animal is unconscious, the hunter poses for photos with the animal while it is measured for the purpose of creating a replica, or to establish what size of prefabricated fiberglass trophy head can be purchased to most closely approximate the actual animal. The darted animal is not harmed. The hunter then displays the fiberglass head on the wall in lieu of the real animal's head to commemorate the experience of the hunt.

===Re-creation mount===
[[File:NHM - Archaeopteryx lithographica Modell.jpg|thumb|A taxidermy re-creation of an extinct ancestral bird species, [[Archaeopteryx]], created with the wings and feathers of an extant variety of [[grouse]].]] Re-creation mounts are accurate life-size representations of either [[extant taxon|extant]] or [[extinct]] species that are created using materials not found on the animal being rendered. They utilize the fur, feathers, and skin of other species of animals. According to the National Taxidermy Association:'' "Re-creations, for the purpose of this [competition] category, are defined as renderings which include no natural parts of the animal portrayed. A re-creation may include original carvings and sculptures. A re-creation may use natural parts, provided the parts are not from the species being portrayed. For instance, a re-creation eagle could be constructed using turkey feathers, or a cow hide could be used to simulate African game".''<ref name="competition categories">{{cite web|url=http://www.taxidermy.net/wtc/categories/|title=World Taxidermy Competition categories|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=2015|website=Taxidermy.net|publisher=Breakthrough Magazine, Inc.|access-date=13 December 2016}}</ref> A famous example of a re-creation mount is a [[giant panda]] created by taxidermist Ken Walker that he constructed out of dyed and bleached [[American black bear|black bear]] fur.<ref name="Nat Geo Rowell">{{cite web |url=http://proof.nationalgeographic.com/2014/09/23/exotic-extinct-and-on-display-robert-clarks-take-on-taxidermy/
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014202428/http://proof.nationalgeographic.com/2014/09/23/exotic-extinct-and-on-display-robert-clarks-take-on-taxidermy/
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-date=October 14, 2014
 |title=Exotic, Extinct, and On Display: Robert Clark's Take on Taxidermy|last= Rowell |first=Meloday|date=14 September 2014 |website=National Geographic|access-date=13 December 2016}}</ref>

===Study skins===
A study skin is a taxidermic [[zoological specimen]] prepared in a minimalistic fashion that is concerned only with preserving the animal's skin, not the shape of the animal's body.<ref name="Colchester museum">{{cite web|url=http://www.cimuseums.org.uk/article/11001/Study-Skins|title=Study Skins|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|website=ciMuseums.org.uk|publisher=Colchester & Ipswich Museums|access-date=13 December 2016|archive-date=19 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119052828/http://www.cimuseums.org.uk/article/11001/Study-Skins|url-status=dead}}</ref> As the name implies, study skins are used for scientific study (research), and are housed mainly by museums. A study skin's sole purpose is to preserve data, not to replicate an animal in a lifelike state.<ref name="Colchester museum"/> Museums keep large collections of study skins in order to conduct comparisons of physical characteristics to other study skins of the same species. Study skins are also kept because DNA can be extracted from them when needed at any point in time.<ref name="NCBI">{{cite journal |title= Utility of hair shafts from study skins for mitochondrial DNA analysis|last=Kurihara |first=Nozomi|date=11 February 2013|journal= Genetics and Molecular Research|pmid=24301912|doi=10.4238/2013.November.11.1|volume=12|issue=4|pages=5396–5404|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A study skin's preparation is extremely basic. After the animal is skinned, fat is methodically scraped off the underside of the hide. The underside of the hide is then rubbed with [[borax]] or cedar dust to help it dry faster. The animal is then stuffed with cotton and sewn up. Mammals are laid flat on their belly. Birds are prepared lying on their back. Study skins are dried in these positions to keep the end product as slender and streamlined as possible so large numbers of specimens can be stored side-by-side in flat file drawers, while occupying a minimum amount of space.<ref name="Queensland Museum">{{cite web|url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Behind+the+Scenes/Taxidermy#.Wy0dERSnT8s|title=Taxidermy|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=Queensland Museum Network|publisher=The State Queensland|access-date=22 June 2018}}</ref> Since study skins are not prepared with aesthetics in mind they do not have imitation eyes like other taxidermy, and their cotton filling is visible in their eye openings.<ref name=Rogers>{{cite web|url= http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/AVECOL-RelaxSkins.htm |title=Relaxing Skins |last=Rogers|first=Steve |website= Bird Collections Bulletin Board|publisher= Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University |access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:2013-03 Naturkundemuseum Berlin Taxidermie Eichhörnchen Sciurus vulgaris anagoria 0.JPG|1. Measurements are collected
File:2013-03 Naturkundemuseum Berlin Taxidermie Eichhörnchen Sciurus vulgaris anagoria 1.JPG|2. Animal is Skinned. Notes on internal organs are recorded
File:2013-03 Naturkundemuseum Berlin Taxidermie Eichhörnchen Sciurus vulgaris anagoria 2.JPG|3. Skin is stuffed with cotton
File:2013-03 Naturkundemuseum Berlin Taxidermie Eichhörnchen Sciurus vulgaris anagoria 3.JPG|4. Completed study skin is labeled with a data tag
</gallery>

==Notable taxidermists==
* [[Carl Akeley]] (1864–1926), the father of modern taxidermy
* [[Jean-Baptiste Bécœur]] (1718–1777), French [[Ornithology|ornithologist]], taxidermist, and inventor of arsenical soap
* [[Harry Ferris Brazenor]] (1863–1948), 19th-century British taxidermist
* [[James Dickinson (taxidermist)|James Dickinson]], [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]] (1959–), retired British taxidermist, known for his restorations of existing specimens
* [[John Edmonstone]] (c. 1790-?), [[Guyanese in the United Kingdom|British-Guyanese]] taxidermist best known for teaching [[Charles Darwin]] the art of taxidermy in 1825
* [[William Temple Hornaday]] (1854–1937), American zoologist, conservationist, and taxidermist who was the first director of what is now called the [[Bronx Zoo]]
* [[Martha Maxwell]] (1831–1881), American [[naturalist]], taxidermist, and artist who was the first female naturalist to obtain and taxidermy her own specimens
* [[Charles Johnson Maynard]] (1845–1929), American naturalist, [[ornithologist]], and taxidermist who discovered many new species and authored many notable publications
* [[Charles Willson Peale]] (1741–1827), American painter, [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] veteran, [[Invention|inventor]], naturalist, and [[polymath]] who organized the US's first scientific expedition in 1801
* [[Walter Potter]] (1835–1918), [[Victorian era]] British creator of iconic whimsical [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] taxidermy [[diorama]]s
* [[Jules Verreaux]] (1807–1873), French [[Botany|botanist]], ornithologist, and taxidermy collector and trader
* [[James Rowland Ward]] (1848–1912), British taxidermist and founder of [[Rowland Ward Limited]], known for its furniture and household items made of animal parts
* [[Raymond Douglas (artist)|Raymond Douglas]] (1957–), American taxidermist and founder of King Sailfish Mounts, Inc., known for introducing the release mount concept for Atlantic sailfish
* [[Carl Cotton]] (1918–1971), the first African American taxidermist at the [[Field Museum of Natural History|Field Museum]]

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* [[Bird collections]]
* [[Conservation and restoration of taxidermy]]
*[[Dermestarium]]
* [[Deyrolle]], internationally known purveyor of taxidermy located Paris
* [[Green hunting]]
* [[Negro of Banyoles]], example of a taxidermied human
* [[Julia Pastrana]], a sideshow performer preserved via taxidermy
* [[Plastination]]
* [[Skinning]]
* [[Skull mounts]]
* [[Taxidermy art and science]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | last1 = Rookmaaker | first1 = L. C. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = The ornithological cabinet of Jean-Baptiste Bécoeur and the secret of the arsenical soap | url = http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/119/1193254263.pdf | journal = Archives of Natural History | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 146–158 | doi = 10.3366/anh.2006.33.1.146 | access-date = 2015-12-31 | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054637/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/119/1193254263.pdf | url-status = dead }}

==External links==
{{library resources box}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://taxidermy.blog Taxidermy.blog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201018/https://taxidermy.blog/ |date=2021-06-24 }}
* [http://www.taxidermy.net Taxidermy.Net]
* [http://lostcrafts.com/Taxidermy/Taxidermy-Main.html Methods in the Art of Taxidermy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031122432/http://lostcrafts.com/Taxidermy/Taxidermy-Main.html |date=2010-10-31 }} by Oliver Davie
* [http://www.freetaxidermyschool.com/ Free Taxidermy School.Com]

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[[Category:Taxidermy| ]]
[[Category:Handicrafts]]
[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Animal death]]
[[Category:Visual arts]]