Editing Svalbard

{{Short description|Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean}}
{{Redirect|Spitzbergen|the island|Spitsbergen|other uses|Spitzbergen (disambiguation)|and|Svalbard (disambiguation)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
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{{Infobox dependency
| name = Svalbard
| settlement_type = [[Svalbard and Jan Mayen|Unincorporated area]]
| image_flag =
| image_skyline = File:W W Svalbard LandSat7 21.14475E 78.71545N.png
| image_caption = Landsat view of Svalbard
| image_map = Norway-Svalbard.svg
| map_alt = Location of Svalbard in relation to Norway
| map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=dark green |subregion=Norway |subregion_color=green}}
| mapsize = 290px
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Sovereign state]]
| subdivision_name = Norway
| established_title = [[Svalbard Treaty]]
| established_date = 9 February 1920
| established_title2 = [[Svalbard Act]]
| established_date2 = 17 July 1925
| capital_type = Administrative centre
| capital = [[Longyearbyen]]
| largest_settlement_type = largest town
| largest_settlement = capital
| coordinates = {{Coord|78.22|15.65|type:city_region:NO-21|format=dms|display=inline}}
| ethnic_groups = 61.1% [[Norwegians|Norwegian]]<br />38.9% other{{efn|Consists primarily of Russians, Thais, Swedes, Filipinos, and Ukrainians.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/svalbard/|title=World Factbook: Svalbard|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=17 April 2019|archive-date=13 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113110236/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/svalbard|url-status=live}}</ref><!-- Only include these two former Soviet countries, as they are the most prominent populations historically and today, within settlements and workforce on Svalbard. -->
| ethnic_groups_year = 2021
| government_type = [[Devolution|Devolved]] [[local government|locally-administered]] [[unincorporated area]] within a [[constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Norway|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = [[Harald V of Norway|Harald V]]
| leader_title2 = [[Governor of Svalbard|Governor]]
| leader_name2 = [[Lars Fause]]
| area_km2 = 62,045<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/svalbard/|title=Svalbard|date=15 February 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|accessdate=16 March 2023|via=CIA.gov}}</ref>
| area_sq_mi = 23,956
| area_rank = not ranked<!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] (should not be any here as it is listed with a dash) -->
| percent_water =
| elevation_max_m = 1,718
| population_estimate = 2,530<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/statistikker/befsvalbard/halvaar |title=Population of Svalbard |access-date=4 July 2020 |website=Statistics Norway  |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200807204614/https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/statistikker/befsvalbard/halvaar |url-status=live }} Table 2: Population in the settlements. Svalbard</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_density_km2 = 0.044
| population_density_sq_mi = 0.11
| population_density_rank = 248th
| official_languages = [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]
| currency = [[Norwegian krone]]
| currency_code = NOK
| timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = +01:00
| timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +02:00
| date_format = dd.mm.yyyy
| postal_code_type = [[Postal codes in Norway|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 917x
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Norway|+47]]
| iso_code = {{hlist|[[ISO 3166-2:SJ|SJ]]|[[ISO 3166-2:NO|NO-21]]}}
| cctld = {{hlist|[[.no]]|[[.sj]]{{efn|.sj allocated, but not used.}}}}
| GDP_nominal =
| GDP_nominal_per_capita =
|demonym=[[Norwegians|Norwegian]]}}
'''Svalbard''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|v|ɑː|l|b|ɑːr|(|d|)}} {{respell|SVAHL|bar(d)}},<ref>{{cite web|title= Svalbard – definition of Svalbard in English {{!}} Oxford Dictionaries|url= https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/svalbard|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English |access-date=17 September 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160918085239/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/svalbard |archive-date=18 September 2016}}</ref> {{IPA|no-NO-03|ˈsvɑ̂ːɫbɑr|lang|}}), previously known as '''Spitsbergen''' or '''Spitzbergen''', is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[archipelago]] that lies at the convergence of the [[Arctic Ocean]] with the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. North of [[continental Europe|mainland Europe]], it lies about midway between the northern coast of Norway and the [[North Pole]]. The islands of the group range from [[74th parallel north|74°]] to [[81st parallel north|81°]] north latitude, and from [[10th meridian east|10°]] to [[35th meridian east|35°]] east longitude. The largest island is [[Spitsbergen]] (37,673 km<sup>2</sup>), followed in size by [[Nordaustlandet]] (14,443 km<sup>2</sup>), {{Lang|no|[[Edgeøya]]|italic= no}} (5,073 km<sup>2</sup>), and [[Barentsøya]] (1,288 km<sup>2</sup>). [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bjørnøya]] or Bear Island (178 km<sup>2</sup>) is the most southerly island in the territory, situated some 147 km south of Spitsbergen. Other small islands in the group include [[Hopen (Svalbard)|Hopen]] to the southeast of Edgeøya, [[Kongsøya]] and [[Svenskøya]] in the east, and [[Kvitøya]] to the northeast. The largest settlement is [[Longyearbyen]], situated in [[Isfjorden (Svalbard)|Isfjorden]] on the west coast of Spitsbergen.<ref name="SA-2021">{{cite journal |last1= Dickie |first1= Gloria |author-link1=Gloria Dickie |title= The World's Northernmost Town Is Changing Dramatically|format=Original title: "The Polar Crucible" |journal=Scientific American |date= 1 June 2021 |volume=324 |issue=6 |pages=44–53 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0621-44 |pmid= 39020622 |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-worlds-northernmost-town-is-changing-dramatically/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210518153619/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-worlds-northernmost-town-is-changing-dramatically/ |access-date=20 May 2021|archive-date=18 May 2021 }}</ref>

[[Whaling|Whalers]] who sailed far north in the 17th and 18th centuries used the islands as a base; subsequently the archipelago was abandoned.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Whaling - Svalbard Museum |url=https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/whaling |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=svalbardmuseum.no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Norum |first1=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHBZDwAAQBAJ&dq=whalers,+svalbard,+17th&pg=PA29 |title=Svalbard: Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen and Franz Josef Land |last2=Proctor |first2=James |date=3 May 2018 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-78477-047-1 |pages=29–30, 43 |language=en}}</ref> [[Coal mining]] started at the beginning of the 20th century, and several permanent communities such as [[Pyramiden]] or [[Barentsburg]] were established.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Norum |first1=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHBZDwAAQBAJ&dq=whalers,+svalbard,+17th&pg=PA29 |title=Svalbard: Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen and Franz Josef Land |last2=Proctor |first2=James |date=3 May 2018 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-78477-047-1 |pages=60 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Svalbard Treaty]] of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the Norwegian [[Svalbard Act]] of 1925 made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway. The Svalbard Treaty established Svalbard as a [[free economic zone]] and restricts the military use of the archipelago. The Norwegian [[Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani|Store Norske]] and the Russian {{Lang|ru-latn| [[Arktikugol]]}} remain the only mining companies in place.

Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries, with the [[University Centre in Svalbard]] and the [[Svalbard Global Seed Vault]] playing critical roles in the local economy. Apart from Longyearbyen, other settlements include the Russian mining community of [[Barentsburg]], the Norwegian research station of [[Ny-Ålesund]], the Polish research station of [[Polish Polar Station, Hornsund|Hornsund]], the settlement of [[Nybyen]], and the Swedish-Norwegian mining outpost of [[Sveagruva]] (which closed in 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stange |first=Rolf |date=26 February 2020 |title=Svea Nord is history |url=https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/2020/02/26/svea-nord-is-history.html |access-date=19 May 2024 |website=Spitsbergen {{!}} Svalbard |language=en-US}}</ref> Other settlements lie farther north, but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers. No roads connect the settlements; instead, [[snowmobile]]s, aircraft, and boats provide inter-settlement transport. [[Svalbard Airport]] serves as the main gateway.

Approximately 60% of the archipelago is covered with [[glacier]]s, and the islands feature many mountains and [[fjord]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Godone |first=Danilo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-mPDwAAQBAJ&dq=glaciers,+svalbard,+60&pg=PA11 |title=Glacier Evolution in a Changing World |date=4 October 2017 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-953-51-3543-2 |pages=11–12 |language=en}}</ref> The archipelago has an [[climate of the Arctic|Arctic climate]], although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude due to the impact of the tail end of the [[Gulf Stream]] from the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[flora of Svalbard|flora]] has adapted to take advantage of the long period of [[midnight sun]] to compensate for the [[polar night]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Svalbard: Svalbard |url=https://ncpor.res.in/pages/display/333-svalbard#:~:text=The%20archipelago%20features%20an%20Arctic,compensate%20for%20the%20polar%20night. |access-date=15 May 2024 |website=ncpor.res.in}}</ref> Many [[seabird]]s use Svalbard as a breeding ground, and it is home to [[polar bear]]s, [[reindeer]], the [[Arctic fox]], and certain marine mammals. [[List of national parks of Norway|Seven national parks]] and 23 nature reserves cover two-thirds of the archipelago, protecting the largely untouched fragile environment. Norway announced new regulations regarding tourism in February 2024, including a maximum of 200 people on a ship, to protect flora and fauna in Svalbard.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Norway: Amendments to environmental regulations in Svalbard |url=https://ieu-monitoring.com/editorial/norway-amendments-to-environmental-regulations-in-svalbard/427867?utm_source=ieu-portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505111236/https://ieu-monitoring.com/editorial/norway-amendments-to-environmental-regulations-in-svalbard/427867 |archive-date=2025-05-05 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=ieu-monitoring.com |publisher=Insight EU Monitoring |quote="The Norwegian Government has adopted several amendments to the environmental regulations in Svalbard. 'Climate change together with increased activity has resulted in a great pressure on the vulnerable arctic wildlife and nature in Svalbard. We are now tightening the environmental regulations in Svalbard to strengthen the protection of flora and fauna, says the Norwegian minister of climate and environment,' Mr. Andreas Bjelland Eriksen."}}</ref>

While part of the Kingdom of Norway since 1925, Svalbard is not part of geographical Norway; administratively, the archipelago is not part of any [[Counties of Norway|Norwegian county]], but forms an [[unincorporated area]].<ref>''Svalbard, Norway''. Svalbard, Norway - historical views - earth watching. (n.d.). [https://earth.esa.int/web/earth-watching/historical-views/content/-/article/svalbard-norway-landsat/ European Space Agency]</ref> This means that it is administered directly by the Norwegian government through an appointed [[Governor of Svalbard|governor]], and is a special jurisdiction subject to the Svalbard Treaty that is outside of the [[Schengen Area]], the [[Nordic Passport Union]], and the [[European Economic Area]]. [[Svalbard and Jan Mayen]] are collectively assigned the [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country-code "SJ". Both areas are administered by Norway, though they are separated by a distance of over {{convert|950|km|nmi|abbr=off}} and have very different administrative structures.

== Etymology ==
[[File:Svalbard ESA24544704.jpeg|thumb|left|Satellite photo of Svalbard made by Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission, August 2022]]
The name ''Svalbard'' was officially adopted for the archipelago by Norway under the 1925 [[Svalbard Act]] which formally annexed it.<ref name="Berg2013"/> The former name ''Spitsbergen'' was thenceforth restricted to the main island. In 1827 [[Baltazar Keilhau]] first proposed that the [[Old Norse]] toponym {{lang|non|Svalbarði}}, found in medieval Icelandic sources, referred to Spitsbergen.<ref name="Berg2013">{{cite journal |last1=Berg |first1=Roald |title=From "Spitsbergen" to "Svalbard". Norwegianization in Norway and in the "Norwegian Sea", 1820–1925 |journal=Acta Borealia |date=December 2013 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=154–173 |doi=10.1080/08003831.2013.843322|s2cid=145567480 }}</ref><ref name="Isachsen1907"/> Keilhau's theory was revived by [[Gustav Storm]] in 1890 and [[Gunnar Isachsen]] in 1907, at a time when ancient Norse connection to the land would help modern Norway's contested claim to sovereignty.<ref name="Berg2013"/><ref name="Isachsen1907"/> {{lang|no|Svalbard}} is a [[modern Norwegian]] analogue of {{lang|non|Svalbarði}}, which in turn derives from {{lang|non|svalr}} ('cold') and {{lang|non|barð}} ('edge', 'ridge', 'turf', 'beard').<ref name="Isachsen1907"/>

The [[Icelandic Annals]] record that {{lang|non|Svalbarði}} was discovered in 1194, while the {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}} places it four days' sailing north of [[Langanes]].<ref name="Isachsen1907"/> The word {{Wikt-lang|non|dagr|dægr}} "day" might mean either 12 or 24 hours; Isachsen took the latter interpretation, thus discounting [[Jan Mayen]] as {{lang|non|Svalbarði}}.<ref name="Isachsen1907">{{cite journal |last1=Isachsen |first1=Gunnar |title=La découverte du Spitsberg par les Normands |journal=La Géographie |date=June 1907 |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=421–432 |url=https://archive.org/details/lagographievolu01fragoog/page/421}}</ref> [[Cultural studies]] academic Roald Berg says {{lang|non|Svalbarði}} more likely referred to part of [[Greenland]], but the 1925 renaming cemented Norwegian sovereignty as recognised by the 1920 Spitsbergen Treaty (now the [[Svalbard Treaty]]).<ref name="Berg2013"/>

The name ''Spitsbergen'' originated with Dutch navigator and explorer [[Willem Barentsz]], who in 1596 described the "pointed mountains" or, in Dutch, ''spitse bergen'' that he saw on the west coast of the main island. Barentsz did not recognize that he had discovered an archipelago, and consequently the name ''Spitsbergen'' long remained in use both for the main island and for the archipelago as a whole.<ref>[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic48-3-248.pdf ''In Search of Het Behouden Huys: A Survey of the Remains of the House of Willem Barentsz on Novaya Zemlya'', LOUWRENS HACQUEBORD, p. 250] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327084815/http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic48-3-248.pdf |date=27 March 2009 }}.</ref> Later the main island was sometimes distinguished as ''West Spitsbergen''. The spelling {{lang|de|Spitzbergen}}, with z instead of s, derives from German.<ref>... the Archipelago of Spitsbergen, comprising, with Bear Island... all the islands situated between 10deg. and 35deg. longitude East of Greenwich and between 74deg. and 81 deg. latitude North, especially West Spitsbergen..." ''Treaty concerning the Archipelago of Spitsbergen'' (1920), p. 1.</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Svalbard}}
[[File:Svalbard oli 2020236 detail.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Late-summer satellite view of Spitsbergen, showing the Holmstrom Glacier and meltwater pools stained deep-red by glacial silt, from erosion of soft, iron-rich [[Devonian]] sediments]]

The Svalbard Treaty of 1920<ref name=cia>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/svalbard/ |title=Svalbard |work=[[World Fact Book]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=15 January 2010 |access-date=24 March 2010  |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113110236/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/svalbard |url-status=live }}</ref> defines Svalbard as all islands, islets, and [[skerry|skerries]] from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude.<ref name=npi>{{cite news |title=Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |url=http://npweb.npolar.no/english/geografi/svalbard |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415125926/http://www.npolar.no/en/the-arctic/svalbard/index.html |archive-date=15 April 2012  }}</ref><ref name=treaty>{{cite news |title=Svalbard Treaty |publisher=[[Wikisource]] |url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Svalbard_Treaty |date=9 February 1920 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324002033/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Svalbard_Treaty |archive-date=24 March 2010  }}</ref> The land area is {{convert|61022|km2|abbr=on}}, and dominated by the island of Spitsbergen, which constitutes more than half the archipelago, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya.<ref name="islandsize">{{cite web|url=http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/befsvalbard_en/tab-2009-10-22-01-en.html |title=Population in the settlements. Svalbard |website=[[Statistics Norway]] |date=22 October 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

All settlements are on Spitsbergen, except the meteorological outposts on [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bjørnøya]] and [[Hopen, Svalbard|Hopen]].<ref name=cia /> The Norwegian state took possession of all unclaimed land, or 95.2% of the archipelago, at the time the Svalbard Treaty entered into force; [[Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani|Store Norske]], a Norwegian coal mining company, owns 4%, [[Arktikugol]], a Russian coal mining company, owns 0.4%, while other private owners hold 0.4%.<ref name=fisheries />

As Svalbard is north of the [[Arctic Circle]], it experiences [[midnight sun]] in summer and [[polar night]] in winter. At 74° north, the midnight sun lasts 99 days and polar night 84 days, while the respective figures at 81° north are 141 and 128 days.<ref name=sun>Torkilsen (1984): 96–97</ref> In Longyearbyen, midnight sun lasts from 20 April until 23 August, and polar night lasts from 26 October to 15 February.<ref name=npi /> In winter, the combination of [[full moon]] and reflective snow can give additional light.<ref name=sun />

Due to the Earth's tilt and the high latitude, Svalbard has extensive twilights. Longyearbyen sees the first and last day of polar night having seven and a half hours of twilight, whereas the perpetual light lasts for two weeks longer than the midnight sun.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/norway/longyearbyen|title=Sunrise and sunset in Longyearbyen October 2019|website=Timeanddate.com|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=29 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029110302/https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/norway/longyearbyen|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/norway/longyearbyen?month=4&year=2019|title=Sunrise and sunset in Longyearbyen April 2019|website=Timeanddate.com|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=13 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213050755/https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/norway/longyearbyen?month=4&year=2019|url-status=live}}</ref> On the summer solstice, the sun bottoms out at 12° sun angle in the middle of the night, being much higher during night than in mainland Norway's polar light areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/norway/longyearbyen?month=6|title=Sunrise and sunset in Longyearbyen June|website=Timeanddate.com|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=29 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029110311/https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/norway/longyearbyen?month=6|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the daytime strength of the sun remains as low as 35°.

[[Glacier|Glacial ice]] covers {{convert|36502|km2|abbr=on}} or 60% of Svalbard; 30% is barren rock while 10% is vegetated.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 3</ref> The largest glacier is [[Austfonna]] ({{convert|8412|km2|disp=or|abbr=on}}) on Nordaustlandet, followed by [[Olav V Land]] and [[Vestfonna]]. During summer, it is possible to ski from [[Sørkapp]] in the south to the north of Spitsbergen, with only a short distance not being covered by snow or glacier. [[Kvitøya]] is 99.3% covered by glacier.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 102–104</ref>

The landforms of Svalbard were created through [[Quaternary glaciation|repeated ice ages]], when glaciers cut the former plateau into fjords, valleys, and mountains.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 4–6</ref> The tallest peak is [[Newtontoppen]] ({{convert|1717|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}), followed by [[Perriertoppen]] ({{convert|1712|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}), [[Ceresfjellet]] ({{convert|1675|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}), [[Chadwickryggen]] ({{convert|1640|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}), and [[Galileotoppen]] ({{convert|1637|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}). The longest fjord is [[Wijdefjorden]] ({{convert|108|km|abbr=on|disp=or}}), followed by [[Isfjord, Svalbard|Isfjorden]] ({{convert|107|km|abbr=on|disp=or}}), [[Van Mijenfjorden]] ({{convert|83|km|abbr=on|disp=or}}), [[Woodfjorden]] ({{convert|64|km|abbr=on|disp=or}}), and [[Wahlenbergfjorden]] ({{convert|46|km|abbr=on|disp=or}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/013.html |title=Geographical survey. Fjords and mountains |website=[[Statistics Norway]] |date=22 October 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114020834/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/013.html |archive-date=14 November 2011  }}</ref> Svalbard is part of the [[High Arctic Large Igneous Province]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://maps.unomaha.edu/maher/svalbard/wwwHALIP/ |title=Research Project on the manifestation of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province (HALIP) on Svalbard |last=Maher |first=Harmon D. Jr. |website=[[University of Nebraska at Omaha]] |date=November 1999 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628203436/http://maps.unomaha.edu/maher/svalbard/wwwHALIP/ |archive-date=28 June 2010  }}</ref> and experienced Norway's strongest earthquake on 6 March 2009 at magnitude 6.5.<ref>{{cite news|title=Svalbard hit by major earthquake |url=http://www.norwaypost.no/news/svalbard-hit-by-major-earthquake.html |agency=[[Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation]] |work=The Norway Post |date=7 March 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314054518/http://www.norwaypost.no/news/svalbard-hit-by-major-earthquake.html |archive-date=14 March 2012 }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Svalbard}}
{{See also|:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|l1=Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery|Early modern Netherlandish cartography|Willem Barentsz|Northeast Passage|Arctic exploration|Terra nullius}}

===Dutch discovery===
{{See also|Dutch mapping of Svalbard}}
{{multiple image
 | align = left
 | direction = vertical
 | width = 220
 | image1 = Barentsz arctic map.jpg
 | caption1 = Svalbard, here mapped for the first time, is indicated as "Het Nieuwe Land" (Dutch for 'the New Land'), center-left. A portion of a 1599 map of Arctic exploration by [[Willem Barentsz]].
 | image2 = Arctic.svg
 | caption2 = In the [[:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery]] ({{c.|1590s}}–1720s), Dutch navigators [[list of Dutch explorations|explored]] and [[early modern Netherlandish cartography|mapped many largely unknown isolated areas of the world]], including the Svalbard archipelago and [[Jan Mayen#History|Jan Mayen]] in the Arctic Ocean.
}}
The Dutchman [[Willem Barentsz]] made the first discovery of the archipelago in 1596, when he sighted the coast of the island of Spitsbergen while searching for the [[Northern Sea Route]].<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 30. Arlov (1996): 39–40</ref>

The first recorded landing on the islands of Svalbard dates to 1604, when an English ship landed at ''Bjørnøya'', or Bear Island, and started hunting [[walrus]]. Annual expeditions soon followed, and Spitsbergen became a base for hunting the [[bowhead whale]] from 1611.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 32</ref><ref>Arlov (1996): 62</ref> Because of the lawless nature of the area, [[England|English]], [[Denmark|Danish]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]], and [[France|French]] companies and authorities tried to use force to keep out other countries' fleets.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 34–36</ref><ref>Arlov (1996): 63–67</ref>

=== 17th–18th centuries ===
[[File:Traankokerijen bij het dorp Smerenburg Rijksmuseum SK-A-2355.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.25|The whaling station of the Amsterdam chamber of the Northern Company in [[Smeerenburg]], by [[Cornelis de Man]] (1639), but based on a painting of a ''Dansk hvalfangststation'' (Danish whaling station) by A.B.R. Speeck (1634), which represented the Danish station in Copenhagen Bay (Kobbefjorden)]]

[[Smeerenburg]] was one of the first settlements, established by the Dutch in 1619.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 37</ref> Smaller bases were also built by the English, Danish, and French. At first the outposts were merely summer camps, but from the early 1630s, a few individuals started to [[overwintering|overwinter]]. Whaling at Spitsbergen lasted until the 1820s, when the Dutch, British, and Danish whalers moved elsewhere in the Arctic.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 39</ref> By the late 17th century, [[Russians|Russian]] hunters arrived; they overwintered to a greater extent and hunted land mammals such as the polar bear and fox.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 40</ref>

Norwegian hunting—mostly for walrus—started in the 1790s. The first Norwegian citizens to reach Spitsbergen proper were a number of Coast [[Sámi people]] from the [[Hammerfest]] region, who were hired as part of a Russian crew for an expedition in 1795.<ref>Carlheim-Gyllensköld (1900), p. 155</ref>

=== 19th century ===
After the [[Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)|Anglo-Russian War]] in 1809, Russian activity on Svalbard diminished, and had ceased by the 1820s.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 44</ref> Norwegian whaling was abandoned about the same time as the Russians left,<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 47</ref> but whaling continued around Spitsbergen until the 1830s, and around [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bjørnøya]] until the 1860s.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 50</ref>

=== 20th century ===
==== Svalbard Treaty====
{{Main|Svalbard Treaty}}

By the 1890s, Svalbard had become a destination for [[Arctic tourism]], coal deposits had been found, and the islands were being used as a base for [[Arctic exploration]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 239</ref> The first mining was along Isfjorden by Norwegians in 1899; by 1904, British interests had established themselves in [[Adventfjorden]] and started the first year-round operations.<ref>Arlov (1996): 249</ref> Production in Longyearbyen, by US interests, started in 1908;<ref>Arlov (1996): 261</ref> and Store Norske established itself in 1916, as did other Norwegian interests during the [[First World War]], in part by buying US interests.<ref>Arlov (1996): 273</ref>

[[File:Proposed flag of Svalbard, Norway (1930).svg|thumb|A proposed flag of Svalbard from 1930.<ref name="Jan Oskar Engene">{{cite web |url=https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/sj-arms.html |title=Svalbard flag proposal (Norway) |author=Jan Oskar Engene |date=7 February 1996 |work=Flags of the World |access-date=31 January 2023}}</ref> It consists of the lion from the [[Coat of arms of Norway|Norwegian coat of arms]] on a background of blue and white [[vair]], possibly symbolising the Arctic landscape of the archipelago. Svalbard does not currently use a distinct flag.]]

Discussions to establish the sovereignty of the archipelago commenced in the 1910s,<ref>Arlov (1996): 288</ref> but were interrupted by [[World War I]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 294</ref> On 9 February 1920, following the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]], the [[Svalbard Treaty]] was signed, granting full sovereignty to Norway. However, all signatory countries were granted non-discriminatory rights to fishing, hunting, and mineral resources.<ref>Arlov (1996): 305–306</ref> The treaty took effect on 14 August 1925, at the same time as the [[Svalbard Act]] regulated the archipelago and the first [[Governor of Svalbard|governor]], [[Johannes Gerckens Bassøe]], took office.<ref>Arlov (1996): 319</ref>

The archipelago has traditionally been known as Spitsbergen, and the main island as West Spitsbergen. During the 1920s, Norway renamed the archipelago Svalbard, and the main island became Spitsbergen.<ref>Umbreit (2005): XI–XII</ref> [[Kvitøya]], [[Kong Karls Land]], [[Hopen (Svalbard)|Hopen]], and [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bjørnøya]] were not regarded as part of the Spitsbergen archipelago.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://miljo.npolar.no/placenames/pages/detaile.asp?placeNameID=813614P |title=Place names of Svalbard |website=[[Norwegian Polar Institute]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606113449/http://miljo.npolar.no/placenames/pages/detaile.asp?placeNameID=813614P |archive-date=6 June 2011 }}</ref> Russians have traditionally called the archipelago ''Grumant'' ({{lang|ru|Грумант}}).<ref>Arlov (1996): 51</ref> The [[Soviet Union]] retained the name Spitsbergen ({{lang|ru|Шпицберген}}) to support undocumented claims that Russians were the first to discover the island.<ref>Fløgstad (2007): 18</ref><ref>Arlov (1996): 50</ref>

In 1928, Italian explorer [[Umberto Nobile]] and the crew of the airship ''Italia'' crashed on the icepack off the coast of [[Foynøya|Foyn Island]]. The subsequent rescue attempts were covered extensively in the press and Svalbard received short-lived fame as a result.<ref>Cross (2002): 84-85; 128-130</ref>

==== Second World War ====
[[File:Demolition of wireless station at Spitzbergen, Operation Gauntlet, 1941 (22418716705).jpg|thumb|Demolition of the wireless station during [[Operation Gauntlet]] in 1941]]

Svalbard, known to both British and Germans as Spitsbergen, was little affected by the [[German invasion of Norway]] in April 1940. The settlements continued to operate as before, mining coal and monitoring the weather.<ref>Dege (2004): 289-296</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World War II: The Weather War |url=https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/world-war-ii |access-date=26 March 2024 |website=Svalbard Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World War II - Svalbard Museum |url=https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/world-war-ii#:~:text=The%20settlements%20in%20Svalbard%20were%20not%20directly%20affected,1940,%20the%20fighting%20that%20ensued,%20or%20the%20capitulation. |access-date=10 May 2024 |website=svalbardmuseum.no}}</ref>

In July 1941, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the [[Royal Navy]] reconnoitered the islands with a view to using them as a base of operations to send supplies to north Russia, but the idea was rejected as impractical.<ref>Roskill Vol I: 388</ref> Instead, with the agreement of the Soviets and the Norwegian government in exile, in August 1941 the Norwegian and Soviet settlements on Svalbard were evacuated, and facilities there destroyed, in [[Operation Gauntlet]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 397</ref><ref>Roskill Vol I:  389</ref>
However, the Norwegian government in exile decided it would be important politically to establish a garrison in the islands, which was done in May 1942 during [[Operation Fritham]].<ref>Roskill Vol II: 132–133</ref>

Meanwhile, the Germans responded to the destruction of the weather station by establishing a reporting station of their own, codenamed [[Operation Bansö|"Banso"]], in October 1941.<ref>Arlov (1996): 400</ref> They were chased away in October by a visit from what the Germans mistook to be four British warships, but later returned.<ref>Dege (2004): XI</ref> A second station, "Knospe", was established at [[Ny-Ålesund]] in 1941, remaining until 1942. In May 1942, after the arrival of the Fritham force, the German unit at Banso was evacuated.<ref>Dege (2004): XI-XIII</ref>

In September 1943 in [[Operation Zitronella]] a German task force, which included the battleship [[German battleship Tirpitz|''Tirpitz'']], was sent to attack the garrison and destroy the settlements at Longyearbyen and Barentsburg.<ref>Arlov (1996): 402–403</ref> This was achieved, but had little long-term effect: after their departure the Norwegians returned and re-established their presence.<ref>Roskill Vol III:  62</ref>

In September 1944, the Germans set up their last weather station, [[Operation Haudegen]] in [[Nordaustlandet]]; it functioned until after the German surrender.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Selinger |first=Franz |date=1 April 1986 |title=Forsvarsmuseet's Svalbard expeditions 1984 and 1985 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00175022 |journal=GeoJournal |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=337–340 |doi=10.1007/BF00175022 |issn=1572-9893}}</ref> On 4 September 1945, the soldiers were picked up by a Norwegian seal hunting vessel and surrendered to its captain. This group of men were the last German troops to surrender after the Second World War.<ref>Dege (2004): 258</ref>

After the war, the Soviet Union proposed common Norwegian and Soviet administration and military defence of Svalbard. This was rejected in 1947 by Norway, which two years later joined [[NATO]]. The Soviet Union retained high civilian activity on Svalbard, in part to ensure that the archipelago was not used by NATO.<ref>Arlov (1996): 407–408</ref>

====Post-war====
[[File:Kulltaubane.jpg|thumb|Abandoned [[aerial tramway]] previously used for transporting coal]]

After the war, Norway re-established operations at Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund,<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 206</ref> while the Soviet Union established mining in [[Barentsburg]], [[Pyramiden]], and [[Grumant]].<ref name=t202>Torkildsen (1984): 202</ref> The mine at Ny-Ålesund had several fatal accidents, killing 71 people while it was in operation from 1945 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1963. The [[Kings Bay Affair]], caused by the 1962 accident killing 21 workers, forced [[Gerhardsen's Third Cabinet]] to resign.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318238|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103103405/http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318238|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 November 2006|title=Kings Bay|language=no|access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318239|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109115607/http://www.caplex.no/Web/ArticleView.aspx?id=9318239|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2006|title=Kings Bay-saken|language=no|access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref>

From 1964, Ny-Ålesund became a research outpost, and a facility for the [[European Space Research Organisation]].<ref>Arlov (1996): 412</ref> Petroleum test drilling was started in 1963 and continued until 1984, but no commercially viable fields were found.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 261</ref> From 1960, regular charter flights were made from the mainland to a field at [[Hotellneset]];<ref>Tjomsland and Wilsberg (1995): 163</ref> in 1975, Svalbard Airport, Longyearbyen opened, allowing year-round services.<ref>Tjomsland and Wilsberg (1995): 162–164</ref>

During the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Union supplied about two-thirds of the population on the islands (Norwegians making up the remaining third) with the population of the archipelago slightly under 4,000.<ref name=t202 /> Russian activity has diminished considerably since then, falling from 2,500 to 450 people from 1990 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/045.html |title=Persons in settlements 1 January. 1990–2005 |website=[[Statistics Norway]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114020929/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/045.html |archive-date=14 November 2011  }}</ref><ref name=demographics>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/049.html |title=Non-Norwegian population in Longyearbyen, by nationality. Per 1 January. 2004 and 2005. Number of persons |website=[[Statistics Norway]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523054216/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/nos_svalbard_en/nos_d330_en/tab/049.html |archive-date=23 May 2010  }}</ref> Grumant was closed after it was depleted in 1962.<ref name=t202 />

Pyramiden was closed in 1998.<ref>Fløgstad (2007): 127</ref> Coal exports from Barentsburg ceased in 2006 because of a fire,<ref name=chp10 /> but resumed in 2010.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Staalesen |first=Atle |title=Russians restarted coal mining at Svalbard |work=Barents Observer |date=8 November 2010 |url=http://www.barentsobserver.com/russians-restarted-coal-mining-at-svalbard.4840198-116321.html |access-date=26 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120015113/http://barentsobserver.com/russians-restarted-coal-mining-at-svalbard.4840198-116321.html |archive-date=20 November 2010 }}</ref> The Russians experienced two air accidents: [[Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801]] (1996), which killed 141 people,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19960829-0 |title=29 Aug 1996 |website=[[Aviation Safety Network]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417153006/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19960829-0 |archive-date=17 April 2010  }}</ref> and the [[Heerodden helicopter accident]] (2008), which killed three people.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/artikkel.php?artid=513681 |title=- Kraftig vindkast trolig årsaken |author1=Eisenträger, Stian |author2=Per Øyvind Fange |name-list-style=amp |work=[[Verdens Gang]] |date=30 March 2008 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610164323/http://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/artikkel.php?artid=513681 |archive-date=10 June 2011  }}</ref>

Longyearbyen remained purely a company town until 1989 when utilities, culture, and education was separated into Svalbard Samfunnsdrift.<ref name=ah49>Arlov and Holm (2001): 49</ref> In 1993, it was sold to the national government and the University Centre was established.<ref name=unis>{{cite web |url=http://www.unis.no/30_ABOUT_UNIS/4010_Root/intro.htm |title=Arctic science for global challenges |website=[[University Centre in Svalbard]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206141732/http://www.unis.no/30_ABOUT_UNIS/4010_Root/intro.htm |archive-date=6 February 2012  }}</ref> Through the 1990s, tourism increased and the town developed an economy independent of Store Norske and mining.<ref name=naering /> Longyearbyen was incorporated on 1 January 2002, adopting a community council.<ref name=ah49 />

== Population ==
=== Demographics ===
{{multiple image
 | align = left
 | direction = vertical
 | width = 220
 | image1 = BarentsburgFromDock.JPG
 | caption1 = The dock house in [[Barentsburg]]
 | image2 = Polar bear sign Svalbard.jpg
 | caption2 = A sign warning of [[polar bear]]s on a road in Svalbard
}}
In 2016, Svalbard had a population of 2,667, of which 423 were Russian and Ukrainian, 10 Polish, and 322 other non-Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements.<ref name="islandsize" /> The largest non-Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and Thailand.<ref name=demographics />

In mid 2023 there were 3,094 inhabitants on Spitsbergen, including 2,465 at Longyearbyen, 130 at Ny-Alesund, and 10 (Polish) at the Hornsund (Isbjornhamna) research station; there were 440 Russians at Barentsburg and some 50 at Pyramiden. There were no inhabitants on the other islands except for 9 at the meteorological station on Bear Island (at Herwighamna) and 4 at the one on Hopen.

=== Settlements ===
[[File:Longyearbyen colourful homes.jpg|thumb|Company homes, [[Longyearbyen]]]]

[[Longyearbyen]] is the largest settlement on the archipelago, the seat of the governor and the only incorporated town. The town features an [[Svalbard Airport|airport]], hospital, [[Longyearbyen School|primary and secondary school]], [[University Centre in Svalbard|university]], sports center with a swimming pool, library, culture center, cinema,<ref name=chp10>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/10.html?id=555006 |title=St.meld. nr. 22 (2008–2009): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=10 Longyearbyen og øvrige lokalsamfunn |date=17 April 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011142448/http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/10.html?id=555006 |archive-date=11 October 2012  }}</ref> bus transport, hotels, a bank,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.svalbard.net/reiser/uk/Shops-services-1-280.html |title=Shops/services |publisher=Svalbard Reiseliv |access-date=24 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412182450/http://www.svalbard.net/reiser/uk/Shops-services-1-280.html |archive-date=12 April 2010 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> and several museums.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.svalbard.net/reiser/uk/Attractions-1-78.html |title=Attractions |publisher=Svalbard Reiseliv |access-date=24 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125232446/http://www.svalbard.net/reiser/uk/Attractions-1-78.html |archive-date=25 January 2010 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> The newspaper ''[[Svalbardposten]]'' is published weekly.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 179</ref> Very little mining activity remains at Longyearbyen; coal mines at [[Sveagruva]] and Lunckefjellet suspended operations in 2017 and were closed permanently in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/2019/02/15/lunckefjellet-the-end-of-an-arctic-coal-mine.html|title=Lunckefjellet: the end of an arctic coal mine|last=Stange|first=Rolf|date=15 February 2019|website=Spitsbergen {{!}} Svalbard|language=en-US|access-date=28 January 2020|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129103033/https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/2019/02/15/lunckefjellet-the-end-of-an-arctic-coal-mine.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/2020/02/26/svea-nord-is-history.html|title=Svea Nord is history|last=Stange|first=Rolf|date=26 February 2020|website=Spitsbergen {{!}} Svalbard|language=en-US|access-date=19 October 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205225142/https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/2020/02/26/svea-nord-is-history.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Ny-Ålesund]] is a permanent research settlement in the northwest of [[Spitsbergen]] and the [[Northernmost settlements|northernmost functional civilian settlement]] in the world. Formerly a mining town, it is still a [[company town]] operated by the Norwegian state-owned [[Kings Bay (company)|Kings Bay]] company. While some tourism to the outpost is permitted, Norwegian authorities limit access to minimize impact on scientific work.<ref name=chp10 /> Ny-Ålesund has a winter population of 35 and a summer population of 180.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsbay.no/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=29 |title=Ny-Ålesund |website=[[Kings Bay (company)|Kings Bay]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310235351/http://www.kingsbay.no/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=29 |archive-date=10 March 2009 }}</ref> The [[Norwegian Meteorological Institute]] has outposts at Bjørnøya and Hopen, with nine and four inhabitants respectively. Both can also house temporary research staff.<ref name=chp10 /> Poland operates the [[Polish Polar Station]] at [[Hornsund]], with ten permanent residents.<ref name=chp10 />

[[File:Piramida Svalbard IMG 6283.JPG|thumb|The abandoned Soviet mining town of [[Pyramiden]]]]

The Russian (formerly Soviet) mining settlement of [[Pyramiden]] was abandoned in 1998, leaving [[Barentsburg]] as the only permanently inhabited Russian settlement. It is a company town: all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, which operates a coal mine. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen.<ref name=chp10 />

The village features a school, library, sports center, community center, swimming pool, farm, and greenhouse. Pyramiden features similar facilities; both are built in typical post-World War II Soviet architectural and planning style and contain the world's two most northerly [[list of statues of Lenin|Lenin statues]] and other [[socialist realism|socialist realist]] art.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 94–203</ref> {{As of|2023}}, about 48 workers are stationed in the largely abandoned Pyramiden to maintain local infrastructure and run its hotel, which has been re-opened to tourism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 June 2013 |title=Back in Pyramiden, Svalbard – RUIN MEMORIES |url=http://ruinmemories.org/2012/08/back-in-pyramiden-svalbard/#_ednref |access-date=24 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618024857/http://ruinmemories.org/2012/08/back-in-pyramiden-svalbard/#_ednref |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Barr |first=Susan |title=Pyramiden |date=14 February 2020 |work=Store norske leksikon |url=https://snl.no/Pyramiden |access-date=24 June 2024 |language=no}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
[[File:1973HDR Longyearbyen.jpg|thumb|left|[[Svalbard Church]]]]

Most of the population is Christian. Most of the Norwegians are affiliated with the [[Church of Norway]]. Russian and Ukrainian population belongs to the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]]. Catholics on the archipelago are pastorally served by the [[Roman Catholic Territorial Prelature of Tromsø|Territorial Prelature of Tromsø]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/country/SJ.htm|title=Catholic Church in Svalbard and Jan Mayen|website=www.gcatholic.org|access-date=5 September 2019|archive-date=5 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905000251/http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/country/SJ.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Svalbard}}
{{See also|Visa policy of Svalbard}}
[[File:Spitzbergen nordsyssel hg.jpg|thumb|MS ''Nordsyssel'', the [[Governor of Svalbard|Governor]]'s vessel, docked at [[Ny-Ålesund]]]]

The [[Svalbard Treaty]] of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago. The islands are, unlike the [[Norwegian Antarctic territories]], a part of the Kingdom of Norway and not a [[dependent territory|dependency]]. The treaty came into effect in 1925, following the Svalbard Act. All forty-eight signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination, although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation. The treaty limits Norway's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard.<ref name=treaty /><ref name="auto">{{cite news|title=Svalbard Treaty |publisher=[[Governor of Svalbard]] |url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/hovedEnkel.aspx?m=45301 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723003932/http://www.sysselmannen.no/hovedEnkel.aspx?m=45301 |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}</ref><!--All content is sourced in the first, secondary source, with the primary sources provided for the convenience of the reader--> Therefore, Svalbard has a lower [[income tax]] than mainland Norway, and there is no [[value added tax]]. There is a separate budget for Svalbard to ensure compliance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Svalbard Treaty - Svalbard Museum |url=https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/the-svalbard-treaty |access-date=24 June 2024 |website=svalbardmuseum.no}}</ref><!--Not sure which source verifies these two sentences. Footnotes should be added at the end in all cases.-->

Svalbard is not governed by Norway's policies on migration and does not issue visas or residence permits itself.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/visas-and-immigration/|title=Visas and immigration|website=Governor of Svalbard|language=en|access-date=21 November 2019|archive-date=14 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214070008/https://www.sysselmannen.no/en/visas-and-immigration/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Higgins">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/10/world/europe/a-harsh-climate-calls-for-banishment-of-the-needy.html|title=A Harsh Climate Calls for Banishment of the Needy|last=Higgins|first=Andrew|date=9 July 2014|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=21 November 2019|archive-date=13 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213233948/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/10/world/europe/a-harsh-climate-calls-for-banishment-of-the-needy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Foreigners do not need a visa or work and residence permits from the Norwegian authorities to travel to Svalbard. However, foreign citizens with a visa requirement for the Schengen Area must have a Schengen visa when travelling to and from Svalbard via mainland Norway.<ref name="Entry and residence">{{Cite web|title=Entry and residence|url=https://www.sysselmannen.no/en/entry-and-residence/|access-date=1 June 2021|website=Governor of Svalbard|language=en|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509033350/https://www.sysselmannen.no/en/entry-and-residence/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Svalbard Act established the institution of the Governor of Svalbard ({{langx|no|Sysselmester}}, formerly {{langx|no|Sysselmannen|label=none}}), who holds the responsibility as both [[County governor (Norway)|county governor]] and [[chief of police]], as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch. Duties include [[environmental policy]], [[family law]], [[law enforcement]], [[search and rescue]], tourism management, information services, contact with foreign settlements, and judge in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations—albeit never in the same cases as acting as police.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/Documents-and-publications/Reports-to-the-Storting-White-Papers/Reports-to-the-Storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/5-The-administration-of-Svalbard.html?id=456897 |title=Report No. 9 to the Storting (1999–2000): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=5 The administration of Svalbard |date=29 October 1999 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718092450/http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/documents-and-publications/reports-to-the-storting-white-papers/reports-to-the-storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/5-The-administration-of-Svalbard.html?id=456897 |archive-date=18 July 2012  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lovdata.no/all/hl-19250717-011.html |title=Lov om Svalbard |publisher=[[Lovdata]] |date=19 June 2009 |language=no |access-date=24 March 2010 |archive-date=9 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309000141/http://www.lovdata.no/all/hl-19250717-011.html |url-status=live }}</ref><!--latter is supplementary, primary source--> Since 2021, [[Lars Fause]] has been governor. The institution is subordinate to the [[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police|Ministry of Justice and the Police]], but reports to other ministries in matters within their portfolio.<ref>{{cite news|title=Organisation |publisher=[[Governor of Svalbard]] |url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/enkel.aspx?m=44377 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723004354/http://www.sysselmannen.no/enkel.aspx?m=44377 |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}</ref>

[[File:Lenin statue in Barentsburg, Svalbard.jpg|thumb|left|A [[List of statues of Vladimir Lenin|Lenin statue]] in [[Barentsburg]]]]

Since 2002, [[Longyearbyen Community Council]] has had many of the same responsibilities of a [[municipalities of Norway|municipality]], including utilities, education, cultural facilities, fire department, roads, and ports.<ref name=naering>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/9.html?id=554987 |title=St.meld. nr. 22 (2008–2009): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=9 Næringsvirksomhet |date=17 April 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825003249/http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/9.html?id=554987 |archive-date=25 August 2011  }}</ref> No care or nursing services are available, nor are welfare payments available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities.<ref>{{cite news |title=From the cradle, but not to the grave |website=[[Statistics Norway]] |url=http://www.ssb.no/this_is_svalbard/velferdstilbud.pdf |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515164104/http://www.ssb.no/this_is_svalbard/velferdstilbud.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2016  }}</ref> The hospital is part of [[University Hospital of North Norway]], while the airport is operated by state-owned [[Avinor]]. Ny-Ålesund and Barentsburg remain [[company town]]s with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol.<ref name=naering /> Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the [[Norwegian Directorate of Mining]], the [[Norwegian Polar Institute]], the [[Norwegian Tax Administration]], and the [[Church of Norway]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/6.html?id=554944 |title=St.meld. nr. 22 (2008–2009): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=6 Administrasjon |date=17 April 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011142633/http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/6.html?id=554944 |archive-date=11 October 2012  }}</ref> Svalbard is subordinate to [[Nord-Troms District Court]] and [[Hålogaland Court of Appeal]], both in [[Tromsø]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.domstol.no/DAtemplates/CourtDetails____2995.aspx?epslanguage=EN |title=Nord-Troms tingrett |publisher=[[Norwegian National Courts Administration]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825002850/http://www.domstol.no/DAtemplates/CourtDetails____2995.aspx?epslanguage=EN |archive-date=25 August 2011  }}</ref>

Although Norway is part of the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA) and the [[Schengen Agreement]], Svalbard is not part of the [[Schengen Area]] or the EEA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19921127-109-0.html |title=Lov om gjennomføring i norsk rett av hoveddelen i avtale om Det europeiske økonomiske samarbeidsområde (EØS) m.v. (EØS-loven). |website=[[Lovdata]] |date=10 August 2007 |language=no |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001210194300/http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19921127-109-0.html |archive-date=10 December 2000 }}</ref> Non-EU and non-Nordic Svalbard residents do not need Schengen visas for Svalbard itself, but those travelling via mainland Norway require visas to pass through Norway. People without a source of income can be rejected by the governor.<ref name=residence>{{cite news |title=Entry and residence |publisher=[[Governor of Svalbard]] |url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Visitors/Entry-and-residence/ |access-date=24 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112740/http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Visitors/Entry-and-residence/ |archive-date=24 September 2015  }}</ref>

No one is required to have a [[Visa policy of Svalbard|visa]] or residence permit on Svalbard. Regardless of citizenship, persons can live and work in Svalbard indefinitely. The Svalbard Treaty grants treaty nationals equal [[right of abode]] as Norwegian nationals. So far, non-treaty nationals have been admitted visa-free as well. While there is no visa requirement, everyone must meet certain requirements in order to stay in Svalbard. These requirements are governed by a separate policy called "Regulations relating to rejection and expulsion of persons from Svalbard".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/1995-02-03-96 | title=Forskrift om bortvisning og utvisning av personer fra Svalbard - Lovdata }}</ref> Among the requirements is that residents must have the means to be able to reside on Svalbard. These requirements apply to both foreigners and Norwegian citizens, and the Governor of Svalbard may reject persons who do not meet the requirements.<ref name="Entry and residence"/>{{Clarify|date=June 2021}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Visitors/Entry-and-residence/|title=Entry and residence|work=sysselmannen.no|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112740/http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Visitors/Entry-and-residence/|archive-date=24 September 2015|access-date=24 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2006/07/200841012024779644.html|title=Immigrants warmly welcomed|work=aljazeera.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803005808/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2006/07/200841012024779644.html|archive-date=3 August 2017}}</ref> Russia retains a [[diplomatic missions of Russia|consulate in Barentsburg]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Diplomatic and consular missions of Russia |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia]] |url=http://www.mid.ru/zu_r.nsf/strawebeng?OpenView&Start=1&Count=300&Expand=120#120 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002034927/http://www.mid.ru/zu_r.nsf/strawebeng?OpenView&Start=1&Count=300&Expand=120#120 |archive-date=2 October 2009  }}</ref>

In September 2010, a treaty was signed between Russia and Norway fixing the boundary between the Svalbard archipelago and the [[Novaya Zemlya archipelago]]. Increased interest in petroleum exploration in the Arctic raised interest in a resolution of the dispute. The agreement takes into account the relative positions of the archipelagos, rather than being based simply on northward extension of the continental border of Norway and Russia.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/16/world/europe/16russia.html "Russia and Norway Agree on Boundary"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211175859/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/16/world/europe/16russia.html |date=11 December 2016 }} article by Andrew E. Kramer in ''[[The New York Times]]'' 15 September 2010. Retrieved 16 September 2010</ref>

== Defense ==

Svalbard constitutes a [[demilitarized zone]], as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations on the islands. However, since the treaty recognizes Norway as the sovereign power in the archipelago, the country claims exclusive rights in the maritime zone around the islands; rights which Norway argues permit the [[Norwegian Coast Guard]] to conduct fishery and other maritime surveillance and enforcement in these waters.<ref name=treaty /><ref name="auto"/><!--All content is sourced in the first, secondary source, with the primary sources provided for the convenience of the reader--><ref>{{Cite web|title=Svalbard: NATO's Arctic 'Achilles' Heel' |url=https://perconcordiam.com/svalbard-natos-arctic-achilles-heel/ |website=Per Concordiam |last=Wither |first=James  |date=8 September 2021 |access-date=16 August 2023}}</ref> Certain other parties to the treaty (including Spain, Iceland and particularly Russia) argue that the Treaty provides them with extensive rights beyond Svalbard's territorial sea.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The constrained politics of the Svalbard offshore area |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X08000171#! |journal=Marine Policy |last=Pedersen  |first=Torbjørn |date=November 2008 |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=913–919 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2008.01.006 |bibcode=2008MarPo..32..913P |access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref> Norway claims an exclusive economic zone of more than three-quarters of a million square kilometers around Svalbard, though "Russia does not recognize Norwegian functional rights with respect to the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Area".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339623935 |title=KYSTVAKTEN – NORWEGIAN COAST GUARD |access-date=19 August 2023|date=January 2019 |website=Research Gate}}</ref>

In the 2020s, in order to strengthen Norway's ability to enforce its claims around the archipelago, the Norwegian Coast Guard embarked on a significant modernization program. As of 2023, the Coast Guard is replacing its older {{sclass|Nordkapp|offshore patrol vessel|1}}s with significantly larger ice-capable ships, each displacing just under 10,000 tonnes. The three new {{sclass|Jan Mayen|offshore patrol vessel|1}}s are armed with a {{cvt|57|mm}} main gun and are capable of operating up to two medium-sized helicopters. The ships have a maximum speed is {{convert|22|kn|lk=in}} with more than 60 days endurance and the complement is up to 100 people.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://maritime-executive.com/article/norway-s-new-coast-guard-vessel-arrives-for-fitting-out-at-vard | title=Norway's New Coast Guard Vessel Arrives for Fitting Out at Vard }}</ref> The first ship, KV ''Jan Mayen'', was delivered in early 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/norways-newest-coast-guard-vessel-ready-operations-high-north| title=Norway's Newest Coast Guard Vessel Ready for Operations in the High North | website=High North News |date=23 June 2023}}</ref> These vessels will complement {{ship|NoCGV|Svalbard}} which predominantly serves Svalbard and the surrounding waters. In 2023, Norway also announced the acquisition of six [[Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk#MH-60R|MH-60R helicopters]] which are to be initially deployed with the Coast Guard, though they are to be prepared to be equipped for anti-submarine operations as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://euro-sd.com/2023/03/news/30298/norway-to-replace-its-cancelled-nh90s-with-six-sikorsky-mh-60rs/|title=Norway to Replace its Cancelled NH90s with Six Sikorsky MH-60Rs |last=Felstead |first=Peter |access-date=5 June 2023|date=15 March 2023 |website=European Security and Defence}}</ref>
The Royal Norwegian Navy patrols waters of the Svalbard Archipelago at least once a year with a {{sclass|Fridtjof Nansen|frigate|1}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arctictoday.com/russia-complains-of-norwegian-navys-visit-to-svalbard/ |title=Russia complains of Norwegian navy's visit to Svalbard |work=Arctic Today |last=Nilsen |first=Thomas |date=15 November 2021 |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref>

The Royal Norwegian Air Force fleet of [[Boeing P-8 Poseidon]]s stationed at [[Evenes Air Station]] on the mainland have capacity for surveillance of the Svalbard Archipelago as part of the surveillance of the Barents Sea.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evenes |url=https://www.forsvaret.no/om-forsvaret/tjenestesteder/evenes |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=Forsvaret |language=nn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nilsen |first=Thomas |date=17 May 2022 |title=How Norway's new P-8 Poseidon will counter Russia's submarine threat in Arctic waters |url=https://www.arctictoday.com/how-norways-new-p-8-poseidon-will-counter-russias-submarine-threat-in-arctic-waters/ |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=ArcticToday |language=en-US}}</ref> The F-35s of the Royal Norwegian Air Force stationed at Evenes Air Station has range to patrol over parts of the Svalbard Archipelago, and could also be stationed further north at [[Banak Air Station]] if deemed necessary.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

With the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], tensions in the Arctic have increased. In January 2022, an undersea telecommunications cable connecting Svalbard with mainland Norway was damaged. Norwegian suspicions fell on a Russian trawler as the only vessel in the area at the time. The investigation was nevertheless reported as inconclusive. In 2022, Russia announced new investment plans to support its presence at [[Barentsburg]] and Pyramiden.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/12/17/climate-change-arctic-00071169 |title=A Battle for the Arctic Is Underway. And the U.S. Is Already Behind. |last=Rosen |first=Kenneth |access-date=18 August 2023|date=17 December 2022 |website=Politico }}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Svalbard}}
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The three main industries on Svalbard are [[coal mining]], [[tourism]], and [[research]]. In 2007, there were 484 people working in the mining sector, 211 people working in the tourism sector, and 111 people working in the education sector. The same year, the mining yielded revenues of 2.008&nbsp;billion [[Norwegian krone]]r (US$227,791,078), tourism 317&nbsp;million kroner (US$35,967,202), and research 142&nbsp;million kroner (US$16,098,404).<ref name=naering /><ref>{{Cite web|title = Currency Converter – MSN Money|url = https://www.msn.com/en-gb/money/currencyconverter/fi-NOK-USD?ocid=INSFICU10|website = www.msn.com|access-date = 19 January 2016|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160127151941/http://www.msn.com/en-gb/money/currencyconverter/fi-NOK-USD?ocid=INSFICU10|archive-date = 27 January 2016|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

In 2006, the average income for economically active people was 494,700 kroner, 23% higher than on the mainland.<ref name=focus /> Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees; there are only a few privately owned houses, most of which are recreational cabins. Because of this, it is difficult to live on Svalbard without working for an established institution.<ref name=residence />

Since the resettlement of Svalbard in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity. [[Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani]], a subsidiary of the [[Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry]], operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 20&nbsp;million [[tonne]]s from the period 2001-2009, while the latter uses 35% of its output to fuel the Longyearbyen Power Station.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/e70b04df32ad45f483f2619939c5636d/en-gb/pdfs/stm200820090022000en_pdfs.pdf |title=Report No. 22 to the Storting: Svalbard |author=Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police |date=2008–2009 |publisher=Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police |page=85; 111 |access-date=19 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619110753/https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/e70b04df32ad45f483f2619939c5636d/en-gb/pdfs/stm200820090022000en_pdfs.pdf |archive-date=19 June 2024}}</ref> In March 2020, the Sveagruva mining settlement was shut down due to budget related issues and efforts to clean up after coal mining in Svalbard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2020 |title=Svea-gruva på Svalbard stengt etter 100 år |trans-title=The Svea mine on Svalbard closed after 100 years |url=https://www.itromso.no/ntb/iriks/2020/03/04/Svea-gruva-på-Svalbard-stengt-etter-100-år-21250106.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628160635/https://www.itromso.no/ntb/iriks/2020/03/04/Svea-gruva-p%C3%A5-Svalbard-stengt-etter-100-%C3%A5r-21250106.ece |archive-date=28 June 2021 |access-date=21 March 2022 |website=itromso.no |language=no}}</ref>

Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg.<ref name="naering" /> The Gruve 7 mine is scheduled to shut down in 2025.<ref name="ABC-Feb2023">{{cite news |title=Norway's last Arctic miners are struggling with coal mine's end |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-02-13/norways-last-arctic-miners-struggle-with-coal-mines-end/101950994 |access-date=12 February 2023 |work=ABC News |agency=AP |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=13 February 2023}}</ref>

There has been test drilling for petroleum on land, but these did not give satisfactory results for permanent operation. Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled have been protected as natural reserves or national parks.<ref name=naering /> In 2011, a 20-year plan to develop offshore oil and gas resources around Svalbard was announced.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/norway-highnorth-idUSL5E7MI1GK20111118 |title=Norway mobilises for oil push into Arctic |last1=Gibbs |first1=Walter |last2=Koranyi |first2=Balazs |work=Reuters |date=18 November 2011 |access-date=20 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202014739/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/18/norway-highnorth-idUSL5E7MI1GK20111118 |archive-date=2 December 2011  }}</ref>

[[File:Ny-Alesund (js) 5.jpg|thumb|left|The [[NASA]] research facility in [[Ny-Ålesund]]]]

Svalbard has historically been a base for both [[whaling]] and [[fishing]]. Norway claimed a {{convert|200|nmi|km|abbr=off|adj=on}} [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) around Svalbard in 1977,<ref name=fisheries>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/Documents-and-publications/Reports-to-the-Storting-White-Papers/Reports-to-the-Storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/7.html?id=456920 |title=Report No. 9 to the Storting (1999–2000): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=7 Industrial, mining and commercial activities |date=29 October 1999 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011005529/http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/Documents-and-publications/Reports-to-the-Storting-White-Papers/Reports-to-the-Storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/7.html?id=456920 |archive-date=11 October 2012  }}</ref> with {{convert|31688|km2|sqnmi|abbr=off}} of [[internal waters]] and {{convert|770565|km2|sqnmi|abbr=off}} of EEZ.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssb.no/aarbok/kart/i.html |title=Oversikt over geografiske forhold |publisher=[[Statistics Norway]] |year=2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901044853/http://www.ssb.no/aarbok/kart/i.html |archive-date=1 September 2010  }}</ref> Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone,<ref name=fisheries /> and the claims are disputed by Russia.<ref name=cia />

Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered on Longyearbyen. Activities include hiking, kayaking, walks through glacier caves, and [[snowmobile]] and dog-sled safaris. Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic, including both stops by offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard. Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August; overnight stays have quintupled from 1991 to 2008, when there were 93,000 overnight stays.<ref name=naering />

In February 2024, Norway announced limits on tourism to favor protection of flora and fauna in the archipelago. Now, ships are limited to 200 passengers in protected areas, among other regulations, many of which concern the breaking of fast ice, use of vehicles on sea ice after 1 March, and marine traffic near walrus areas. There are 43 defined landing spots.<ref name=":0" />

Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund, the most accessible areas in the high Arctic. The Svalbard Treaty grants permission for any nation to conduct non-military research on Svalbard, resulting in the [[Polish Polar Station]] and the Chinese [[Arctic Yellow River Station]], plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/Documents-and-publications/Reports-to-the-Storting-White-Papers/Reports-to-the-Storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/8.html?id=456921 |title=Report No. 9 to the Storting (1999–2000): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=8 Research and higher education |date=29 October 1999 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123010220/http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/jd/Documents-and-publications/Reports-to-the-Storting-White-Papers/Reports-to-the-Storting/19992000/report-no-9-to-the-storting-/8.html?id=456921 |archive-date=23 January 2010  }}</ref> Concerns have been raised about potential [[Dual-use technology|dual use]] of the Arctic Yellow River Station.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tatlow |first=Didi Kirsten |date=21 July 2024 |title=China's expanding Arctic ambitions challenge the U.S. and NATO |url=https://www.newsweek.com/2024/08/09/china-russia-us-arctic-north-pole-strategy-svalbard-norway-sea-route-1916641.html |access-date=21 July 2024 |website=[[Newsweek]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Tang |first=Jane |date=7 November 2024 |title=How Chinese nationalism is sending jitters through the Arctic |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/china/2024/11/07/china-arctic-norway-svalbard/ |access-date=10 November 2024 |work=[[Radio Free Asia]]}}</ref>

The [[University Centre in Svalbard]] in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences, particularly [[biology]], [[geology]], and [[geophysics]]. Courses are provided to supplement studies at mainland universities; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English, with Norwegian and international students equally represented.<ref name=unis />

The [[Svalbard Global Seed Vault]] is a [[seedbank]] to store seeds from as many of the world's crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible. A cooperation between the government of Norway and the [[Global Crop Diversity Trust]], the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen, keeping it at a natural {{convert|−6|C|0}} and refrigerating the seeds to {{convert|−18|C|0}}.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Norway Reveals Design of Doomsday' Seed Vault |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=445 |issue=7129 |pages=693 |date=15 February 2007|doi=10.1038/445693a |pmid=17301757 |last1=Hopkin |first1=M. |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7262525.stm |title=Life in the cold store |work=[[BBC News]] |date=26 February 2008 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019223957/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7262525.stm |archive-date=19 October 2009  }}</ref>

The [[Svalbard Undersea Cable System]] is a {{convert|1440|km|abbr=on}} [[Optical fiber|fibre optic]] line from Svalbard to [[Harstad Municipality|Harstad]], needed for communicating with [[polar orbit]]ing [[satellite]]s through [[Svalbard Satellite Station]] and installations in Ny-Ålesund.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_140-152.pdf |title=Technical solution and implementation of the Svalbard fibre cable |last=Gjesteland |first=Eirik |journal=Telektronic |issue=3 |year=2004 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410112805/http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_140-152.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_134-139.pdf |title=Why and how Svalbard got the fibre |last=Skår |first=Rolf |journal=Telektronic |issue=3 |year=2004 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410112810/http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/pdf/3.2004/Page_134-139.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2008 }}</ref>

The [[Arctic World Archive]], a huge digital archiving concern run by Norwegian private company [[Piql]] and the state-owned coal-mining company [[Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani]], opened in March 2017.<ref name=vincent>{{cite web | last=Vincent | first=James | title=Keep your data safe from the apocalypse in an Arctic mineshaft | website=The Verge | date=4 April 2017 | url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/4/15159148/norway-data-vault-svalberd-mine-storage | access-date=13 August 2020 | archive-date=22 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222152606/https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/4/15159148/norway-data-vault-svalberd-mine-storage | url-status=live }}</ref> In mid-2020, it acquired its biggest customer in the form of [[GitHub]], a subsidiary of [[Microsoft]].<ref name=lindner>{{cite web | last=Linder | first=Courtney | title=Github Code - Storing Code for the Apocalypse | website=Popular Mechanics | date=15 November 2019 | url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/security/a29811351/microsoft-secret-code-vault/ | access-date=13 August 2020 | archive-date=16 March 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316200734/https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/security/a29811351/microsoft-secret-code-vault/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

One source of income for the area was, until 2015, visiting cruise ships. The Norwegian government became concerned about large numbers of cruise ship passengers suddenly landing at small settlements such as Ny-Ålesund, which is conveniently close to the barren-yet-picturesque [[Magdalenefjorden|Magdalena Fjord]]. With the increasing size of the larger ships, up to 2,000 people can potentially appear in a community that normally numbers less than 40. As a result, the government severely restricted the size of cruise ships that may visit.<ref name="cruise-ship-ban">{{cite news|last1=Machan|first1=Teresa|title=Cruise regulations put Svalbard off-limits|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/cruises/news/Cruise-regulations-put-Svalbard-off-limits/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/cruises/news/Cruise-regulations-put-Svalbard-off-limits/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=6 April 2018|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=17 March 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[Unemployment]] is effectively nonexistent as there is no [[welfare spending|public assistance]].<ref name="Higgins"/>

== Transport ==
{{Main|Transport in Svalbard}}
[[File:Longyear01.jpg|thumb|[[Snowmobile]]s are an important mode of transport in Svalbard, such as here at Longyearbyen.]]

In Longyearbyen, Barentsburg, and Ny-Ålesund, there are road networks, but they do not connect with each other. [[Off-road]] motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground in Svalbard, but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter—both for commercial and recreational activities. Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg ({{convert|45|km|disp=or|abbr=on}}) and Pyramiden ({{convert|100|km|disp=or|abbr=on}}) is possible by snowmobile in winter, or by ship all year round. All settlements have ports and Longyearbyen has a bus system.<ref>Umbreit (1997): 63–67</ref>

[[Svalbard Airport]], {{convert|3|km|0}} from Longyearbyen, is the only airport offering air transport off the archipelago. [[Scandinavian Airlines]] has daily scheduled services to [[Tromsø Airport|Tromsø]] and [[Oslo Airport, Gardermoen|Oslo]]. Low-cost carrier [[Norwegian Air Shuttle]] also has a service between Oslo and Svalbard, operating three or four times a week; there are also irregular charter services to Russia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Direkteruter |publisher=[[Avinor]] |url=http://www.avinor.no/lufthavn/svalbard/direkteruter |language=no |access-date=9 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302033736/http://www.avinor.no/lufthavn/svalbard/direkteruter |archive-date=2 March 2009  }}</ref> [[Finnair]] operated service from [[Helsinki Airport|Helsinki]], operating three times per week between June and August 2016, but Norwegian authorities disallowed this route, citing the 1978 bilateral agreement on air traffic between Finland and Norway.<ref>{{cite news |title=Finnair opens twelve new scheduled routes and increases frequencies for summer 2016 |website=[[Finnair]] |url=http://www.finnairgroup.com/mediaen/mediaen_7.html?Id=xml_1959049.html |access-date=2 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208164319/http://www.finnairgroup.com/mediaen/mediaen_7.html?Id=xml_1959049.html |archive-date=8 December 2015  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thebarentsobserver.com/industry/2016/03/finnair-denied-route-longyearbyen|title=Finnair denied route to Longyearbyen|work=thebarentsobserver.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804041859/http://thebarentsobserver.com/industry/2016/03/finnair-denied-route-longyearbyen|archive-date=4 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://icepeople.net/2016/03/30/finnair-grounded-norway-refuses-to-allow-direct-flights-between-helsinki-and-svalbard-citing-1978-agreement/|title=Finnair grounded: Norway refuses to allow direct flights between Helsinki and Svalbard, citing 1978 agreement – icepeople|website=icepeople.net|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017170841/http://icepeople.net/2016/03/30/finnair-grounded-norway-refuses-to-allow-direct-flights-between-helsinki-and-svalbard-citing-1978-agreement/|archive-date=17 October 2016}}</ref>

[[Lufttransport]] provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to [[Ny-Ålesund Airport, Hamnerabben]], and [[Svea Airport]] for Kings Bay and Store Norske. These flights are generally not available to the public.<ref>{{cite news |title=Charterflygning |publisher=[[Lufttransport]] |url=http://www.lufttransport.no/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=60&Itemid=65 |language=no |access-date=9 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150354/http://www.lufttransport.no/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=60&Itemid=65 |archive-date=19 July 2011  }}</ref> There are [[heliport]]s in Barentsburg and Pyramiden, and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a lesser extent the mining company Arktikugol.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/11.html?id=555023 |title=St.meld. nr. 22 (2008–2009): Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police]] |chapter=11 Sjø og luft – transport, sikkerhet, redning og beredskap |date=17 April 2009 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011005651/http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/jd/dok/regpubl/stmeld/2008-2009/stmeld-nr-22-2008-2009-/11.html?id=555023 |archive-date=11 October 2012  }}</ref>

== Climate ==
{{Main|Climate of Svalbard}}
[[File:Spitzbergen-2 hg.jpg|thumb|[[Spitsbergen]] in August]]

The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average daily mean summer temperature at {{convert|4|to|7|C|0}} (1991–2020 averages), and January averages at {{convert|−13|to|−9|C|0}} (1991–2020). The more southern Bear Island has January mean temperatures as mild as {{convert|−4.6|C|0}} in the 1991–2020 base period.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://retro.met.no/observasjoner/svalbard/normaler_for_kommune_2111.html?kommuner |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717125106/http://retro.met.no/observasjoner/svalbard/normaler_for_kommune_2111.html?kommuner |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 July 2012 |title=Temperaturnormaler for Spitsbergen i perioden 1961–1990 |publisher=[[Norwegian Meteorological Institute]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |language=no }}</ref>

The [[West Spitsbergen Current]], the northernmost branch of the [[North Atlantic Current]] system, moderates Svalbard's temperatures, particularly during winter. Winter temperatures in Svalbard are up to {{convert|20|C-change|0}} higher than those at similar latitudes in Russia and Canada. The warm Atlantic water keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. The interior fjord areas and valleys, sheltered by the mountains, have larger temperature differences than the coast, giving about {{convert|2|C-change|0}} warmer summer temperatures and {{convert|3|C-change|0}} colder winter temperatures.<ref name="auto1">Torkilsen (1984): 98–99</ref>

On the south of Spitsbergen, the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west. During winter, the temperature difference between south and north is typically {{convert|5|C-change|0}}, and about {{convert|3|C-change|0}} in summer. [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bear Island]] has average temperatures even higher than the rest of the archipelago.<ref name="auto1"/>

Svalbard is where cold [[Polar Air Mass|polar air]] from the north and mild, wet sea air from the south meet, creating low pressure, changeable weather and strong winds, particularly in winter; in January, a strong breeze is registered 17% of the time at [[Isfjord Radio]], but only 1% of the time in July. In summer, [[fog]] is common, particularly off the coast, with visibility under {{convert|1|km|1}} registered 20% of the time in July and 1% of the time in January, at Hopen and Bjørnøya.<ref name=t101 />

Precipitation is frequent, but falls in small quantities, typically less than {{convert|400|mm}} per year in western Spitsbergen. More rain falls on the uninhabited east side, where there can be more than {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=t101 /> On average, Svalbard has lower [[humidity]] than other places in the [[Arctic Circle]]. The only places in the Arctic with a lower average are in mainland [[Norway]], [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

2016 was the warmest year on record at Svalbard Airport, with a remarkable mean temperature of {{convert|0.0|C}}, {{convert|7.5|C-change}} above the 1961–90 average, and more comparable to a location at the Arctic Circle. The coldest temperature of the year was as high as {{convert|-18|C}}, warmer than the mean minimum in a normal January, February or March. In the same year, the number of days when there was rainfall equalled the number of days when there was snowfall, a significant deviation from the usual pattern whereby there would be at least twice as many snow days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.tutiempo.net/climate/2016/ws-10080.html|title=Climate Svalbard Lufthavn (Year 2016) – Climate data (10080)|first=Tutiempo Network|last=S.L.|work=tutiempo.net|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108094116/http://en.tutiempo.net/climate/2016/ws-10080.html|archive-date=8 January 2017}}</ref>

[[Global warming]] has resulted in noticeable climatic changes on Svalbard. Between 1970 and 2020, the average temperature on Svalbard rose by 4 degrees Celsius, and in the winter months by 7 degrees.<ref name="HanssenBauer">{{cite web |first1=I. |last1=Hanssen-Bauer |first2=E.J. |last2=Førland |first3=H. |last3=Hisdal |first4=S. |last4=Mayer |first5=A.B. |last5=Sandø |first6=A. |last6=Sorteberg |date=2019 |title=Climate in Svalbard 2100: A knowledge base for climate adaptation. |url=https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/globalassets/publikasjoner/M1242/M1242.pdf |issn=2387-3027 |publisher=Norwegian Environment Agency |access-date=27 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=5 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905023401/https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/globalassets/publikasjoner/M1242/M1242.pdf }}</ref> On 25 July 2020, a new record temperature of {{convert|21.7|C}} was measured for the Svalbard archipelago, which is also the highest temperature ever recorded in the European part of the High Arctic; in addition, temperatures of over 20 degrees were measured four days in a row in July 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/highest-ever-temperature-recorded-in-norwegian-arctic-archipelago-1.5039492|title=Highest-ever temperature recorded in Norwegian Arctic archipelago|work=CTV News|date=26 July 2020|access-date=27 August 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009003957/https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/highest-ever-temperature-recorded-in-norwegian-arctic-archipelago-1.5039492}}</ref>

As in large parts of the Arctic, the [[ice–albedo feedback]] effects can also be noticed on Svalbard: Due to the substantial ice melt, ice surfaces are transformed into open water, the darker surface of which absorbs more solar energy instead of reflecting it back; as a result, these waters heat up and further ice in the area melts faster and faster, creating more open waters, etc. A temperature increase of between 7 and 10 degrees is expected on Svalbard by the end of the century.<ref name="HanssenBauer" />

== Nature ==
{{Main|Environment of Svalbard}}
[[File:Long-tailed Skua (js) 26.jpg|thumb|A [[Long-tailed skua]]]]

In addition to humans, three primarily terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the archipelago: the [[Arctic fox]], the [[Svalbard reindeer]], and accidentally introduced [[southern vole]]s, which are found only in Grumant.<ref name=vernebrosjyre>{{cite web|url=http://www.dirnat.no/attachment.ap?id=1043 |title=Protected Areas in Svalbard |publisher=[[Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |language=no |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927000359/http://www.dirnat.no/attachment.ap?id=1043 |archive-date=27 September 2011 }}</ref> Attempts to introduce the [[Arctic hare]] and the [[muskox]] have both failed.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 33</ref> There are 15 to 20 types of [[marine mammal]]s, including: [[whale]]s, [[dolphin]]s, [[pinniped|seals]], [[walrus]]es, and [[polar bear]]s.<ref name="vernebrosjyre" />

Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Svalbard, and one of the main tourist attractions.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 174</ref> The animals are protected and people moving outside the settlements are required to have appropriate scare devices to ward off attacks. They are also advised to carry a firearm for use as a last resort.<ref name="Umbreit 2005: 132">Umbreit (2005): 132</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Shortcuts/Firearms/|title=Firearms in Svalbard|website=Sysselmannen.no|access-date=30 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716124539/http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Shortcuts/Firearms/|archive-date=16 July 2016}}</ref> A British schoolboy was killed and four others were injured by a polar bear in 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14415592 |work=BBC News |title=Polar bear kills British boy in Arctic |date=5 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223064624/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14415592 |archive-date=23 February 2012  }}</ref> In July 2018, a polar bear was shot dead after it attacked and injured a polar bear guard leading tourists off a cruise ship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/national-international/Norway-Polar-Bear-Guard-Attack-489430611.html|title=Polar Bear Killed After Attack on Arctic Cruise Ship Guard |last=Grieshaber|first=Kristen|website=NBC4 Washington|date=28 July 2018 |language=en|access-date=24 March 2019|archive-date=24 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324173203/https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/national-international/Norway-Polar-Bear-Guard-Attack-489430611.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/german-man-attacked-by-polar-bear-on-norwegian-island/a-44865113|title=German man attacked by polar bear on Norwegian island {{!}} DW {{!}} 28 July 2018|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|access-date=24 March 2019|archive-date=24 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324173158/https://www.dw.com/en/german-man-attacked-by-polar-bear-on-norwegian-island/a-44865113|url-status=live}}</ref> In August 2020, a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] man was killed by a polar bear at a campsite in Longyearbyen. The polar bear was shot dead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nederlander gedood door ijsbeer op Spitsbergen |trans-title=Dutchman killed by polar bear on Spitsbergen |url=https://nos.nl/l/2345765|access-date=28 August 2020 |website=nos.nl|date=28 August 2020 |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=28 August 2020|title=Polar bear kills Dutch man in Norway's Arctic Svalbard archipelago|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-polarbear-idUSKBN25O1AA|access-date=28 August 2020|archive-date=28 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828221021/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-polarbear-idUSKBN25O1AA|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022, a polar bear attacked a French tourist, who suffered injuries to an arm. The bear left after shots had been fired. It was later [[Animal euthanasia|euthanised]] following a professional assessment of its injuries.<ref>{{cite news |title=Polar bear killed after injuring woman at Svalbard campsite |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/08/woman-injured-by-polar-bear-at-svalbard-campsite |access-date=11 August 2022 |work=[[The Guardian]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=8 August 2022}}</ref>

As of 2021, Svalbard has around 300 resident<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nrk.no/tromsogfinnmark/mener-isbjorn-kan-vaere-utryddet-pa-svalbard-om-50-ar-1.15559199 |access-date=1 July 2021 |title=På Svalbard er det cirka 300 "fastboende" isbjørner |language=no |work=NPK |first1=Jørn |last1=Inge Johansen |first2=Inghild |last2=Eriksen |date=1 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701210530/https://www.nrk.no/tromsogfinnmark/mener-isbjorn-kan-vaere-utryddet-pa-svalbard-om-50-ar-1.15559199 }}</ref> polar bears.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aars |first1=Jon |last2=Marques |first2=Tiago A. |last3=Lone |first3=Karen |last4=Andersen |first4=Magnus |last5=Wiig |first5=Øystein |last6=Fløystad |first6=Ida Marie Bardalen |last7=Hagen |first7=Snorre B. |last8=Buckland |first8=Stephen T. |year=2017 |title=The number and distribution of polar bears in the western Barents Sea |url=https://polarresearch.net/index.php/polar/article/view/2660 |journal=Polar Research |language=en |volume=36 |doi=10.1080/17518369.2017.1374125 |issn=1751-8369|hdl=10852/65137 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Svalbard and [[Franz Joseph Land]] share a common population of roughly 2,650 polar bears, with [[Kong Karls Land]] being the most important breeding ground.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Obbard |first1=Martyn E. |url=https://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/pbsg15proc.pdf |title=Polar bears: proceedings of the 15th Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, Copenhagen, Denmark, 29 June-3 July 2009 |last2=Thiemann |first2=Gregory W. |last3=Peacock |first3=Elizabeth |last4=DeBruyn |first4=Terry D. |publisher=IUCN |year=2010 |isbn=978-2-8317-1255-0 |edition= |location=Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK |page=150; 159}}</ref>

[[File:Female polar bear (Ursus maritimus) with cub, Svalbard.jpg|thumb|A female [[polar bear]] with cub]]
The [[Svalbard reindeer]] (''R. tarandus platyrhynchus'') is a distinct subspecies; although it was previously almost extinct, it can be legally hunted (as can Arctic fox).<ref name=vernebrosjyre /> It has also been documented that polar bears, desperate for food, hunt and successfully kill Svalbard reindeer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stempniewicz |first1=Lech |last2=Kulaszewicz |first2=Izabela |last3=Aars |first3=Jon |year=2021 |title=Yes, they can: polar bears Ursus maritimus successfully hunt Svalbard reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus |journal=Polar Biology |language=en |volume=44 |issue=11 |pages=2199–2206 |doi=10.1007/s00300-021-02954-w |bibcode=2021PoBio..44.2199S |issn=1432-2056|doi-access=free }}</ref> There are limited numbers of domesticated animals in the Russian settlements.<ref>Torkildsen (1984): 165</ref>

[[File:Tundra1 (js).jpg|thumb|Tundra at [[Bellsund]]]]
About eighty species of bird are found on Svalbard, most of which are migratory.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ebird.org/|title=eBird – Svalbard|website=eBird|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=20 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120125249/http://www.ebird.org./|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Barents Sea]] is among the areas in the world with most seabirds, with about 20&nbsp;million individuals during late summer. The most common are: [[little auk]], [[northern fulmar]], [[thick-billed murre]], and [[black-legged kittiwake]]. Sixteen species are on the [[IUCN Red List]]. Particularly Bjørnøya, [[Storfjorden, Svalbard|Storfjorden]], [[Nordvest-Spitsbergen Land National Park|Nordvest-Spitsbergen]], and Hopen are important [[breeding ground]] for seabirds. The [[Arctic tern]] has the furthest migration, all the way to [[Antarctica]].<ref name=vernebrosjyre />

Two songbirds migrate to Svalbard to breed: the [[snow bunting]] and the [[northern wheatear]]. [[Rock ptarmigan]] is the only bird to overwinter.<ref>Torkilsen (1984): 162</ref> Remains of [[Predator X]] (''Pliosaurus funkei'') from the [[Jurassic]] period were discovered here. It is one of the largest dinosaur-era [[marine reptile]]s ever found.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080229101002.htm |title=Enormous Jurassic Sea Predator, Pliosaur, Discovered in Norway |work=[[Science Daily]] |date=29 February 2008 |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523110023/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080229101002.htm |archive-date=23 May 2010  }}</ref>

[[File:Bünsow Land Brisingefjellet IMG 7496.JPG|thumb|left|West coast of [[Bünsow Land]] at [[Isfjorden (Svalbard)|Isfjorden]] in Spitsbergen]]
Svalbard has [[permafrost]] and [[tundra]], including low, middle, and high [[Arctic vegetation]]. One hundred and sixty-five species of plants have been found on the archipelago.<ref name=vernebrosjyre /> Only those areas which defrost in the summer are vegetated, which accounts for about 10% of the archipelago.<ref>Torkilsen (1984): 144</ref> Vegetation is most abundant in Nordenskiöld Land, around Isfjorden and where affected by [[guano]].<ref>Umbreit (2005): 29–30</ref> While there is little precipitation, giving the archipelago a [[steppe]] climate, plants still have good access to water because the cold climate reduces evaporation.<ref name=t101>Torkilsen (1984): 101</ref><ref name=vernebrosjyre /> The growing season is very short, and may last only a few weeks.<ref>Umbreit (2005): 32</ref> The [[Svalbard poppy]] (''Papaver dahlianum'') is the symbolic flower of Svalbard.<ref>[https://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Toppmeny/About-Svalbard/Flora/ About Svalbard: Flora] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706170459/https://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Toppmeny/About-Svalbard/Flora/ |date=6 July 2019 }}, Sysselmannen.no, retrieved: 10 April 2018</ref>

[[File:Prins-karls-forrland pho.jpg|thumb|[[Prins Karls Forland]] was protected as [[Forlandet National Park]] in 1973]]
[[File:Total solar eclipse of March 20, 2015 by Damien Deltenre (licensed for free use). (32844461616).jpg|thumb|Total solar eclipse of 20 March 2015, Longyearbyen]]

There are [[list of national parks of Norway|seven national parks]] in Svalbard: [[Forlandet National Park|Forlandet]], [[Indre Wijdefjorden National Park|Indre Wijdefjorden]], [[Nordenskiöld Land National Park|Nordenskiöld Land]], [[Nordre Isfjorden National Park|Nordre Isfjorden Land]], [[Nordvest-Spitsbergen National Park|Nordvest-Spitsbergen]], [[Sassen-Bünsow Land National Park|Sassen-Bünsow Land]] and [[Sør-Spitsbergen National Park|Sør-Spitsbergen]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dirnat.no/nasjonalparker/ |title=Norges nasjonalparker |publisher=[[Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |language=no |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914050729/http://www.dirnat.no/nasjonalparker/ |archive-date=14 September 2010  }}</ref> The archipelago has fifteen bird sanctuaries, one geotopic protected area and six nature reserves—with [[Nordaust-Svalbard Nature Reserve|Nordaust-Svalbard]] and [[Søraust-Svalbard Nature Reserve|Søraust-Svalbard]] both being larger than any of the national parks. Most of the nature reserves and three of the national parks were created in 1973, with the remaining areas gaining protection in the 2000s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dnweb12.dirnat.no/nbinnsyn/status/NBdata.asp?FyNr=21&Datasett=VV&Overskrift=true&knrSort=true |title=Verneområder i Svalbard sortert på kommuner |publisher=[[Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |language=no |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824235325/http://dnweb12.dirnat.no/nbinnsyn/status/NBdata.asp?FyNr=21&Datasett=VV&Overskrift=true&knrSort=true |archive-date=24 August 2011  }}</ref> All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected.<ref name="Umbreit 2005: 132" /> The protected areas make up 65% of the archipelago.<ref name=focus>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/svalbard_en/ |title=Focus on Svalbard |publisher=[[Statistics Norway]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113150546/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/00/20/svalbard_en/ |archive-date=13 November 2011 }}</ref> Svalbard is on Norway's tentative list for nomination as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5161/ |title=Svalbard |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=24 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130053943/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5161/ |archive-date=30 January 2012  }}</ref>

The total [[Solar eclipse of March 20, 2015|solar eclipse of 20 March 2015]] included only Svalbard and the [[Faroe Islands]] in the band of totality.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/video/2015/mar/20/total-solar-eclipse-faroe-islands-svalbard-sun-vanish-video |title=Solar eclipse: Faroe Islands and Svalbard see the sun vanish – video |date=20 March 2015 |work=The Guardian |access-date=22 June 2023}}</ref>

== Education ==
{{see also|Academic grading in Svalbard}}

[[Longyearbyen School]] serves ages 6–18. It is the primary/secondary school in the [[List of northernmost items|northernmost location on Earth]]. Once pupils reach ages 16 or 17, most families move to mainland Norway.<ref name=freezer>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2007/aug/29/schools.uk1|title=Learning in the freezer|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=29 August 2007|access-date=29 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029173106/https://www.theguardian.com/education/2007/aug/29/schools.uk1|archive-date=29 October 2017}}</ref> [[Barentsburg]] has its own school serving the Russian community; by 2014 it had three teachers, and its welfare funds had declined.<ref>{{cite web|author=Skinner, Toby|url=https://www.norwegian.com/magazine/features/2014/05/the-russians-on-svalbard|title=The Russians on Svalbard|publisher=[[Norwegian Air Shuttle]] (inflight magazine)|date=1 May 2014|access-date=29 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029174937/https://www.norwegian.com/magazine/features/2014/05/the-russians-on-svalbard|archive-date=29 October 2017}}</ref> A primary school served the community of [[Pyramiden]] in the pre-1998 period.<ref>Umbreit (2005)</ref>

There is a non-degree offering [[tertiary education]]al institution in Longyearbyen,<ref name=freezer/> [[University Centre in Svalbard]] (UNIS), the northernmost tertiary school on Earth.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.norwegian.com/magazine/features/2014/05/the-people-of-svalbard/10|title=Heidi The glaciologist|publisher=[[Norwegian Air Shuttle]] (inflight magazine)|date=1 May 2014|access-date=29 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029175303/https://www.norwegian.com/magazine/features/2014/05/the-people-of-svalbard/10|archive-date=29 October 2017}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Longyearbyen-Skole-2022.jpg|[[Longyearbyen School]]
File:Barentsburg IMG 2473 Barentsburg skole.jpg|[[Barentsburg]] School
File:UNIS01.jpg|[[University Centre in Svalbard]] (UNIS)
</gallery>

== Sports ==
[[Association football]] is the most popular sport in Svalbard. There are three football pitches (one at Barentsburg), but no stadiums because of the small population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nonleaguematters.co.uk/forum/gforum.cgi?post=539950|title=Tony's Non-League Forum: All Other Football Interests: All other football: Is this the world's most Northerly Football Ground?|website=nonleaguematters.co.uk|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727000752/http://nonleaguematters.co.uk/forum/gforum.cgi?post=539950|archive-date=27 July 2017}}</ref> There is also an indoor hall adopted for multiple sports including [[futsal|indoor football]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://svalbard4you.no/fotball-pa-svalbard/| title = Fotball på Svalbard| access-date = 24 November 2019| archive-date = 24 December 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191224074829/http://svalbard4you.no/fotball-pa-svalbard/| url-status = live}}</ref> Winter sports, such as [[skiing]], [[snowmobiling]] and [[dog sledding]], are popular.<ref name="Nordic 2024">{{cite web | title=Svalbard's sporting frontier: from ice to the pitch | website=All Things Nordic | date=7 January 2024 | url=https://all-things-nordic.com/2024/01/07/svalbards-sporting-frontier-from-ice-to-the-pitch/ | access-date=5 April 2024}}</ref> There is a multi-sport club, [[Svalbard Turn]].<ref name="Nordic 2024"/>

== See also ==
* [[Agriculture in Svalbard]]
* [[Cape Amsterdam]]
* [[List of islands of Norway]]
* [[List of islands of Norway by area]]
* [[List of northernmost settlements]]
* [[Outline of Svalbard]]
* [[Svalbard and Jan Mayen]]
* [[Noordsche Compagnie]]
* [[Svalbard in fiction]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
* {{cite book|last=Arlov|first=Thor B.|title=Svalbards historie: 1596-1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HRLeNQAACAAJ|access-date=22 May 2021|year=1996| publisher=Aschehoug| location=Oslo|language=no|isbn=82-03-22171-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Arlov|first1=Thor B.|last2=Holm|first2=Arne O.|last3=Moe|first3=Kirsti|title=Fra company town til folkestyre: samfunnsbygging i Longyearbyen på 78° nord|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FLa1zAEACAAJ|access-date=22 May 2021|year=2001|publisher=Svalbard samfunnsdrift|location=Longyearbyen|language=no|isbn=82-996168-0-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Carlheim-Gyllensköld|first=V. |title=På åttionda breddgraden. En bok om den svensk-ryska gradmätningen på Spetsbergen; den förberedande expeitionen sommaren 1898, dess färd rundt spetsbergens kuster, äfventyr i båtar och på isen; ryssars och skandinavers forna färder; m.m., m.m. |year=1900 |publisher=Albert Bonniers förlag| location=Stockholm}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Spitsbergen |volume= 25| pages = 708–711}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cross |first=Wilbur |url=https://archive.org/details/disasteratpoletr00cros |title=Disaster at the Pole: The Crash of the Airship Italia |publisher=Lyons Press |year=2002 |isbn=9781585744961 |edition=1st}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dege |first=Wilhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mlis66NJoxgC |title=War North of 80: The Last German Arctic Weather Station of World War II |publisher=University of Calgary Press |year=2004 |isbn=9781552381106 |editor-last=Barr |editor-first=William |edition=illustrated |translator-last=Barr |translator-first=William}}
* {{cite book |title=Pyramiden: portrett av ein forlaten utopi |last=Fløgstad |first=Kjartan |author-link=Kjartan Fløgstad |year=2007 |publisher=[[Spartacus Books|Spartacus]] |location=Oslo |language=no |isbn=978-82-430-0398-9}}
* Grydehøj, Adam (2020). "Svalbard: International Relations in an Exceptionally International Territory" in ''[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Heather_Exner-Pirot/publication/338515376_The_Arctic_in_International_Affairs_Handbook_of_Arctic_Policy_and_Politics/links/5e18ad76a6fdcc283768854b/The-Arctic-in-International-Affairs-Handbook-of-Arctic-Policy-and-Politics.pdf#page=261 The Palgrave Handbook]'' ''[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Heather_Exner-Pirot/publication/338515376_The_Arctic_in_International_Affairs_Handbook_of_Arctic_Policy_and_Politics/links/5e18ad76a6fdcc283768854b/The-Arctic-in-International-Affairs-Handbook-of-Arctic-Policy-and-Politics.pdf#page=261 of Arctic Policy and Politics]''. Palgrave.
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle = Spitzbergen |volume= 22 |last= Kropotkin |first= Peter Alexeivitch |author-link= Peter Kropotkin|short= 1}}
* [[Stephen Roskill|Roskill, Stephen]] (1954–56). ''The War at Sea''. Vols I-III. [[HMSO]]. {{OCLC|1137414397}}.
* {{cite book |title=Spitsbergen: Cold Beauty |last=Stange |first=Rolf |year=2011 |url=http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=7536 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209004247/http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=7536 |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 December 2012 |publisher=Rolf Stange |language=en, de, nl, no |isbn=978-3-937903-10-1 }} Photo book.
* {{cite book |title=Spitsbergen – Svalbard: A complete guide around the arctic archipelago |last=Stange |first=Rolf |year=2012 |url=http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=8434 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121210174913/http://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/?p=8434 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 December 2012 |publisher=Rolf Stange |isbn=978-3-937903-14-9 }}
* {{cite book|author1=Tjomsland, Audun |author2=Wilsberg, Kjell |name-list-style=amp |year=1995 |title=Braathens SAFE 50 år: Mot alle odds |location=Oslo |isbn=82-990400-1-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Torkildsen|first1=Torbjørn|last2=Barr|first2=Susan|title=Svalbard, vårt nordligste Norge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V36CRQAACAAJ|access-date=22 May 2021|year=1984|publisher=Forlaget Det Beste|location=Oslo|language=no|isbn=82-7010-167-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Umbreit |first=Andreas |title=Guide to Spitsbergen: Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Jan Mayen |publisher=Bradt Publications |year=1997 |isbn=9781898323389 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book|last=Umbreit|first=Andreas|title=Spitsbergen: Svalbard, Franz Josef, Jan Mayen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TExU1p6Cy20C|access-date=21 May 2021|edition=3rd|year=2005|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|location=Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks|isbn=978-1-84162-092-3|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521100958/https://books.google.com/books?id=TExU1p6Cy20C|url-status=live}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |b=no |commons=Svalbard |m=no |n=no |q=no |s= |v=no |voy=Svalbard |wikt=yes}}
* [http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/ Sysselmannen] – [[Governor of Svalbard]] website
* [https://www.visitsvalbard.com/ Svalbard Tourism] – official tourist board website
* [https://www.yr.no/nb/v%C3%A6rvarsel/daglig-tabell/1-2759929/Norge/Svalbard/Svalbard/Longyearbyen Weather Forcast Longyearbyen] auf der Website Yr.no, Norwegisches Meteorologisches Institut und Norwegischer Rundfunk (NRK).
* [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCnFhQlaQIqs6vw_mmG0bRww Cecilia Blomdahl Impressions of Svalbard and Longyearbyen]

{{Svalbard topics}}
{{Nordic countries}}
{{Overseas territories of Norway}}
{{Sovereign states of Europe}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Svalbard| ]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes of Norway]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes of the Arctic Ocean]]
[[Category:Integral overseas territories]]
[[Category:Landforms of the Barents Sea]]
[[Category:Regions of the Arctic]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of Norway]]
[[Category:Demilitarized zones]]
[[Category:Concession territories]]
[[Category:1590s in the Dutch Empire]]
[[Category:17th century in the Dutch Empire]]
[[Category:Maritime history of the Dutch Republic]]