Editing Suppletion

{{Short description|A word having inflected forms from multiple unrelated stems}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2024}}
In [[linguistics]] and [[etymology]], '''suppletion''' is traditionally understood as the use of one word as the [[inflection|inflected]] form of another word when the two words are not [[cognate]]. For those learning a language, suppletive forms will be seen as "irregular" or even "highly irregular". For example, ''go:went'' is a suppletive paradigm, because ''go'' and ''went'' are not etymologically related, whereas ''mouse:mice'' is irregular but not suppletive, since the two words come from the same Old English ancestor.

The term "suppletion" implies that a gap in the [[Word stem#Paradigms and suppletion|paradigm]] was filled by a form "supplied" by a different paradigm. Instances of suppletion are overwhelmingly restricted to the most commonly used [[lexical item]]s in a language.

==Irregularity and suppletion==

An irregular paradigm is one in which the derived forms of a word cannot be deduced by simple rules from the base form. For example, someone who knows only a little English can deduce that the plural of ''girl'' is ''girls'' but cannot deduce that the plural of ''man'' is ''men''. Language learners are often most aware of [[irregular verb]]s, but any part of speech with inflections can be irregular.

For most synchronic purposes—first-language acquisition studies, [[psycholinguistics]], language-teaching theory—it suffices to note that these forms are irregular. However, historical linguistics seeks to explain how they came to be so and distinguishes different kinds of irregularity according to their origins.

Most irregular paradigms (like ''man:men'') can be explained by phonological developments that affected one form of a word but not another (in this case, [[Germanic umlaut]]). In such cases, the historical antecedents of the current forms once constituted a regular paradigm.

Historical linguistics uses the term "suppletion"<ref>
{{OED | suppletion}}
</ref>
to distinguish irregularities like ''person:people'' or ''[[cattle|cow:cattle]]'' that cannot be so explained because the parts of the paradigm have not evolved out of a single form.

[[Hermann Osthoff]] coined the term "suppletion" in German in an 1899 study of the phenomenon in [[Indo-European languages]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Osthoff |first=Hermann|title=Vom Suppletivwesen der indogermanischen Sprachen : erweiterte akademische Rede ; akademische Rede zur Feier des Geburtsfestes des höchstseligen Grossherzogs Karl Friedrich am 22. November 1899|url=http://digital.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/werkansicht?PPN=PPN667016694&PHYSID=PHYS_0001&DMDID=|year=1900|publisher=Wolff|location=Heidelberg |language=de}}</ref><ref name="Bobaljik2012">{{cite book|last=Bobaljik|first=Jonathan David|title=Universals in Comparative Morphology: Suppletion, Superlatives, and the Structure of Words|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=693xCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|access-date=5 December 2017|date=2012-10-05|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=9780262304597|page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.oup.com/2013/01/why-is-the-past-tense-of-go-went-suppletion/|title=How come the past of 'go' is 'went?'|last=Liberman|first=Anatoly|date=9 Jan 2013|work=Oxford Etymologist|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|access-date=5 December 2017}}</ref>

Suppletion exists in many languages around the world.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Suppletion: Typology, markedness, complexity|last=Greville G|first=Corbett|publisher=On Inflection. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs, Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter|year=2009|location=Berlin|pages=25–40}}</ref> These  languages are from various language families: [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]],  [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], [[Romance languages|Romance]], etc.

For example, in [[Georgian language|Georgian]], the paradigm for the verb "to come" is composed of four different roots ({{Lang|ka-Latn|mi-}}, {{Lang|ka-Latn|-val-}}, {{Lang|ka-Latn|-vid-}}, and {{Lang|ka-Latn|-sul-}}; {{lang|ka|მი-}}, {{lang|ka|-ვალ-}}, {{lang|ka|-ვიდ-}}, {{lang|ka|-სულ-}}).<ref>Andrew Hippisley, Marina Chumakina, Greville G. Corbett and Dunstan Brown. ''Suppletion: Frequency, Categories and Distribution of Stems''. University of Surrey.[http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/2229/]</ref>

Similarly, in [[Modern Standard Arabic]], the verb ''{{Transliteration|ar|jāʾ}}'' ('come') usually uses the form ''{{Transliteration|ar|taʿāl}}'' for its imperative, and the plural of ''{{Transliteration|ar|marʾah}}'' ('woman') is ''{{Transliteration|ar|nisāʾ}}''.

Some of the more archaic Indo-European languages are particularly known for suppletion. [[Ancient Greek]], for example, has some [[Ancient Greek verbs#Verbs using more than one stem|twenty verbs with suppletive paradigms]], many with three separate roots.

==Example words==

=== To go ===
In [[English language|English]], the past tense of the verb ''go'' is ''went'', which comes from the past tense of the verb ''wend'', archaic in this sense. (The modern past tense of ''wend'' is ''wended''.) See ''[[Go (verb)]]''.

The [[Romance languages]] have a variety of suppletive forms in conjugating the verb "to go", as these first-person singular forms illustrate (second-person singular forms in imperative):<ref>However, some unstandardized languages are chosen in non-standard dialects instead based on their uniqueness. This table below excludes [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] tenses.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Language 
! colspan="2" | Imperative 
! colspan="2" | Present 
! colspan="2" | Subjunctive 
! colspan="2" | Future 
! colspan="2" | Preterite 
! colspan="2" | Infinitive
|-
! French
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|fr|va}}, {{lang|fr|vas-y}}
|1
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|fr|vais}} 
| 1
| style="background: PaleTurquoise;" | {{lang|fr|aille}}
| 4
| style="background: lightyellow;" | {{lang|fr|irai}} 
| 2
| style="background: PaleTurquoise;" | {{lang|fr|allai}}
| 4
| style="background: PaleTurquoise;" | {{wikt-lang|fr|aller}}
| 4
|-
! Romansh<br/><small>(Sursilvan)</small>
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|rm|va}}
|1
| style="background: pink;" | {{lang|rm|mon}}
| 6
| style="background: pink;" |{{lang|rm|mondi}}
| 6
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | &mdash;
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | &mdash;
| style="background: lightyellow;" | {{wikt-lang|rm|ir}}
| 2
|-
! Sardinian<br/><small>(Logudorese)</small>
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|rm|bai}}
|1
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|rm|ando}}
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" |{{lang|rm|andaia}}, {{lang|rm|andaio}}
| 3
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | &mdash;
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | &mdash;
| style="background: lightblue;" |{{wikt-lang|rm|andare}}
| 3
|-
! Italian
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|it|vai}}, {{lang|it|va}}, {{lang|it|va'}}
|1
| style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|it|vado}}, {{lang|it|vo}}
| 1
| style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|it|vada}}
| 1
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|it|andrò}} 
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|it|andai}}
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{wikt-lang|it|andare}}
| 3
|-
! Occitan<br/><small>(Languedocien)</small>
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|oc|vai}}
|1
| style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|oc|vau}} 
| 1
|style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|oc|ane}}
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|oc|anarai}} 
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|oc|anèri}}
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{wikt-lang|oc|anar}}
| 3
|-
! Catalan
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|ca|vès}}
|1
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |    {{lang|ca|vaig}} 
| 1
| style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|ca|vagi}}
| 1
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|ca|aniré}} 
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{lang|ca|aní}}
| 3
| style="background: lightblue;" | {{wikt-lang|ca|anar}}
| 3
|-
! rowspan=2 | Spanish
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|es|ve}}<sup>tú</sup>
|1
| rowspan=2 style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|es|voy}} 
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|es|vaya}}
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 style="background: lightyellow;" | {{lang|es|iré}} 
| rowspan=2 | 2
| rowspan=2 style="background: wheat;" | {{lang|es|fui}}
| rowspan=2 | 5
| rowspan=2 style="background: lightyellow;" | {{wikt-lang|es|ir}}
| rowspan=2 | 2
|-
| style="background: lightblue;" |{{lang|es|andá}}<sup>[[voseo|vos]]</sup>
|3
|-
! rowspan=2 | Portuguese
| style="background:PaleGreen;" |   {{lang|pt|vai}}<sup>tu</sup>
| 1
| rowspan=2 style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|pt|vou}} 
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 style="background:PaleGreen;" | {{lang|pt|vá}}
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 style="background: lightyellow;" | {{lang|pt|irei}} 
| rowspan=2 | 2
| rowspan=2 style="background: wheat;" | {{lang|pt|fui}}
| rowspan=2 | 5
| rowspan=2 style="background: lightyellow;" | {{wikt-lang|pt|ir}}
| rowspan=2 | 2
|-
| style="background: lightyellow;" |{{lang|pt|ide}}<sup>vós</sup>
|2
|-
|
|}
The sources of these forms, numbered in the table, are six different [[Latin]] verbs:
#{{lang|la|vādere}} ‘to go, proceed’,<ref>''Vadere'' is cognate with English ''wade'' ([[PIE]] root [[:wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/weh₂dʰ-|*weh₂dʰ-]]).</ref>
#{{lang|la|īre}} ‘to go’
#{{lang|la|ambitāre}} ‘to go around’,<ref>Late Lat. *''ambitāre'' is a [[Frequentative#Latin|frequentative]] form of classical [[:wikt:ambio|''ambio'']] ‘to go around’.</ref> also the source for Spanish and Portuguese {{lang|es|andar}} ‘to walk’
#{{lang|la|ambulāre}} ‘to walk’, or perhaps another Latin root, a Celtic root, or a Germanic root {{lang|frk|halon}} or {{lang|non|hala}}<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A New Hypothesis on the Origin of French ''Aller'' |author= H. Diamant |year=1968 |journal=Word |volume=24 |number=1–3 |pages=73–80 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.1080/00437956.1968.11435516 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
#{{lang|la|fuī}} suppletive perfective of {{lang|la|esse}} ‘to be’.<ref>The [[preterite]]s of "to be" and "to go" are identical in Spanish and Portuguese. Compare the English construction "Have you ''been'' to France?" which has no simple present form.</ref>
#{{lang|la|meāre}} ‘to go along’.

Many of the Romance languages use forms from different verbs in the present tense; for example, French has {{lang|fr|je vais}} ‘I go’ from {{lang|la|vadere}}, but {{lang|fr|nous allons}} ‘we go’ from {{lang|la|ambulare}}. Galician-Portuguese has a similar example: {{lang|gl|imos}} from {{lang|la|ire}} ‘to go’ and {{lang|gl|vamos}} from {{lang|la|vadere}} ‘we go’; the former is somewhat disused in modern Portuguese but very alive in modern Galician. Even {{lang|gl|ides}}, from {{lang|la|itis}} second-person plural of {{lang|la|ire}}, is the only form for ‘you (plural) go’ both in Galician and Portuguese (Spanish {{lang|es|vais}}, from {{lang|la|vadere}}).

Sometimes, the conjugations differ between dialects. For instance, the ''[[Limba Sarda Comuna]]'' standard of Sardinian supported a fully regular conjugation of {{lang|sc|andare}}, but other dialects like [[Logudorese dialect|Logudorese]] do not (see also [[Sardinian conjugation]]). In Romansh, ''[[Rumantsch Grischun]]'' substitutes present and subjunctive forms of ''ir'' with ''vom'' and ''giaja'' (both are from Latin ''vādere'' and ''īre'', respectively) in the place of ''mon'' and ''mondi'' in Sursilvan.

Similarly, the Welsh verb {{lang|cy|mynd}} ‘to go’ has a variety of suppletive forms such as {{lang|cy|af}} ‘I shall go’ and {{lang|cy|euthum}} ‘we went’. Irish {{lang|cy|téigh}} ‘to go’ also has suppletive forms: {{lang|cy|dul}} ‘going’ and {{lang|cy|rachaidh}} ‘will go’.

In [[Estonian language|Estonian]], the inflected forms of the verb {{lang|et|minema}} ‘to go’ were originally those of a verb cognate with the Finnish {{lang|fi|lähteä}} ‘to leave’, except for the passive and infinitive.

=== Good and bad ===
In [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Romance languages|Romance]] (except [[Romanian language|Romanian]]), [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] (except [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]), and [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] languages, the [[grammatical comparative|comparative]] and [[grammatical superlative|superlative]] of the adjective "good" is suppletive; in many of these languages the adjective "bad" is also suppletive.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ good, better, best
|-
! Language !! Adjective !! Etymology !! Comparative !! Superlative !! Etymology
|-
! colspan="6" | Germanic languages
|-
! [[English language|English]]
|good
| rowspan="9" |[[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]]: {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*gōdaz}}<ref name="godaz">Wiktionary, Proto-Germanic root {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*gōdaz}}</ref>
* {{langx|ang|gōd}}
* {{langx|goh|guot}}
* {{langx|odt|*guot}}
* {{langx|non|góðr}}
cognate to {{langx|sa-Latn|gadhya||what one clings to}}
|better
|best
| rowspan="9" |Proto-Germanic: {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*batizô}}<ref name="godaz" />
* {{langx|ang|betera}}
* cognate to OE {{lang|ang|bōt}} "remedy" 
cognate to {{langx|sa|bhadra}} "fortunate"
|-
! [[Danish language|Danish]]
| {{lang|da|god}}
| {{lang|da|bedre}}
| {{lang|da|bedst}}
|-
! [[German language|German]]
| {{lang|de|gut}}
| {{lang|de|besser}}
| {{lang|de|besten}}
|-
! [[Faroese language|Faroese]]
| {{lang|fo|góður}}
| {{lang|fo|betri}}
| {{lang|fo|bestur}}
|-
! [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
| {{lang|is|góður}}
| {{lang|is|betri}}
| {{lang|is|bestur}}
|-
! [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| {{lang|nl|goed}}
| {{lang|nl|beter}}
| {{lang|nl|best}}
|-
! [[Norwegian Bokmal|Norwegian Bokmål]]
| {{lang|no|god}}
| {{lang|no|bedre}}
| {{lang|no|best}}
|-
![[Norwegian Nynorsk]]
|''god''
|''betre''
|''best''
|-
! [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
| {{lang|sv|god}}
| {{lang|sv|bättre}}
| {{lang|sv|bäst}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Romance languages
|-
! [[French language|French]]
| {{lang|fr|bon}}
| rowspan="5" | {{langx|la|bonus}}
from [[Old Latin]]: {{lang|la|duenos}}
* cognate to {{langx|sa-Latn|duva}} "reverence"
| colspan="2" | {{lang|fr|meilleur}}
| rowspan="5" | {{plainlist|
* {{langx|la|melior}}
* cognate to Latin {{lang|la|multus}} "many"
* cognate to {{langx|grc|μάλα|mala|very}}
}}
|-
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| {{lang|pt|bom}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|pt|melhor}}
|-
! [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| {{lang|es|bueno}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|es|mejor}}
|-
! [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
| {{lang|ca|bo}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|millor}}
|-
! [[Italian language|Italian]]
| {{lang|it|buono}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|it|migliore}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Celtic languages
|-
! [[Scottish Gaelic]]
| {{lang|gd|math}}
| rowspan="3" | [[Proto-Celtic]]: {{lang|cel-x-proto|*matis}}
from [[Proto-Indo-European]]: ''*{{PIE|meh₂-}}'' "ripen", "mature"
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gd|feàrr}}
| rowspan="2" | Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|*werros}}
from Proto-Indo-European: ''*{{PIE|wers-}}'' "peak"
|-
! [[Irish language|Irish]]
| {{lang|ga|maith}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|ga|fearr}}
|-
! [[Breton language|Breton]]
| {{lang|br|mat}}
| {{lang|br|gwell}}, {{lang|br|gwelloc'h}} (1)
| {{lang|br|gwellañ}} (1)
| rowspan="2" | {{plainlist|
* (1) Proto-Celtic: {{lang|cel-x-proto|*u̯el-no-}}
* (2) Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|*u̯or-gous-on}}
}}
|-
! [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
| {{lang|cy|da}}
| Proto-Celtic: {{lang|cel-x-proto|*dagos}} "good", "well"
|| {{lang|cy|gwell}} (1)
| {{lang|cy|gorau}} (2) 
|-
! colspan="6" | Slavic languages
|-
! [[Polish language|Polish]]
| {{lang|pl|dobry}}
| rowspan="6" | Proto-Slavic: ''{{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*dobrъ}}''
| {{lang|pl|lepszy}}
| {{lang|pl|najlepszy}}
| rowspan="4" | Proto-Indo-European ''*{{PIE|lep-}}'', ''*{{PIE|lēp-}}'' "behoof", "boot", "good"
|-
! [[Czech language|Czech]]
| {{lang|cs|dobrý}}
| {{lang|cs|lepší}}
| {{lang|cs|nejlepší}}
|-
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| {{lang|sk|dobrý}}
| {{lang|sk|lepší}}
| {{lang|sk|najlepší}}
|-
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| {{lang|uk|добрий}}
| {{lang|uk|ліпший}}
| {{lang|uk|найліпший}}
|-
! [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]
| {{lang|sh|dobar}}
| {{lang|sh|bolji}}
| {{lang|sh|najbolji}}
| rowspan="2" | Proto-Slavic: ''{{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*boľьjь}}'' "bigger"
|-
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
| {{lang|sl|dober}}
| {{lang|sl|boljši}}
| {{lang|sl|najboljši}}
|-
! [[Russian language|Russian]]
| {{langx|ru|хороший|khoroshiy|label=none}}
| probably from Proto-Slavic: ''{{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*xorъ}}''<ref name="Vasmer">[[Max Vasmer]], Russisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch</ref>
| {{langx|ru|лучше|luchshe|label=none}}  
| {{langx|ru|(наи)лучший|(nai)luchshiy|label=none}}
| Old Russian {{lang|orv|лучии}}, neut. {{lang|orv|луче}}
Old Church Slavonic: {{lang|cu|лоучии}} "more suitable, appropriate"<ref name="Vasmer" />
|-
! colspan="6" | Indo-Iranian languages
|-
! [[Persian language|Persian]]
| {{langx|fa|خوب|khūb|label=none}} {{IPA|[xʊb]}}{{efn|Poetic {{langx|fa|به|beh|label=none}}}}
| probably cognate of Proto-Slavic ''{{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*xorъ}}'' (above). Not a satisfactory etymology for {{lang|peo-Latn|beh}}; but see comparative and superlative forms in comparison to Germanic
| {{langx|fa|خوبتر|xūb-tar|label=none}} or {{langx|fa|بِهْتَر|beh-tar|label=none}}{{efn|The superlative of {{lang|peo-Latn|beh-}} 'good' in [[Old Persian|Ancient Persian]] is {{lang|peo-Latn|beh-ist}} which has evolved to {{langx|fa|بهشت|behešt|label=none}} "paradise" in Modern Persian.}}
| {{langx|fa|خوبترین|xūb-tarīn|label=none}} or {{langx|fa|بِهْتَرين|beh-tarīn|label=none}}
| From Proto-Indo-Iranian ''*Hwásuš'' "good". Not a cognate of the Germanic forms above.
|-
! colspan="6" | Non-Indo-European languages
|-
![[Georgian language|Georgian]]
|კარგი, k'argi [kʼaɾgi].
|possibly an [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] borrowing via Old Armenian {{wikt-lang|xcl|կարգ}} (karg, “order”).
|უკეთესი, uk'etesi [uk'e̞tʰe̞si].
|საუკეთესო, sauk'eteso [sauk'e̞tʰe̞so̞].
|From Proto-Georgian-Zan *ḳet- “to add, mix”.
|}
{{notelist}}
The comparison of "good" is also suppletive in {{langx|et|hea}} → {{lang|et|parem}}  → {{lang|et|parim}} and {{langx|fi|hyvä}} → {{lang|fi|parempi}} → {{lang|fi|paras}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|+ bad, worse, worst
! Language
! Adjective
! Etymology
! Comparative 
! Superlative
! Etymology
|-
! colspan="6" | Germanic languages
|-
! [[English language|English]]
| bad
| Uncertain, possibly from OE {{lang|ang|bæddel}} ("[[effeminate]] man, [[hermaphrodite]], [[pederast]]"),<ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |date= |title=Etymology of ''bad''|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/bad |website=[[Etymonline|Online Etymology Dictionary]] |location= |publisher= |access-date=2025-03-08}}</ref> related to OE {{lang|ang|bædan}} ("to defile") < Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*baidijaną}} ("constrain, cause to stay")<br /><small>In OE {{lang|ang|yfel}} was more common, compare [[Proto-Germanic]] {{lang|gem-x-proto|*ubilaz}}, [[Gothic language|Gothic]] {{lang|got-Latn|ubils}} (bad), German {{lang|de|übel}} (evil / bad), English ''evil''</small>
| worse 
| worst 
| rowspan="8" |From Proto-Germanic ''*wirsizô, *wirsistaz''.
|-
! [[Old Norse]]
| {{lang|non|vándr}}
| rowspan="7" |From Proto-Germanic ''*wanh-''.
| {{lang|non|verri}}
| {{lang|non|verstr}}
|-
! [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
| {{lang|is|vondur}}
| {{lang|is|verri}}
| {{lang|is|verstur}}
|-
! [[Faroese language|Faroese]]
| {{lang|fo|óndur}}
| {{lang|fo|verri}}
| {{lang|fo|verstur}}
|-
! [[Norwegian Bokmål]]
| {{lang|no|ond}}, {{lang|no|vond}}
| {{lang|no|verre}}
| {{lang|no|verst(e)}}
|-
![[Norwegian Nynorsk]]
|''vond''
|''verre''
|''verst(e)''
|-
! [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
| {{lang|sv|ond}}
| {{lang|sv|värre}}
| {{lang|sv|värst}}
|-
! [[Danish language|Danish]]
| {{lang|da|ond}}
| {{lang|da|værre}}
| {{lang|da|værst}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Romance languages
|-
! [[French language|French]]
| {{lang|fr|mal}}{{efn|name="bad-worse-worst-romance1"|These are adverbial forms ("badly"); the Italian adjective is itself suppletive ({{lang|it|cattivo}}, from the same root as "captive", respectively) whereas the French {{lang|fr|mauvais}} is compound ({{lang|la|malifātius}} < {{lang|la|malus}}+{{lang|la|fatum}}).}}
| rowspan="5" | {{langx|la|malus}}
| colspan="2" | {{lang|fr| pire }}
| rowspan="5" | {{langx|la|peior}}, cognate to Sanskrit {{lang|sa-Latn|padyate}} "he falls"
|-
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| {{lang|pt|mau}}
|colspan="2" | {{lang|pt|pior}}
|-
! [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| {{lang|es|malo}}
|colspan="2" | {{lang|es|peor}}
|-
! [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
| {{lang|ca|mal}}{{efn|{{lang|ca|Mal}} is used in Catalan before nouns, the form after nouns ({{lang|ca|dolent}}) is also suppletive (< Latin {{lang|la|dolente}} "painful").}}
|colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|pitjor}}
|-
! [[Italian language|Italian]]
| {{lang|it|male}}{{efn|name="bad-worse-worst-romance1"}}
|colspan="2" | {{lang|it|peggiore}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Celtic languages
|-
! [[Scottish Gaelic]]
| {{lang|gd|droch }}
| rowspan="3" | Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|*drukos}} ("bad") < (possibly) PIE *''{{PIE|dʰrewgʰ-}}'' ("to deceive") 
| colspan="2" |{{lang|gd|miosa}}
| rowspan="2" | Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|*missos}} < PIE ''*{{PIE|mey}}''- ("to change")
|-
! [[Irish language|Irish]]
| {{lang|ga|droch}}
|colspan="2" | {{lang|ga|measa}}
|-
! [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
| {{lang|cy|drwg}}
| {{lang|cy|gwaeth}}
| {{lang|cy|gwaethaf}}
| Proto-Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|*waxtisamos}} ("worst")
|-
! colspan="6" | Slavic languages
|-
! [[Polish language|Polish]]
| {{lang|pl|zły}}
| rowspan="5" | Proto-Slavic ''{{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*zъlъ}}''
| {{lang|pl|gorszy}}
| {{lang|pl|najgorszy}}
| rowspan="5"| compare Polish {{lang|pl|gorszyć}} (''to disgust, scandalise'')
|-
! [[Czech language|Czech]]
| {{lang|cs|zlý&nbsp;(špatný)}}
| {{lang|cs|horší}}
| {{lang|cs|nejhorší}}
|-
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| {{lang|sk|zlý}}
| {{lang|sk|horší}}
| {{lang|sk|najhorší}}
|-
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| ''archaic''&nbsp;{{lang|uk|злий}}
| {{lang|uk|гірший}}
| {{lang|uk|найгірший}}
|-
! [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]
| {{lang|sh|zao}}
| {{lang|sh|gori}}
| {{lang|sh|najgori}}
|-
! [[Russian language|Russian]]
| {{lang|ru|плохой}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|plokhoy}}) 
| probably Proto-Slavic ''{{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*polxъ}}''<ref name="Vasmer" /> 
| {{lang|ru|хуже}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|khuzhe}}) 
| {{lang|ru|(наи)худший}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|(nai)khudshiy}})
| Old Church Slavonic {{lang|cu|хоудъ}}, Proto-Slavic ''{{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*xudъ}}'' ("bad", "small")<ref name="Vasmer" />
|}
{{notelist}}
Similarly to the Italian noted above, the English adverb form of "good" is the unrelated word "well", from Old English {{lang|ang|wel}}, cognate to {{lang|ang|wyllan}} "to wish".

=== Great and small ===
Celtic languages:

:{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ small, smaller, smallest
! Language !! Adjective !! Comparative / superlative
|-
! [[Irish language|Irish]]
| beag <br /><small>([[Old Irish]] ''bec'' < [[Proto-Celtic]] *''bikkos'')</small> || níos lú / is lú <br /><small>(< Old Irish ''laigiu'' < Proto-Celtic *''lagyūs'' < PIE *''h₁lengʷʰ-'' ("lightweight"))</small>
|-
! [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
| bach <br /><small>(< [[Common Brittonic|Brythonic]] *''bɨx'' <br />< Proto-Celtic *''bikkos'')</small> || llai / lleiaf <br /><small>(< PIE *''h₁lengʷʰ-'' (“lightweight”))</small>
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ great, greater, greatest
! Language !! Adjective !! Comparative / superlative
|-
! [[Irish language|Irish]]
| mór <br /><small>(< Proto-Celtic *''māros'' < PIE *''moh₁ros'')</small> || níos mó / is mó<br /><small>< Proto-Celtic *''māyos'' < PIE *''meh₁-'')</small>
|-
! [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
| mawr <br /><small>(< Proto-Celtic *''māros'' < PIE *''moh₁ros'')</small> || mwy / mwyaf <br /><small>< Proto-Celtic *''māyos'' < PIE *''meh₁-'')</small>
|}

In many Slavic languages, ''great'' and ''small'' are suppletive:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ small, smaller, smallest
! Language !! Adjective !! Comparative / superlative
|-
! [[Polish language|Polish]]
| mały || mniejszy / najmniejszy
|-
! [[Czech language|Czech]]
| malý || menší / nejmenší
|-
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| malý || menší / najmenší
|-
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
| majhen || manjši / najmanjši
|-
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| малий, маленький|| менший / найменший
|-
! [[Russian language|Russian]]
| маленький (''malen'kiy'') || меньший / наименьший (''men'she'' / ''naimen'shiy'')
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ great, greater, greatest
! Language !! Adjective !! Comparative / superlative
|-
! [[Polish language|Polish]]
| duży || większy / największy
|-
! [[Czech language|Czech]]
| velký || větší / největší
|-
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| veľký || väčší / najväčší
|-
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
| velik || večji / največji
|-
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| великий || більший / найбільший
|}

== Examples in languages ==
=== Albanian ===
In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] there are 14 irregular verbs divided into suppletive and non-suppletive:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb 
!Meaning!! Present !! Preterite  !! Imperfect 
|-
! {{lang|sq|qenë}}!!to be
| {{lang|sq|jam}}  || {{lang|sq|qeshë}}  || {{lang|sq|isha}} 
|-
! {{lang|sq|pasur}}!!to have
| {{lang|sq|kam}} || {{lang|sq|pata}} || {{lang|sq|kisha}}
|-
! {{lang|sq|ngrënë}}!!to eat
| {{lang|sq|ha}}  || {{lang|sq|hëngra}}  || {{lang|sq|haja}} 
|-
! {{lang|sq|ardhur}}!!to come
| {{lang|sq|vij}}  || {{lang|sq|erdha}}  || {{lang|sq|vija}} 
|-
! {{lang|sq|dhënë}}!!to give
| {{lang|sq|jap}}  || {{lang|sq|dhashë}}  || {{lang|sq|jepja}} 
|-
! {{lang|sq|parë}}!!to see
| {{lang|sq|shoh}}  || {{lang|sq|pashë}}  || {{lang|sq|shihja}} 
|-
! {{lang|sq|rënë}}!!to fall, strike
| {{lang|sq|bie}} || {{lang|sq|rashë}} || {{lang|sq|bija}}
|-
! {{lang|sq|prurë}}!!to bring
| {{lang|sq|bie}} || {{lang|sq|prura}} || {{lang|sq|bija}}
|-
! {{lang|sq|ndenjur}}!! to stay
| {{lang|sq|rri}} || {{lang|sq|ndenja}} || {{lang|sq|rrija}}
|}

=== Ancient Greek ===
{{Main|Ancient Greek verbs#Verbs using more than one stem}}
[[Ancient Greek]] had a large number of suppletive verbs. A few examples, listed by [[principal parts]]:
:*''erkhomai, eîmi/eleusomai, ēlthon, elēlutha, —, —'' "go, come".
:*''legō, eraō (erô) / leksō, eipon / eleksa, eirēka, eirēmai / lelegmai, elekhthēn / errhēthēn'' "say, speak".
:*''horaō, opsomai, eidon, heorāka / heōrāka, heōrāmai / ōmmai, ōphthēn'' "see".
:*''pherō, oisō, ēnegka / ēnegkon, enēnokha, enēnegmai, ēnekhthēn'' "carry".
:*''pōleō, apodōsomai, apedomēn, peprāka, peprāmai, eprāthēn'' "sell".

=== Bulgarian ===
In [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], the word {{langx|bg|човек|chovek|label=none}} ("man", "human being") is suppletive. The strict plural form, {{langx|bg|човеци|chovetsi|label=none}}, is used only in Biblical context (like "brethren" as the archaic or symbolic plural of "brother" in English). In modern usage it has been replaced by the Greek loan {{langx|el|хора|khora|label=none}}. The counter form (the special form for masculine nouns, used after numerals) is suppletive as well: {{langx|bg|души|dushi|label=none}} (with the accent on the first syllable). For example, {{langx|bg|двама, трима души|dvama, trima dushi|label=none}} ("two, three people"); this form has no singular either. (A related but different noun is the plural {{langx|bg|души|dushi|label=none}}, singular {{langx|bg|душа|dusha|label=none}} ("soul"), both with accent on the last syllable.)

=== English ===
In English, the complicated [[irregular verb]] ''to be'' has forms from several different roots:
*''be'', ''been'', ''being''—from [[Old English]] ''bēon'' ("to be, become"), from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''beuną'' ("to be, exist, come to be, become"), from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''bʰúHt'' (“to grow, become, come into being, appear”), from the root *''bʰuH-'' ("to become, grow, appear").
*''am'', ''is'', ''are''—from [[Middle English]] ''am, em, is, aren'', from [[Old English]] ''eam, eom, is, earun, earon'', from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''immi'', *''izmi'', *''isti'', *''arun'', all forms of the verb *''wesaną'' ("to be; dwell"), from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''h₁ésmi'' ("I am, I exist"), from the root *''h₁es-'' ("to be").
*''was'', ''were''—from [[Old English]] ''wæs'', ''wǣre'', from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''was'', *''wēz'', from the [[Proto-Indo-European]] root *''h₂wes''- ("to dwell, reside")

This verb is suppletive in most Indo-European languages, as well as in some non-Indo-European languages such as [[Finnish language|Finnish]].

An incomplete suppletion exists in English with the plural of ''person'' (from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|persona}}). The regular plural ''persons'' occurs mainly in legalistic use. More commonly, the singular of the unrelated noun ''people'' (from Latin {{lang|la|populus}}) is used as the plural; for example, "two people were living on a one-person salary" (note the plural verb). In its original sense of "populace, ethnic group", ''people'' is itself a singular noun with regular plural ''peoples''.
<!--Commented out pending discovery of sources that this is the standard view:
=== Gaelic ===
* In Gaelic, the plural of ''duine'' (man) is ''daoine'' (men). This is an interesting example since it looks non-suppletive and only slightly irregular, especially as Gaelic uses vowel-fronting to produce regular plurals. However, ''duine'' and ''daoine'' are in fact derived from completely separate Indo-European roots.
-->

===Hungarian===
* The verb "to be": {{lang|hu|van}} ("there is"),  {{lang|hu|vagyok}}, {{lang|hu|vagy}} ("I am", "you are"), {{lang|hu|lenni}} ("to be"), {{lang|hu|lesz}} ("will be"), {{lang|hu|nincs}}, {{lang|hu|sincs}} ("there is not", "there is neither", replacing {{lang|hu|nem}} + {{lang|hu|van}} and {{lang|hu|sem}} + {{lang|hu|van}} respectively).
* The verb {{lang|hu|jön}} ("come") has the imperative {{lang|hu|gyere}} (the regular {{lang|hu|jöjj}} is dated).
* The numeral {{lang|hu|sok}} ("many/a lot") has the comparative {{lang|hu|több}} and the superlative {{lang|hu|legtöbb}}.
* The adverb {{lang|hu|kicsit}} ("a little") has the comparative {{lang|hu|kevésbé}} and the superlative {{lang|hu|legkevésbé}}.
* Many inflected forms of personal pronouns are formed by using the suffix as the base: {{lang|hu|nekem}} ("to me") from {{lang|hu|-nak/-nek}} (dative suffix) and {{lang|hu|-em}} (first person singular possessive suffix). Even among these, the superessive form ("on") uses the root {{lang|hu|rajta}} instead of the suffix {{lang|hu|-on/-en/-ön}}.
* The numerals {{lang|hu|egy}}, {{lang|hu|kettő}} ("one", "two") have the ordinal forms {{lang|hu|első}}, {{lang|hu|második}} ("first", "second"). However they are regular in compounds: {{lang|hu|tizenegyedik}}, {{lang|hu|tizenkettedik}} ("eleventh", "twelfth").

===Irish===

Several irregular [[Irish verbs]] are suppletive:

* ''abair'' (to say): derived from [[Old Irish]] ''as·beir'', from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] roots *''h₁eǵʰs''- ("out") and *''bʰer''- ("bear, carry"). However, the verbal noun ''rá'' is derived from [[Old Irish]] ''rád'', ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''reh₂dʰ-'' ("perform successfully").
* ''bí'' (to be): derived from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''bʰuH''- ("grow, become, come into being, appear"). However, the present tense form ''tá'' is derived from [[Old Irish]] ''at·tá'', from [[Proto-Celtic]] *''ad-tāyeti'', ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''steh₂''- ("stand").
* ''beir'' (to catch): derived from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''bʰer''- ("bear, carry"). However, the past tense form ''rug'' is derived from [[Old Irish]] ''rouic'', which is from [[Proto-Celtic]] *''ɸro-ōnkeyo''-, ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European]] roots *''pro''- ("forth, forward") and *''h₂neḱ''- ("reach").
* ''feic'' (to see): derived from [[Old Irish]] ''aicci'', from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''kʷey''- ("observe"). However, the past tense form ''chonaic'' is derived from [[Old Irish]] '' ad·condairc'', ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''derḱ₂''- ("see").
* ''téigh'' (to go): derived from [[Old Irish]] ''téit'', from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''stéygʰeti''- ("to be walking, to be climbing"). However, the future form ''rachaidh'' is derived from [[Old Irish]] ''regae'', ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *''h₁r̥gʰ''- ("go, move"), while the verbal noun ''dul'' is from *''h₁ludʰét'' ("arrive").

There are several suppletive [[comparative and superlative]] forms in Irish; in addition to the ones [[#Example_words|listed above]], there is:
*''fada'', "long";  comparative ''níos faide'' or ''níos sia'' — ''fada'' is from Old Irish ''fota'', from Proto-Indo-European *''wasdʰos'' (“long, wide”); compare [[Latin]] ''vāstus'' (“wide”), while ''sia'' is from Old Irish ''sír'' ("long, long-lasting"), from Proto-Celtic *''sīros'' (“long”); compare Welsh/Breton ''hir''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dil.ie/37651|title=eDIL - Irish Language Dictionary|website=www.dil.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nualeargais.ie/gnag/adjekt2.htm|title=Comparative forms|website=nualeargais.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.potafocal.com/beo/?s=sia|title=Pota Focal &#124; sia|website=Pota Focal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zxfNCQAAQBAJ&q=%22n%C3%ADos+sia%22&pg=PT648|title=Impreasin na Gaeilge I – Z: (Fuaim na Gaeilge)|first=Seosamh Mac|last=Ionnrachtaigh|date=June 2, 2015|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781496984203|via=Google Books}}</ref>

===Japanese===
In modern Japanese, the copulae だ, である and です take な to create "attributive forms" of [[Adjectival noun (Japanese)|adjectival nouns]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%BD%A2%E5%AE%B9%E5%8B%95%E8%A9%9E-59186#w-59186|website=Kotobank|title=形容動詞}}</ref> (hence the English moniker, "''na''-adjectives"):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Irrealis<br />未然形
! Adverbial<br />連用形
! Conclusive<br />終止形
! Attributive<br />連体形
! Hypothetical<br />仮定形
! Imperative<br />命令形
|-
| だろ -daro
| だっ -daQ<br />で -de<br />に -ni
| だ -da
| な -na
| なら -nara
| &nbsp;
|}

The "conclusive" and "attributive" forms, だ and な, were constructed similarly, from a combination of a [[Japanese particles|particle]] and an inflection form of the old verb あり (''ari'', "to exist").
*で + あり ("conclusive") → であり → であ → だ<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%A0-556047#w-556054|website=Kotobank|title=だ}}</ref>
*に + ある ("attributive") → なる → なん → な<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%AA-586863#w-2069724|website=Kotobank|title=な}}</ref>

(Note: で itself was also a contraction of earlier にて.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%A7-573220#w-2054769|website=Kotobank|title=で}}</ref>)

In modern Japanese, である ("conclusive") simply retains the older appearance of だ, while です is a different verb that can be used as a suppleted form of だ. Multiple hypotheses have been proposed for the etymology of です, one of which is a contraction of であります:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E3%81%A7%E3%81%99-575878|website=Kotobank|title=です}}</ref>
*で + あり ("adverbial") + ます → であります → です

The basic construction of the negative form of a Japanese verb is the "irrealis" form followed by ない, which would result in such hypothetical constructions as *だらない and *であらない. However, these constructions are not used in modern Japanese, and the construction ではない is used instead.<ref name=handbook>{{cite book|page=15|chapter=Verbs|title=Handbook of Modern Japanese Grammar|last=Matsuoka McClain|first=Yoko|publisher=The Hokuseido Press|location=Tokyo|year=1983|edition=6th}}</ref> This is because *あらない, the hypothetically regular negative form of ある, is not used either, and is simply replaced with ない.
*あら ("irrealis") + ない → ない
*であら ("irrealis") + ない → ではない
*だら ("irrealis") + ない → ではない → じゃない

While the auxiliary ない causes suppletion, other auxiliaries such as ん and ありません do not necessarily.
*あら ("irrealis") + ん → あらん
*あり ("adverbial") + ませ + ん → ありません
*であり ("adverbial") + ませ + ん → でありません

For です, its historical "irrealis" form, でせ has not been attested to create a negative form (only でせう → でしょう has been attested, and there were and are no *でせん and *でせない).<ref>{{cite book|page=508|title=日本語文法大辞典|last=Yamaguchi|first=Akiho|last2=秋山|first2=守英|publisher=Meiji Shoin|date=1 March 2001}}</ref> Thus, it has to borrow でありません as its negative form instead.<ref name=handbook/>

To express a potential meaning, as in "can do", most verbs use the "irrealis" form followed by れる or られる. する, notably has no such construction, and has to use a different verb for this meaning, できる.

=== Latin ===
{{Main|Latin conjugation}}[[Latin]] has several suppletive verbs. A few examples, listed by [[principal parts]]:
:*''sum, esse, fuī, futūrus'' - "be".
:*''ferō, ferre, tulī or tetulī, lātus'' - "carry, bear".
:*''fīō, fierī, factus sum'' (suppletive and [[semi-deponent]]) - "become, be made, happen"

=== Polish ===
In some Slavic languages, a few verbs have imperfective and perfective forms arising from different roots. For example, in [[Polish language|Polish]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb !! [[Imperfective]] !! [[Perfective]]
|-
! to take
| {{lang|pl|brać}} || {{lang|pl|wziąć}}
|-
! to say
| {{lang|pl|mówić}} || {{lang|pl|powiedzieć}}
|-
! to see
| {{lang|pl|widzieć}} || {{lang|pl|zobaczyć}}
|-
! to watch
| {{lang|pl|oglądać}} || {{lang|pl|obejrzeć}}
|-
! to put
| {{lang|pl|kłaść}} || {{lang|pl|położyć}}
|-
! to find
| {{lang|pl|znajdować}} || {{lang|pl|znaleźć}}
|-
! to go in/to go out (on foot)
| {{lang|pl|wchodzić, wychodzić}} || {{lang|pl|wejść, wyjść}}
|-
! to ride in/to ride out (by car)
| {{lang|pl|wjeżdżać, wyjeżdżać}} || {{lang|pl|wjechać, wyjechać}}
|}
Note that {{lang|pl|z—}}, {{lang|pl|przy—}}, {{lang|pl|w—}}, and {{lang|pl|wy—}} are [[prefix]]es and are not part of the root

In [[Polish language|Polish]], the plural form of {{lang|pl|rok}} ("year") is {{lang|pl|lata}} which comes from the plural of {{lang|pl|lato}} ("summer"). A similar suppletion occurs in {{langx|ru|год|god}} ("year") > {{langx|ru|лет|let|label=none}} (genitive of "years").

=== Romanian ===
The Romanian verb {{lang|ro|a fi}} ("to be") is suppletive and irregular, with the infinitive coming from Latin ''fieri'', but conjugated forms from forms of already suppletive Latin ''sum''. For example, {{lang|ro|eu sunt}} ("I am"), {{lang|ro|tu ești}} ("you are"), {{lang|ro|eu am fost}} ("I have been"), {{lang|ro|eu eram}} ("I used to be"), {{lang|ro|eu fusei/fui}} ("I was"); while the subjunctive, also used to form the future in {{lang|ro|o să fiu}} ("I will be/am going to be"), is linked to the infinitive.

=== Russian ===
In [[Russian language|Russian]], the word {{langx|ru|человек|chelovek|label=none}} ("man, human being") is suppletive. The strict plural form, {{langx|ru|человеки|cheloveki|label=none}}, is used only in Orthodox Church contexts, with numerals (e. g. {{langx|ru|пять человек|pyat chelovek|label=none}} "five people") and in humorous context. It may have originally been the unattested {{langx|ru|*человекы|*cheloveky|label=none}}. In any case, in modern usage, it has been replaced by {{langx|ru|люди|lyudi|label=none}}, the singular form of which is known in Russian only as a component of compound words (such as {{langx|ru|простолюдин|prostolyudin|label=none}}). This suppletion also exists in [[Polish language|Polish]] ({{lang|pl|człowiek}} > {{lang|pl|ludzie}}), [[Czech language|Czech]] ({{lang|cs|člověk}} > {{lang|cs|lidé}}), [[Serbo-Croatian]] ({{lang|sr|čovjek}} > {{lang|sr|ljudi}}),<ref>{{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |editor1-last=Tatarin |editor1-first=Milovan |title=Zavičajnik: zbornik Stanislava Marijanovića: povodom sedamdesetogodišnjice života i četrdesetpetogodišnjice znanstvenoga rada |publisher=Sveučilište Josipa Jurja Strossmayera, Filozofski fakultet |page=191 |language=sh |chapter=Gramatička kategorija broja |trans-chapter=Grammatical category of number |chapter-url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/426600.GRAMATICKA_KATEGORIJA_BR.PDF |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/426600.GRAMATICKA_KATEGORIJA_BR.PDF |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |location=Osijek |year=2005 |isbn=953-6456-54-0 |oclc=68777865 |s2cid=224274961 |ssrn=3438755 |id={{CROSBI|426600}} |access-date=22 September 2021}}</ref> [[Slovene language|Slovene]] ({{lang|sl|človek}} > {{lang|sl|ljudje}}), and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ({{lang|mk|човек}} ({{transliteration|mk|čovek}}) > {{lang|mk|луѓе}} ({{transliteration|mk|lugje}})).

== Generalizations ==
Strictly speaking, suppletion occurs when different ''inflections'' of a lexeme (i.e., with the same [[lexical category]]) have etymologically ''unrelated'' stems. The term is also used in looser senses, albeit less formally.

=== Semantic relations ===
The term "suppletion" is also used in the looser sense when there is a semantic link between words but not an etymological one; unlike the strict inflectional sense, these may be in different [[lexical category|lexical categories]], such as noun/verb.<ref>Paul Georg Meyer (1997) ''Coming to know: studies in the lexical semantics and pragmatics of academic English,'' p. 130: "Although many linguists have referred to [collateral adjectives] (paternal, vernal) as 'suppletive' adjectives with respect to their base nouns (father, spring), the nature of ..."</ref><ref>''Aspects of the theory of morphology,'' by Igor Mel’čuk, [https://books.google.com/books?id=k_GtOxicc0QC&dq=%22suppletive+adjectives%22&pg=PA461 p. 461]</ref>

English noun/adjective pairs such as father/paternal or cow/bovine are also referred to as [[collateral adjectives]]. In this sense of the term, ''father''/''fatherly'' is non-suppletive. ''Fatherly'' is [[Derivation (linguistics)|derived]] from ''father'', while father/paternal is suppletive. Likewise ''cow''/''cowish'' is non-suppletive, while ''cow''/''bovine'' is suppletive.

In these cases, father/pater- and cow/bov- are cognate via [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], but 'paternal' and 'bovine' are borrowings into English (via Old French and Latin). The pairs are distantly etymologically related, but the words are not from a single Modern English stem.

=== Weak suppletion ===
The term "weak suppletion" is sometimes used in contemporary synchronic morphology in reference to sets of stems whose alternations cannot be accounted for by [[Synchrony and diachrony|synchronically]] [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] phonological rules. For example, the two forms ''child''/''children'' are etymologically from the same source, but the alternation does not reflect any regular morphological process in modern English: this makes the pair appear to be suppletive, even though the forms go back to the same root.

In that understanding, English has abundant examples of weak suppletion in its [[English irregular verbs|verbal inflection]]: e.g. ''bring''/''brought'', ''take''/''took'', ''see''/''saw'', etc. Even though the forms are [[Germanic strong verb|etymologically related]] in each pair, no productive morphological rule can derive one form from the other in synchrony. Alternations just have to be learned by speakers — in much the same way as truly suppletive pairs such as ''go''/''went''.

Such cases, which were traditionally simply labelled "[[Inflection#Regular|irregular]]", are sometimes described with the term "weak suppletion", so as to restrict the term "suppletion" to etymologically unrelated stems.

==See also==
* [[Collateral adjective]]—denominal adjectives based on a suppletive root, such as ''arm ~ brachial''
* [[Irregular verb]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
{{wiktionary|Appendix:English irregular adjectives}}
{{wiktionary|Category:Suppletions by language}}
{{Wiktionary|suppletion}}
*[http://www.smg.surrey.ac.uk/Suppletion/ Surrey Suppletion Database] – examples of suppletion in different languages

[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]