Editing Stuart Kauffman

{{Short description|American medical doctor & academic}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2011}} 
{{Infobox scientist
| name    = Stuart Kauffman
| image   = Stuart Kauffman.jpg
| caption = Stuart Kauffman in April 2010
| birth_date   = {{Birth date and age|1939|9|28|mf=yes}}
| birth_place  = [[Sacramento]]
| death_date   = 
| workplaces   = [[University of Chicago]]<br>[[University of Pennsylvania]]<br>[[University of Calgary]]
| education    = [[Dartmouth College]]<br>[[Oxford University]]<br>[[University of California, San Francisco]]
| known_for    = [[NK model]], [[origin of life]], [[gene regulatory networks]], adjacent possible, poised realm
| awards       = [[American Society for Cybernetics#Wiener and McCulloch awards|Wiener Medal]] (1969)<br>[[Marshall Scholarship|Marshall Scholar]]<br>[[MacArthur Fellowship|MacArthur Fellow]]
| death_place  = 
}}
'''Stuart Alan Kauffman''' (born September 28, 1939) is an American medical doctor, [[theoretical biology|theoretical biologist]], and [[complex system]]s researcher who studies the [[origin of life]] on [[Earth]]. He was a professor at the [[University of Chicago]], [[University of Pennsylvania]], and [[University of Calgary]]. He is currently [[emeritus]] professor of biochemistry at the University of Pennsylvania and affiliate faculty at the [[Institute for Systems Biology]]. He has a number of awards including a [[MacArthur Fellowship]] and a [[American Society for Cybernetics#Wiener and McCulloch awards|Wiener Medal]].

He is best known for arguing that the complexity of biological systems and organisms might result as much from [[self-organization]] and far-from-equilibrium dynamics as from Darwinian [[natural selection]], as discussed in his book ''Origins of Order'' (1993). In 1967{{sfn|Kauffman|McCulloch|1967}} and 1969{{sfn|Kauffman|1969}} he used random [[Boolean network]]s to investigate generic self-organizing properties of gene regulatory networks, proposing that cell types are dynamical attractors in gene regulatory networks and that cell differentiation can be understood as transitions between attractors. Recent evidence suggests that cell types in humans and other organisms are attractors.{{sfn|Huang|Kauffman|2009}}{{sfn|Nykter|Price|Aldana|Ramsey|2008}} In 1971 he suggested that a zygote may not be able to access all the cell type attractors in its gene regulatory network during development and that some of the developmentally inaccessible cell types might be cancer cell types.{{sfn|Kauffman|1971b}} This suggested the possibility of "cancer differentiation therapy". He also proposed the self-organized emergence of collectively [[autocatalytic set]]s of [[polymers]], specifically [[peptides]], for the origin of molecular reproduction,{{sfn|Kauffman|1971a}}{{sfn|Kauffman|2011}} which have found experimental support.{{sfn|Dadon|Wagner|Ashkenasy|2008}}{{sfn|Dadon|Wagner|Cohen-Luria|Ashkenasy|2012}}

==Education and early career==
Kauffman graduated from [[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]] in 1960, was awarded the BA (Hons) by [[Oxford University]] (where he was a [[Marshall Scholar]]) in 1963, and completed a medical degree (M.D.) at the [[University of California, San Francisco]] in 1968. After completing his internship, he moved into [[developmental genetics]] of the fruit fly, holding appointments first at the [[University of Chicago]] from 1969 to 1973, the National Cancer Institute from 1973 to 1975, and then at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] from 1975 to 1994, where he rose to professor of [[biochemistry]] and [[biophysics]].

==Career==
Kauffman became known through his association with the [[Santa Fe Institute]] (a non-profit research institute dedicated to the study of [[complex systems]]), where he was faculty in residence from 1986 to 1997, and through his work on [[model (abstract)|models]] in various areas of [[biology]]. These included [[autocatalytic set]]s in [[origin of life]] research, [[gene regulatory network]]s in [[developmental biology]], and [[fitness landscape]]s in [[evolutionary biology]]. With Marc Ballivet, Kauffman holds the founding broad biotechnology patents in [[combinatorial chemistry]] and applied [[molecular evolution]], first issued in France in 1987,<ref>{{cite patent |url=https://www.google.com/patents/EP0229046A1 |country=EP |number=0229046A1 |title=Procédé d'obtention d'ADN, ARN, peptides, polypeptides ou protéines, par une technique de recombinaison d'ADN}}</ref> in England in 1989, and later in North America.<ref>{{patent|US|5,723,323|"Method of identifying a stochastically-generated peptide, polypeptide, or protein having ligand binding property and compositions thereof"}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent |url=https://www.google.com/patents/CA1339937C |country=CA |number=1339937C |title=Procedure for obtaining DNA, RNA peptides, polypeptides, or proteins by recombinant DNA techniques}}</ref>

In 1996, with [[Ernst & Young|Ernst and Young]], Kauffman started [[BiosGroup]], a [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]], [[New Mexico]]-based for-profit company that applied [[complex systems]] methodology to business problems. BiosGroup was acquired by [[NuTech Solutions]] in early 2003. NuTech was bought by [[Netezza]] in 2008, and later by IBM.<ref>{{cite news|title=NuTech Solutions to Acquire BiosGroup's Software Development Operations|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20030220005174/en/NuTech-Solutions-Acquire-BiosGroups-Software-Development-Operations|access-date=5 July 2015|agency=BusinessWire|date=20 February 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Netezza Corporation Acquires NuTech Solutions|url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080515006480/en/Netezza-Corporation-Acquires-NuTech-Solutions|access-date=5 July 2015|agency=BusinessWire|date=15 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=IBM to Acquire Netezza|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/32514.wss|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923232722/http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/32514.wss|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 23, 2010|website=IBM News Room|publisher=IBM|access-date=5 July 2015|date=20 September 2010}}</ref>

From 2005 to 2009 Kauffman held a joint appointment at the [[University of Calgary]] in biological sciences, physics, and astronomy. He was also an adjunct professor in the Department of Philosophy at the [[University of Calgary]]. He was an iCORE (Informatics Research Circle of Excellence) chair and the director of the Institute for Biocomplexity and Informatics. Kauffman was also invited to help launch the Science and Religion initiative at [[Harvard Divinity School]]; serving as visiting professor in 2009.

In January 2009 Kauffman became a Finland Distinguished Professor (FiDiPro) at [[Tampere University of Technology]], Department of Signal Processing. The appointment ended in December, 2012. The subject of the FiDiPro research project is the development of delayed [[stochastic calculus|stochastic models]] of [[genetic regulatory network]]s based on [[gene expression]] data at the [[single-molecule experiment|single molecule]] level.

In January 2010 Kauffman joined the [[University of Vermont]] faculty where he continued his work for two years with UVM's Complex Systems Center.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.vermontbiz.com/people/september/stuart-kauffman-complex-systems-pioneer-join-uvm-faculty |title=Stuart Kauffman, complex systems pioneer, to join UVM faculty |work=Vermontbiz.com |publisher=Vermont Business Magazine |date= September 30, 2009 |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref> From early 2011 to April 2013, Kauffman was a regular contributor to the [[NPR]] Blog 13.7, Cosmos and Culture,<ref name=NPR>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/people/340090638/stuart-kauffman |title=Stuart Kauffman |work=NPR.org |access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref> with topics ranging from the life sciences, systems biology, and medicine, to spirituality, economics, and the law.<ref name=NPR/>

In May 2013 he joined the Institute for Systems Biology, in Seattle, Washington. Following the death of his wife, Kauffman cofounded Transforming Medicine: The Elizabeth Kauffman Institute.{{sfn|Kauffman|Hill|Hood|Huang|2014b}}

In 2014, Kauffman with Samuli Niiranen and Gabor Vattay was issued a founding patent<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120071333 |title=Uses of systems with degrees of freedom poised between fully quantum and fully classical states }}</ref> on the ''poised realm'' (see below), an apparently new "state of matter" hovering reversibly between quantum and classical realms.{{sfn|Vattay|Salahub|Csaibai|Nassmi|2015}}

In 2015, he was invited to help initiate a general a discussion on rethinking economic growth for the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://academicimpact.un.org/content/rethinking-economic-growth/ |title=Rethinking Economic Growth |date=11 May 2015 |website=academicimpact.un.org |access-date=2020-05-26}}</ref> Around the same time, he did research with [[University of Oxford]] professor [[Teppo Felin]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Felin | first1 = Teppo | last2 = Kauffman | first2 = Stuart | last3 = Koppl | first3 = Roger | last4 = Longo | first4 = Giuseppe | year = 2014 | title = Economic opportunity and evolution: Beyond landscapes and bounded rationality | url =https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01415115/file/FelinKauffmanKopplLongoSEJ2014.pdf | journal = Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 269–282 | doi=10.1002/sej.1184}}</ref>

==Fitness landscapes==
[[File:Visualization of two dimensions of a NK fitness landscape.png|thumb|Visualization of two dimensions of a NK fitness landscape. The arrows represent various mutational paths that the population could follow while evolving on the fitness landscape.]]
{{main|Fitness landscape}}

Kauffman's NK model defines a [[combinatorial]] [[phase space]], consisting of every string (chosen from a given alphabet) of length <math>N</math>. For each string in this search space, a [[scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] value (called the ''[[fitness function|fitness]]'') is defined. If a distance [[metric (mathematics)|metric]] is defined between strings, the resulting structure is a ''landscape''.

Fitness values are defined according to the specific incarnation of the model, but the key feature of the NK model is that the fitness of a given string <math>S</math> is the sum of contributions from each locus <math>S_i</math> in the string:

:<math>F(S) = \sum_i f(S_i),</math>

and the contribution from each locus in general depends on the value of <math>K</math> other loci:

:<math>f(S_i) = f(S_i, S^i_1, \dots, S^i_K), \, </math>

where <math>S^i_j</math> are the other loci upon which the fitness of <math>S_i</math> depends.

Hence, the fitness function <math>f(S_i, S^i_1, \dots, S^i_K)</math> is a [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]] between strings of length ''K''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1 and scalars, which Weinberger's later work calls "fitness contributions". Such fitness contributions are often chosen randomly from some specified probability distribution.

In 1991, Weinberger published a detailed analysis<ref name="AnalyticOptima">{{cite journal|last=Weinberger|first=Edward|journal=Physical Review A|date=November 15, 1991|volume=44|issue=10|series=10|pages=6399–6413|doi=10.1103/physreva.44.6399|title=Local properties of Kauffman's N-k model: A tunably rugged energy landscape|pmid=9905770|bibcode=1991PhRvA..44.6399W}}</ref> of the case in which <math>1 << k \le N</math> and the fitness contributions are chosen randomly. His analytical estimate of the number of local optima was later shown to be flawed.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} However, numerical experiments included in Weinberger's analysis support his analytical result that the expected fitness of a string is normally distributed with a mean of approximately
<math> \mu + \sigma \sqrt{{2 \ln (k+1)} \over {k+1}}</math>
and a variance of approximately
<math> {{(k+1)\sigma^2} \over {N[k+1 + 2(k+2)\ln(k+1)]}}</math>.

==Recognition and awards==
Kauffman held a [[MacArthur Fellowship]] between 1987 and 1992. He also holds an Honorary Degree in Science from the University of Louvain (1997); He was awarded the Norbert Wiener Memorial Gold Medal for [[Cybernetics]] in 1973, the Gold Medal of the [[Accademia dei Lincei]] in Rome in 1990, the Trotter Prize for Information and Complexity in 2001, and the [[Herbert Simon award for Complex Systems]] in 2013. He became a Fellow of the [[Royal Society of Canada]] in 2009.

== Works ==

Kauffman is best known for arguing that the complexity of biological systems and organisms might result as much from [[self-organization#Biology|self-organization]] and far-from-equilibrium dynamics as from Darwinian [[natural selection]] in three areas of [[evolutionary biology]], namely [[population dynamics]], [[molecular evolution]], and [[morphogenesis]]. With respect to molecular biology, Kauffman's [[Structuralism (biology)|structuralist]] approach has been criticized for ignoring the role of [[energy]] in driving [[biochemistry|biochemical reactions]] in cells, which can fairly be called self-[[catalysis|catalyzing]] but which do not simply self-organize.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fox |first=Ronald F. |title=Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution |journal=Biophys. J. |date=December 1993 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2698–2699 |pmc=1226010 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 |bibcode=1993BpJ....65.2698F}}</ref> Some biologists and physicists working in Kauffman's area have questioned his claims about self-organization and evolution. A case in point is some comments in the 2001 book ''Self-Organization in Biological Systems''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Camazine |first1=Scott |last2=Deneubourg |first2=Jean-Louis |last3=Franks |first3=Nigel R. |last4=Sneyd |first4=James |last5=Theraulaz |first5=Guy |last6=Bonabeau |first6=Eric |date=2001 |title=Self-Organization in Biological Systems |series=Princeton Studies in Complexity |location=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_OXaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 88–89], [https://books.google.com/books?id=_OXaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 283] |doi=10.2307/j.ctvzxx9tx |isbn=0691012113 |oclc=44876868 |jstor=j.ctvzxx9tx}}</ref> Roger Sansom's 2011 book ''Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve to Control Development'' is an extended criticism of Kauffman's model of self-organization in relation to gene regulatory networks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sansom |first=Roger |date=2011 |title=Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve To Control Development |series=Life and Mind: Philosophical Issues in Biology and Psychology |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=9780262195812 |oclc=694600461 |doi=10.7551/mitpress/9780262195812.001.0001}} See also: {{cite journal |last=Wray |first=Gregory A. |date=December 2012 |title=Adaptation and Gene Networks: ''Ingenious Genes: How Gene Regulation Networks Evolve to Control Development'' [book review] |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1084–1085 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.12.10 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Borrowing from [[spin glass]] models in physics, Kauffman invented "N-K" fitness landscapes, which have found applications in biology{{sfn|Kauffman|Johnsen|1991}} and economics.{{sfn|Rivkin|Siggelkow|2002}}{{sfn|Felin|Kauffman|Koppl|Longo|2014}} In related work, Kauffman and colleagues have examined subcritical, critical, and [[wiktionary:supracritical|supracritical]] behavior in economic systems.{{sfn|Hanel|Kauffman|Thurner|2007}}

Kauffman's work translates his biological findings to the [[mind-body problem]] and issues in neuroscience, proposing attributes of a new "poised realm" that hovers indefinitely between [[quantum coherence]] and [[Classical physics|classicality]]. He published on this topic in his paper "Answering Descartes: beyond Turing".{{sfn|Kauffman|2016}} With Giuseppe Longo and Maël Montévil, he wrote (January 2012) "No Entailing Laws, But Enablement in the Evolution of the Biosphere",{{sfn|Longo|Montévil|Kauffman|2012}} which argued that evolution is not "law entailed" like physics.
[[File:Adjacent Possible1.png|thumb|A diagram illustrating the "adjacent possible" concept, with a curved gray line dividing a blue background into two sections. The x-axis is labeled "Society's readiness for adoption," and the y-axis is labeled "Competence of technology." A black dot labeled "Adjacent possible" marks the intersection of the curve, indicating the optimal point where technological capability and societal acceptance align for successful innovation.]]
Kauffman's work is posted on Physics [[ArXiv]], including "Beyond the Stalemate: Mind/Body, Quantum Mechanics, Free Will, Possible Panpsychism, Possible Solution to the Quantum Enigma" (October 2014){{sfn|Kauffman|2014}} and "Quantum Criticality at the Origin of Life" (February 2015).{{sfn|Vattay|Salahub|Csaibai|Nassmi|2015}}

Kauffman has contributed to the emerging field of cumulative technological evolution by introducing a mathematics of the ''adjacent possible''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tria |first1=F. |last2=Loreto |first2=V. |last3=Servedio |first3=V. D. P. |last4=Strogatz |first4=S. H. |date=July 2014 |title=The dynamics of correlated novelties |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=5890 |doi=10.1038/srep05890 |pmid=25080941 |pmc=5376195|arxiv=1310.1953 |bibcode=2014NatSR...4E5890T }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Monechi |first1=Bernardo |last2=Ruiz-Serrano |first2=Álvaro |last3=Tria |first3=Francesca |last4=Loreto |first4=Vittorio |date=June 2017 |title=Waves of novelties in the expansion into the adjacent possible |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=e0179303 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179303 |pmid=28594909|pmc=5464662 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1279303M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

He has published over 350 articles and 6 books: ''The Origins of Order'' (1993), ''At Home in the Universe'' (1995), ''Investigations'' (2000), ''Reinventing the Sacred'' (2008), ''Humanity in a Creative Universe'' (2016), and ''A World Beyond Physics'' (2019).

In 2016, Kauffman wrote a children's story, "Patrick, Rupert, Sly & Gus Protocells", a narrative about unprestatable niche creation in the biosphere, which was later produced as a short animated video.<ref>The story can be read here: {{cite web |url=https://iscpif.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/THE-SURPRISING-TRUE-2STORY-OF-PATRICK-S-RUPERT-R.-SLY-S.-AND-GUS-G.-.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527002318/https://iscpif.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/THE-SURPRISING-TRUE-2STORY-OF-PATRICK-S-RUPERT-R.-SLY-S.-AND-GUS-G.-.pdf |archive-date=2020-05-27 |url-status=live |title=The Surprising True Story of Patrick S., Rupert R., Sly S., and Gus G. Protocells in Their Very Early Years |date=16 August 2016}} Kauffman narrates the story in 2017 here: Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/mxALd-rqSBc Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20170312233945/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxALd-rqSBc&feature=youtu.be Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxALd-rqSBc |title=The Surprising True Story of Patrick, Rupert, Sly, and Gus |website=[[YouTube]] |date=10 March 2017 |access-date=2020-05-26}}{{cbignore}} An animated version is here: Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/qKXt7zdLVR4 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20201002012309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKXt7zdLVR4&t=663s Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKXt7zdLVR4|title=The origins of life and its continuing wonder |website=[[YouTube]] |publisher=Science Animated |date=24 August 2020 |quote=Stuart Kauffman explains how life evolved from its earlier origins some 3,700 million years ago through the story of four protocells—Patrick, Rupert, Sly and Gus. He explains why our knowledge of the origins and early evolution of life can greatly help us understand our true place in the world.}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In 2017, exploring the concept that reality consists of both ontologically real "possibles" (res potentia) and ontologically real "actuals" (res extensa), Kauffman co-authored, with Ruth Kastner and Michael Epperson, "Taking Heisenberg's Potentia Seriously".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kastner |first1=Ruth E. |last2=Kauffman |first2=Stuart |last3=Epperson |first3=Michael |date=2019 |chapter=Taking Heisenberg's Potentia Seriously |title=Adventures in Quantumland: Exploring Our Unseen Reality |location=London; Hackensack, NJ |publisher=World Scientific |pages=223–237 |isbn=978-1-78634-641-4 |oclc=1083673555 |doi=10.1142/9781786346421_0011|arxiv=1709.03595 |s2cid=4882205 }}</ref>

===Bibliography===
;Selected articles
* {{cite tech report |last1=Kauffman |first1=S. A. |last2=McCulloch |first2=W. S. |year=1967 |title=Random Nets of Formal Genes |series=Quarterly Progress Report 34 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology }}
* {{cite journal |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Metabolic stability and epigenesis in randomly constructed genetic nets |journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]] |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=437–467 |date=1969 |doi=10.1016/0022-5193(69)90015-0 |pmid=5803332|bibcode=1969JThBi..22..437K }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kauffman |first=S. A. |year=1971a |title=Cellular Homeostasis, Epigenesis, and Replication in Randomly Aggregated Macromolecular Systems |journal=Journal of Cybernetics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=71–96 |doi=10.1080/01969727108545830}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kauffman |first=S. A. |year=1971b |title=Differentiation of Malignant to Benign Cells |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |pages=429–451 |doi=10.1016/0022-5193(71)90020-8 |pmid=5556142 |volume=31|issue=3 |bibcode=1971JThBi..31..429K }}
* {{cite journal |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Antichaos and Adaptation |journal=[[Scientific American]] |date=August 1991 |url=http://www.santafe.edu/media/workingpapers/91-09-037.pdf |access-date=2015-04-28 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0891-78 |volume=265 |issue=2 |pages=78–84|pmid=1862333 |bibcode=1991SciAm.265b..78K |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kauffman |first1=S. A. |last2=Johnsen |first2=S |date=1991 |title=Co-Evolution to the Edge of Chaos: Coupled Fitness Landscapes, Poised States, and Co-Evolutionary Avalanches |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |volume=149 |issue=4 |pages=467–505 |doi=10.1016/s0022-5193(05)80094-3|pmid=2062105 |bibcode=1991JThBi.149..467K |url=http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/08/bblonder/phys120/docs/kauffman.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.502.3299 }}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |chapter=Autonomous Agents |editor1=Barrow, John D. |editor-link=John D. Barrow |editor2=Davies, Paul C. W. |editor2-link=Paul Davies |editor3=Harper, Charles L. Jr. |title=Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology, and Complexity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0521831130 |ref=none}} 
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |chapter=Prolegomenon to a General Biology |editor1=Dembski, William A. |editor-link=William A. Dembski |editor2=Ruse, Michael |editor2-link=Michael Ruse |title=Debating Design: From Darwin to DNA |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1139459617 |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman06/kauffman06_index.html |title=Beyond reductionism: Reinventing The Sacred |first=Stuart A. |last=Kauffman |date=November 12, 2006 |work=Edge.com |publisher=Edge Foundation |access-date=2015-04-28 |ref=none}} 
* {{cite journal |last1=Hanel |first1=R. |last2=Kauffman |first2=S. A. |last3=Thurner |first3=S. |year=2007 |title=Towards a Physics of Evolution: Critical Diversity Dynamics at the Edges of Collapse and Bursts of Diversification |journal=[[Physical Review E]] |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=036110 |doi=10.1103/physreve.76.036110|pmid=17930309 |bibcode=2007PhRvE..76c6110H }}
* {{cite journal |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Why Humanity Needs a God of Creativity |journal=[[New Scientist]] |issue=2655 |date=May 7, 2008 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19826556.000-perspectives-why-humanity-needs-a-god-of-creativity.html |access-date=2015-04-28 |doi=10.1016/s0262-4079(08)61171-9 |volume=198 |pages=52–53 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Nykter |first1=M. |last2=Price |first2=N. D. |last3=Aldana |first3=M. |last4=Ramsey |first4=S. A. |last5=Kauffman |first5=S. A. |last6=Hood |first6=L. |last7=Yli-Harja |first7=O. |last8=Shmulevich |first8=I. |year=2008 |title=Gene Expression Dynamics in the Macrophage Exhibit Criticality |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=1897–1900 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0711525105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.1897N |pmid=18250330 |pmc=2538855|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=S. |last2=Hu |first2=L. |last3=Kauffman |first3=S. |last4=Zhang |first4=W. |last5=Shmulevich |first5=I. |year=2009 |title=Using cell fate attractors to uncover transcriptional regulation of HL60 neutrophil differentiation |journal=BMC Systems Biology |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=20 |doi=10.1186/1752-0509-3-20|pmid=19222862 |pmc=2652435 |doi-access=free |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Huang |first1=S. |last2=Kauffman |first2=S. A. |year=2009 |chapter=Complex Gene Regulatory Networks - from Structure to Biological Observables: Cell Fate Determination |editor=Meyers, R. A. |title=Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-75888-6 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kauffman |first=S. A. |year=2011 |title=Approaches to the Origin of Life on Earth |journal=Life |volume=1 |number=1 |pages=34–48 |doi=10.3390/life1010034 |pmid=25382055 |pmc=4187126 |bibcode=2011Life....1...34K |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite arXiv |last1=Longo |first1=G. |last2=Montévil |first2=M. |last3=Kauffman |first3=S. |eprint=1201.2069|title=No entailing laws, but enablement in the evolution of the biosphere |date=January 2012 |class=q-bio.OT }}
* {{cite journal |first1=Stuart |last1=Kauffman |first2=Colin |last2=Hill |first3=Leroy |last3=Hood |first4=Sui |last4=Huang |title=Transforming Medicine: A Manifesto |journal=Scientific American Worldview |url=http://www.saworldview.com/special-report-cancer/transforming-medicine-a-manifesto/ |year=2014b |access-date=2015-04-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713110927/http://www.saworldview.com/special-report-cancer/transforming-medicine-a-manifesto/ |archive-date=July 13, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}
* {{cite arXiv |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Beyond the Stalemate: Conscious Mind-Body - Quantum Mechanics - Free Will - Possible Panpsychism - Possible Interpretation of Quantum Enigma |date=October 2014 |eprint=1410.2127|class=physics.hist-ph }}
* {{cite journal |ssrn=2197512 |title=Economic Opportunity and Evolution: Beyond Landscapes and Bounded Rationality |last1=Felin |first1=T. |last2=Kauffman |first2=S. |last3=Koppl |first3=R. |last4=Longo |first4=G. |journal=[[Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal]] |date=December 2014 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=269–282 |doi=10.1002/sej.1184 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01415115/file/FelinKauffmanKopplLongoSEJ2014.pdf |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vattay |first1=G. |last2=Salahub |first2=D. |last3=Csaibai |first3=I. |last4=Nassmi |first4=A. |last5=Kauffman |first5=S. |title=Quantum Criticality at the Origin of Life |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=626 |pages=012023 |date=February 2015 |issue=1 |arxiv=1502.06880 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/626/1/012023 |bibcode=2015JPhCS.626a2023V |s2cid=18439451 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kauffman |first1=S. |year=2016 |chapter=Answering Descartes: Beyond Turing |title=The Once and Future Turing |editor1=Cooper, S. Barry |editor-link=S. Barry Cooper |editor2=Hodges, Andrew |editor2-link=Andrew Hodges |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}

;Books
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=The Origins of Order: Self Organization and Selection in Evolution |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-507951-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0195111309 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Investigations |url=https://archive.org/details/investigations00kauf |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0199728947 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Reinventing the Sacred: A New View of Science, Reason, and Religion |publisher=Basic Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-465-00300-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/reinventingsacre00kauf_0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=Humanity in a Creative Universe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-939045-8|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Stuart |last=Kauffman |title=A World Beyond Physics |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-087133-8 |ref=none}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
* {{cite journal |last1=Dadon |first1=Z. |last2=Wagner |first2=N. |last3=Ashkenasy |first3=G. |year=2008 |title=The Road to Non-Enzymatic Molecular Networks |journal=Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. |volume=47 |issue=33 |pages=6128–6136 |doi=10.1002/anie.200702552|pmid=18613152 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dadon |first1=Z. |last2=Wagner |first2=N. |last3=Cohen-Luria |first3=R. |last4=Ashkenasy |first4=G. |year=2012 |chapter=Reaction Networks. Wagner and Askkenazy's (2008) results demonstrate that molecular replication need not be based on DNA or RNA template replication, still the dominant view for the origin of life |editor1=Gale, P. A. |editor2=Steed J. W. |title=Supramolecular Chemistry: From Molecules to Nanomaterials |publisher=John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-470-74640-0 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rivkin |first1=J. W. |last2=Siggelkow |first2=N. |title=Organizational Sticking Points on NK Landscapes |journal=Complexity |volume=7 |issue=5 |date=May–June 2002 |pages=31–43 |url=http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=14814 |access-date=2015-04-28 |doi=10.1002/cplx.10037|bibcode=2002Cmplx...7e..31R }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Chialvo |first=D. R. |chapter=Critical Brain Dynamics at Large Scale |title=Criticality in Neural Systems |volume=1 |editor2=Niebur, E. |editor1=Plenz D. |editor3=Schuster H. G. |publisher=Wiley |year=2013 |isbn=978-3-527-41104-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Goldstein |first=Jeffrey A. |date=2008 |title=Book Review of ''Reinventing the Sacred: A New View of Science, Reason, and Religion'', by Stuart Kauffman |journal=Emergence: Complexity & Organization |volume=10 |number=3 |pages=117–130 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |first=John |last=Horgan |date=February 4, 2015 |title=Seeker Stuart Kauffman on Free Will, God, ESP and Other Mysteries |journal=[[Scientific American]] |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/cross-check/2015/02/04/scientific-seeker-stuart-kauffman-on-free-will-god-esp-and-other-mysteries |access-date=2015-04-28 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=MacKenzie |first=Dana |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2002/feb/featsurprise |title=The Science of Surprise |journal=[[Discover (magazine)|Discover]] |volume=23 |number=2 |pages=59–63 |date=February 2002 |ref=none}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.salon.com/2008/11/19/stuart_kauffman/ |title=God Enough |first=Steve |last=Paulson |work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]] |date=November 9, 2008 |access-date=2015-04-28 |ref=none}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{cite web |url=https://vimeo.com/ondemand/stuartkauffman |title=Thinker of Untold Dreams: A Portrait of Stuart Kauffman |website=[[Vimeo]]}}
* Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/R9Mn1bppV7U Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200426234744/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9Mn1bppV7U&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9Mn1bppV7U |title=The Shape of History |website=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} A talk at the New England Complex Systems Institute, January 28, 2019.

{{Cybernetics}}

{{Authority control}}

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