Editing Stradivarius

{{short description|String instruments built by Stradivari family, particularly Antonio}}
{{About|the string-instrument family|other uses}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
[[File:stradshp.jpg|thumb|''Antonio Stradivari'', by [[Edgar Bundy]], 1893: a [[Romanticism|romanticized image]] of a craftsman-hero|upright=1.3]]

A '''Stradivarius''' is one of the string instruments, such as [[violins]], [[violas]], [[cellos]], and guitars, crafted by members of the [[Stradivari family]], particularly [[Antonio Stradivari]] ([[Latin]]: Antonius Stradivarius), in [[Cremona]], Italy, during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. These instruments are known for their craftsmanship, tonal quality, and lasting legacy, and are considered some of the finest ever made. Stradivari's violins, in particular, are coveted by musicians and collectors, with many selling for millions of dollars.<ref>{{cite news|title=Stradivarius violins fetch millions at auction |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180918-are-stradivarius-violins-really-the-best |work=BBC|date=2018-09-18}}</ref>

Antonio Stradivari made over 1,100 instruments, with approximately 650 surviving today. The exact methods Stradivari used to produce the instruments' famed sound remain unknown, with theories ranging from the unique quality of the wood used during the [[Little Ice Age]] to the varnishes and chemical treatments applied. Despite extensive scientific research, including modern acoustic analysis and [[CT scan]]s, no one has been able to conclusively replicate or fully explain the tonal qualities of Stradivarius instruments.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tai|first1=Hwan-Ching|title=Wood Treatment of Stradivarius Instruments|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=August 2017|url=https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2017/08/15/1708571114|access-date=September 9, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Knapton|first=Sarah|title=Secrets of Stradivarius violins unlocked by scientists |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/11835273/Secrets-of-Stradivarius-violins-unlocked-by-scientists.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=September 2, 2015|access-date=September 9, 2024}}</ref>

The reputation of Stradivarius instruments for having unmatched sound quality has been debated. Blind experiments conducted from the 19th century to the present have often found no significant difference between Stradivari violins and high-quality modern violins. These findings have led some to question the objectivity of the instruments' legendary status.<ref>{{cite news|last=Belluck|first=Pam|author-link=Pam Belluck|title=A Strad? Violinists Can't Tell|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/08/science/a-strad-violinists-cant-tell.html|date=7 April 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=9 April 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408200503/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/08/science/a-strad-violinists-cant-tell.html|archive-date=8 April 2014}}</ref>

Stradivarius instruments are still played by leading musicians and housed in museums worldwide, such as the ''[[Museo del Violino]]'' in Cremona, which preserves several Stradivarius instruments. Initiatives like the ''Stradivarius Sound Bank'' have aimed to digitally capture and preserve the sounds of these instruments for future generations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inside the extraordinary experiment to save the Stradivarius sound|url=https://www.popsci.com/story/stradivarius-sound-bank-preservation/|website=Popular Science|access-date=2024-09-09}}</ref> Stradivarius instruments have become known in popular culture, appearing in fiction and representing elite musical artistry.

==Construction==
[[File:Geigenzettel.png|thumb|Maker's label from Stradivari]]

Stradivari made his instruments using an inner form, unlike the French copyists, such as [[Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume|Vuillaume]], who employed an outer form. It is clear from the number of forms throughout his career that he experimented with some of the dimensions of his instruments.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Violin Forms of Antonio Stradivari |first=Stewart |last=Pollens |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfUsAAAACAAJ |year=1992 |publisher=Peter Biddulph |isbn=0-9520109-0-9}}</ref> The woods used included [[spruce]] for the top, [[willow]] for the internal blocks and linings, and [[maple]] for the back, ribs, and neck.<ref name="Pollens">{{cite book |last1=Pollens |first1=Stewart |title=The Manual of Musical Instrument Conservation |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1107077805 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7nbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT834}}</ref> Stradivari's sound is described as "direct and precise", responding to the slightest touch with refined direction and elegance.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://miocannone.com/our-blog/whats-the-difference-between-a-stradivarius-guarneri-and-amatise-violin/|title = The Amazing Stradivarius, Guarneri, and Amatise Violin Characteristics &#124; Mio Cannone Violini|date = 4 February 2022}}</ref>

There has been conjecture that the wood used may have been treated with several types of minerals, both before and after construction of a violin. Scientists at [[National Taiwan University]] have detected trace amounts of [[aluminum]], [[copper]], and [[calcium]] in wood from Stradivari violins.<ref name="Tai">{{cite journal |last1=Tai |first1=Hwan-Ching |last2=Li |first2=Guo-Chian |last3=Huang |first3=Shing-Jong |last4=Jhu |first4=Chang-Ruei |last5=Chung |first5=Jen-Hsuan |last6=Wang |first6=Bo Y. |last7=Hsu |first7=Chia-Shuo |last8=Brandmair |first8=Brigitte |last9=Chung |first9=Dai-Ting |last10=Chen |first10=Hao Ming |last11=Chan |first11=Jerry Chun Chung |title=Chemical distinctions between Stradivari's maple and modern tonewood |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=3 January 2017 |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=27–32 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1611253114 |pmid=27994135 |pmc=5224390 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114...27T |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Yin">{{cite news |last1=Yin |first1=Steph |title=The Brilliance of a Stradivari Violin Might Rest Within Its Wood |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/20/science/stradivari-violin-wood.html |access-date=14 June 2018 |work=The New York Times |date=20 December 2016}}</ref> The traces may have come from chemical preservatives applied by loggers to the wood they sold.<ref name="Distillations"/> As well, the violin makers applied varnishes to their instruments. Potassium borate ([[borax]]) may have been used to protect against [[woodworm]].<ref name="Uhlig">{{cite news |last1=Uhlig |first1=Robert |title=Stradivari 'owes it all to worms' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1328632/Stradivari-owes-it-all-to-worms.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1328632/Stradivari-owes-it-all-to-worms.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=14 June 2018 |work=The Telegraph |date=31 March 2001}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Sodium and [[potassium silicate]] may have been used to prevent [[mildew]], rotting and insect damage.<ref name="Lemonick">{{cite news |last1=Lemonick |first1=Michael |title=The varnished truth about a Stradivarius |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2000/oct/14/books.guardianreview2 |access-date=14 June 2018 |work=The Guardian |date=13 October 2000}}</ref> [[Simone Fernando Sacconi]] suggested that Vernice bianca, an egg tempera varnish composed of [[gum arabic]], [[honey]], and [[egg white]], may have been used.<ref name="Feltman">{{cite journal |last1=Feltman |first1=Jeff |title=Jack Batts: An interview by Jeff Feltman |journal=American Lutherie: The Quarterly Journal of the Guild of American Luthiers |date=1987|issue=10 |pages=38–39}}</ref>

French chemist [[Jean-Philippe Echard]] and his co-workers have studied varnishes on Stradivarius violins. He reported in 2010 that even when varnish is no longer visible to the human eye on the surface of older violins, it can be detected within the top layers of cells. A lower layer of varnish is found within the topmost wood cells while an upper rests upon the wood. Echard's findings suggest that Stradivari used a mixture of common Cremonese resin, oil, and pigment as a varnish, rather than making his own. Echard did not find traces of specialized ingredients such as protein materials, gums, or fossil amber.<ref name="Distillations"/><ref name="Echard">{{cite journal |last1=Echard |first1=Jean-Philippe |last2=Bertrand |first2=Loïc |last3=von Bohlen |first3=Alex |last4=Le Hô |first4=Anne-Solenn |last5=Paris |first5=Céline |last6=Bellot-Gurlet |first6=Ludovic |last7=Soulier |first7=Balthazar |last8=Lattuati-Derieux |first8=Agnès |last9=Thao |first9=Sylvie |last10=Robinet |first10=Laurianne |last11=Lavédrine |first11=Bertrand |last12=Vaiedelich |first12=Stéphane |title=The Nature of the Extraordinary Finish of Stradivari's Instruments |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |date=4 January 2010 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=197–201 |doi=10.1002/anie.200905131 |pmid=19967687 }}</ref>

A comparative study published in [[PLOS One]] in 2008<ref name="Stoel 2008 e2554">{{Cite journal |last=Stoel |first=Berend C. |author2=Borman, Terry M |title=A Comparison of Wood Density between Classical Cremonese and Modern Violins |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e2554 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002554 |year=2008 |pmid=18596937 |pmc=2438473 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2554S |editor1-last=Grama |editor1-first=Ananth |doi-access=free }}</ref> found no significant differences in median densities between modern and classical violins, or between classical violins from different origins; instead the survey of several modern and classical examples of violins highlighted a notable distinction when comparing density differentials.  These results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins. A later survey, focused on comparing median densities in both classical and modern violin examples, questioned the role available materials may have played in sound production differences, though it made no comment on variations in density differentials.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stoel |first1=Berend C. |last2=Borman |first2=Terry M. |last3=de Jongh |first3=Ronald |title=Wood Densitometry in 17th and 18th Century Dutch, German, Austrian and French Violins, Compared to Classical Cremonese and Modern Violins |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 October 2012 |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=e46629 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0046629 |pmid=23071602 |pmc=3468601 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...746629S |doi-access=free }}</ref> The content of copper and aluminium is higher than current instruments.<ref name="Tai"/><ref name="Yin"/>

==Market value==
[[File:19240427 Toscha Seidel buys Da Vinci Stradivarius violin - $25,000 - New York Times.jpg|thumb| In 1924, [[Toscha Seidel]] bought the Da Vinci Stradivarius violin for $25,000 from a private dealer from Berlin.<ref name=NYTimes_19240427>{{cite news |title=Toscha Seidel Buys Celebrated Violin |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1924/04/27/101592456.html?pageNumber=58 |work=The New York Times |date=April 27, 1924 }} Section 2, page 1.</ref>]]
[[File:Stradivarius violin front.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Antonio Stradivari violin of 1703 on exhibit, behind glass, at the ''Musikinstrumentenmuseum'' ([[Berlin Musical Instrument Museum]]), 2006]]

A Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivari's "Long Pattern" period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U.S. dollars at today's prices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stradivarius.org/price/|title=Stradivarius Violin Price|access-date=2017-06-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613155354/http://www.stradivarius.org/price/|archive-date=2017-06-13}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=October 2021|reason=Page seems like a blog without any editorial oversight or links to third party sources}} The 1697 "[[Molitor Stradivarius|Molitor]]"<ref>{{cite web | title=Cozio.com: violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1697 (Molitor) | url=http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=2275 | publisher=cozio.com | year=2010 | access-date=2010-10-17 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110131841/http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=2275 | archive-date=2013-11-10 }}</ref> Stradivarius, once rumored to have belonged to [[Napoleon]] (it actually belonged to a general in his army, [[List of Marshals of France|Marshal]] [[Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor]], 1er Comte Molitor), sold in 2010 at [[Tarisio Auctions]] to violinist [[Anne Akiko Meyers]] for $3,600,000, at the time a world record.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jeanne Claire van Ryzin|title=Austin violinist Anne Akiko Meyers buys rare Stradivarius for record-setting $3.6 million|url=http://www.austin360.com/blogs/content/shared-gen/blogs/austin/seeingthings/entries/2010/10/15/a_stradivarius_violin_thought.html?cxntfid=blogs_austin_arts_seeing_things|publisher=Austin360|year=2010|access-date=2010-10-17|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017132233/http://www.austin360.com/blogs/content/shared-gen/blogs/austin/seeingthings/entries/2010/10/15/a_stradivarius_violin_thought.html?cxntfid=blogs_austin_arts_seeing_things|archive-date=2010-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Tarisio, October 2010 (New York) – Lot 467|url=http://tarisio.com/pages/auction/auction_item.php?csid=2197438464&cpid=2510569472|publisher=Tarisio|year=2010|access-date=2010-10-17|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716193406/http://tarisio.com/pages/auction/auction_item.php?csid=2197438464&cpid=2510569472|archive-date=2011-07-16}}</ref>

Depending on condition, instruments made during Stradivari's "golden period" from 1700 to about 1725<ref>{{cite book|title=The violin: its famous makers and their imitators|last=Hart|first=George|year=1875|publisher=Dulau|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/violinitsfamous00hartgoog/page/n184 130], 135|url=https://archive.org/details/violinitsfamous00hartgoog|access-date=2011-08-05}}</ref> can be worth millions of dollars. In 2011, his [[Lady Blunt Stradivarius|"Lady Blunt" violin]] from 1721, which is in pristine condition, was sold in London for $15.9&nbsp;million (it is named after [[Lord Byron]]'s granddaughter [[Anne Blunt, 15th Baroness Wentworth|Lady Anne Blunt]], who owned it for 30 years). It was sold by the Nippon Music Foundation in aid of the [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|Japanese earthquake and tsunami]] appeal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/scene/2011/06/21/stradivarius-nets-16m-for-japan-quake-relief/|title=Stradivarius Nets $16M for Japan Quake Relief|author=Yoree Koh|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=21 June 2011|access-date=2011-06-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626222834/http://blogs.wsj.com/scene/2011/06/21/stradivarius-nets-16m-for-japan-quake-relief/|archive-date=26 June 2011}}</ref> In Spring 2014 the "Macdonald" viola was put up for auction through the musical instrument auction house Ingles & Hayday in conjunction with [[Sotheby's]] via silent auction with a minimum bid of $45&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-auction-viola-idUSBREA2Q19520140327|title=Sale of rare Stradivari viola could set world auction record|first=Patricia|last=Reaney|date=2014-03-27|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=3 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924195224/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/27/us-auction-viola-idUSBREA2Q19520140327|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> The auction failed to reach its minimum bid by 25 June 2014,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-06-26/worlds-most-expensive-instrument-stradivarius-viola-fails-to-sell|title=The World's Most Expensive Instrument Just Got Slightly Cheaper|newspaper=Bloomberg.com| date=26 June 2014 |access-date=3 May 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106002353/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-06-26/worlds-most-expensive-instrument-stradivarius-viola-fails-to-sell|archive-date=6 January 2015}}</ref> and the viola was not sold.

[[Vice (magazine)|''Vice'' magazine]] reported in May 2013 that "in recent years, Stradivarius [[investment fund]]s have started to appear, pushing already astronomical prices even higher".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-5-million-violin-and-the-telltale-taser-inside-an-epically-stupid-crime/|title=The $5 Million Violin and the Telltale Taser: Inside an Epically Stupid Crime|author=Justin Rohrlich|publisher=Vice magazine|date=9 May 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511194610/https://news.vice.com/article/the-5-million-violin-and-the-telltale-taser-inside-an-epically-stupid-crime|archive-date=11 May 2014}}</ref>

Stradivarius instruments are at risk of theft. Stolen instruments are often recovered, even after being missing for many years. They are difficult to sell illicitly, as dealers will typically call the police if approached by a seller with a Stradivarius known to have been stolen.<ref name="independent">{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/roman-totenberg-violinist-who-claimed-rival-musician-stole-his-stradivarius-is-vindicated-three-years-after-his-death-10444339.html | title=Roman Totenberg: Violinist who claimed rival musician stole his Stradivarius is vindicated three years after his death | work=The Independent | date=6 August 2015 | access-date=7 August 2015 | author=Nuckols, Ben | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150809232519/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/roman-totenberg-violinist-who-claimed-rival-musician-stole-his-stradivarius-is-vindicated-three-years-after-his-death-10444339.html | archive-date=9 August 2015 }}</ref> The ''[[General Kyd Stradivarius]]'' was stolen in 2004. It was returned three weeks later by a woman who found it and handed it over to the police.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rare cello escapes CD rack fate|work=BBC News|date=15 May 2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3728193.stm|access-date=2008-02-09|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406095032/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3728193.stm|archive-date=6 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Kevin Roderick|title=Cello returned with damage|url=http://www.laobserved.com/archive/2004/05/cello_returned.php|work=LA Observed|date=18 May 2004|access-date=2008-02-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011221133/http://laobserved.com/archive/2004/05/cello_returned.php|archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Cello by Antonio Stradivari, 1684 (General Kyd; ex-Leo Stern)|publisher=Cozio.com|url=http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=265|access-date=2008-02-09|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503063512/http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=265|archive-date=2008-05-03}}</ref> The ''Sinsheimer/Iselin'' was stolen in [[Hanover, Germany]] in 2008 and recovered in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=1505|title=Violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1721 (Sinsheimer; Iselin)|publisher=Cozio.com|access-date=2009-03-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307082130/http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=1505|archive-date=2012-03-07}}</ref> The ''[[Lipinski Stradivarius]]'' was stolen in an armed robbery on 27 January 2014<ref>{{cite news|author=Colleen Henry|title=Multi-million dollar violin stolen from Milwaukee Symphony performer|date=2014-01-28|url=http://www.wisn.com/news/south-east-wisconsin/milwaukee/multimillion-dollar-violin-stolen-from-milwaukee-symphony-performer/-/10148890/24162024/-/n84d9t/-/index.html|work=WISN News|access-date=2014-01-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201164942/http://www.wisn.com/news/south-east-wisconsin/milwaukee/multimillion-dollar-violin-stolen-from-milwaukee-symphony-performer/-/10148890/24162024/-/n84d9t/-/index.html|archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref> and subsequently recovered.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ashley Luthern|title=Stolen Stradivarius violin found in suitcase in Milwaukee attic|date=2014-02-06|url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/crime/stolen-stradivarius-violin-reportedly-recovered-in-good-condition-b99199772z1-243934631.html|work=Milwaukee Wisconsin Journal Sentinel|access-date=2014-02-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060947/http://www.jsonline.com/news/crime/stolen-stradivarius-violin-reportedly-recovered-in-good-condition-b99199772z1-243934631.html|archive-date=2014-02-22}}</ref> The ''[[Ames Stradivarius]]'' was stolen in 1981 and recovered in 2015.<ref name="independent" />

A number of stolen instruments remain missing, such as the ''Karpilowsky'', stolen in 1953;<ref>{{cite web|title=Violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1712 (Karpilowsky)|url=http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=3078|publisher=Cozio.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214195416/http://cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=3078|archive-date=2010-12-14}}</ref> the ''Davidoff-Morini'', stolen in 1995;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/arttheft/northamerica/us/music/10181995/10181995.htm|title=Theft Notices & Recoveries|publisher=FBI Art Theft Program|access-date=2007-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402181333/http://www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/arttheft/northamerica/us/music/10181995/10181995.htm|archive-date=2007-04-02}}</ref> and the ''Le Maurien'', stolen in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|title=Violin by Antonio Stradivari, 1714 (Le Maurien)|url=http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=443|publisher=Cozio.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210190950/http://www.cozio.com/Instrument.aspx?id=443|archive-date=2008-12-10}}</ref>

==Comparisons in sound quality==
The Stradivarius instruments are famous for the quality of sound they produce. However, the many [[blind experiment]]s from 1817<ref name=":0">A guitar-like violin made by the naval engineer François Chanot, a member of a family of [[luthier]]s. A committee of scientists and musicians, listening to the violins played in an adjacent room, judged Chanot's violin to be at least as good as the Stradivarius, but apparently Chanot's instruments quickly lost their good qualities. {{cite book|last=Fétis|first=François-Joseph|year=1868|title=Biographie Universelle des Musiciens et Bibliographie Générale de la Musique, Tome 1|place=Paris|publisher=Firmin Didot Frères, Fils, et Cie|edition=Second|page=249|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEMQAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA249|access-date=2011-07-21}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Dubourg|first=George|year=1852|title=The Violin: Some Account of That Leading Instrument and its Most Eminent Professors...|edition=Fourth|place=London|publisher=Robert Cocks and Co|pages=[https://archive.org/details/violinsomeaccoun00duboiala/page/n371 356]–357|url=https://archive.org/details/violinsomeaccoun00duboiala|access-date=2011-07-21}}</ref> to as recent as 2014<ref name="NYT-201430407">{{cite news|last=Belluck|first=Pam|author-link=Pam Belluck|title=A Strad? Violinists Can't Tell|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/08/science/a-strad-violinists-cant-tell.html|date=7 April 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=9 April 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408200503/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/08/science/a-strad-violinists-cant-tell.html|archive-date=8 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Fritz">{{cite journal|last=Fritz|first=Claudia|author2=Joseph Curtin|author3=Jacques Poitevineau|author4=Palmer Morrel-Samuels|author5=Fan-Chia Tao|title=Player preferences among new and old violin|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=3 January 2012|volume=109|issue=3|doi=10.1073/pnas.1114999109|pages=760–763|pmid=22215592|pmc=3271912|bibcode=2012PNAS..109..760F|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Distillations"/> have never found any difference in sound between Stradivari's violins and high-quality violins in comparable style of other makers and periods, nor has acoustic analysis.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Beamen |first=John |year=2000 |title=The Violin Explained: Components, Mechanism, and Sound |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=89–90 |isbn=978-0-19-816739-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbW18PBXOEYC&pg=PA89 |access-date=2009-01-23}}</ref><ref name=Coggins>{{cite journal | last = Coggins | first = Alan | journal = The Strad | date = Feb 2007 | title = Blind Listening Tests | pages = 52–55 | url = http://www.westerlunds.se/stradeng.htm | access-date = 2011-03-14 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110720152752/http://www.westerlunds.se/stradeng.htm | archive-date = 2011-07-20 }}</ref> In a particularly famous test on a [[BBC Radio 3]] programme in 1977, the violinists [[Isaac Stern]] and [[Pinchas Zukerman]] and the violin expert and dealer [[Charles Beare]] tried to distinguish between the "Chaconne" Stradivarius, a 1739 [[Guarneri]] del Gesú, an 1846 Vuillaume, and a 1976 British violin played behind a screen by a professional soloist. The two violinists were allowed to play all the instruments first. None of the listeners identified more than two of the four instruments. Two of the listeners identified the 20th-century violin as the Stradivarius.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marchese |first=John |year=2008 |title=The Violin Maker: A Search for the Secrets of Craftsmanship, Sound, and Stradivari |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=133–134 |isbn=978-0-06-001268-7}}</ref> Violinists and others have criticized these tests on various grounds such as that they are not [[Blind experiment#Double-blind trials|double-blind]] (in most cases), the judges are often not experts, and the sounds of violins are hard to evaluate objectively and reproducibly.<ref name=Coggins /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fritz |first1=Claudia |last2=Curtin |first2=Joseph |last3=Poitevineau |first3=Jacques |last4=Borsarello |first4=Hugues |last5=Wollman |first5=Indiana |last6=Tao |first6=Fan-Chia |last7=Ghasarossian |first7=Thierry |title=Soloist evaluations of six Old Italian and six new violins |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=20 May 2014 |volume=111 |issue=20 |pages=7224–7229 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323367111 |pmid=24711376 |pmc=4034184 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.7224F |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In a test in 2009, the British violinist Matthew Trusler played his 1711 Stradivarius, said to be worth two million U.S. dollars, and four modern violins made by the Swiss violin-maker {{Interlanguage link multi|Michael Rhonheimer|de}}. One of Rhonheimer's violins, made with wood that the [[Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology]] researcher Francis Schwarze had treated with fungi, received 90 of the 180 votes for the best tone, while the Stradivarius came second with 39 votes. The majority (113) of the listeners misidentified the winning violin as the Stradivarius.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090914111418.htm|title=Fungus-Treated Violin Outdoes Stradivarius|work=[[Science Daily]]|date=14 September 2009|access-date=2010-01-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505011453/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090914111418.htm|archive-date=5 May 2010}}</ref> Analysis of the treated wood revealed a reduction in density, accompanied by relatively little change in the speed of sound. According to this analysis, treatment improves the sound radiation ratio to the level of cold-climate wood considered to have superior resonance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwarze |first1=Francis W. M. R. |last2=Spycher |first2=Melanie |last3=Fink |first3=Siegfried |title=Superior wood for violins – wood decay fungi as a substitute for cold climate |journal=New Phytologist |date=September 2008 |volume=179 |issue=4 |pages=1095–1104 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02524.x |pmid=18554266 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In a double-blind test in 2012<ref name="blogs.discovermagazine.com">{{cite web | url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2012/01/02/violinists-can%E2%80%99t-tell-the-difference-between-stradivarius-violins-and-new-ones/ | title=Violinists can't tell the difference between Stradivarius violins and new ones | access-date=3 January 2012 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103184518/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2012/01/02/violinists-can%E2%80%99t-tell-the-difference-between-stradivarius-violins-and-new-ones/ | archive-date=3 January 2012 | date=2012-01-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/deceptivecadence/2012/01/02/144482863/double-blind-violin-test-can-you-pick-the-strad?ps=cprs | title=Double-Blind Violin Test: Can You Pick The Strad? | website=NPR.org | access-date=3 January 2012 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103025322/http://www.npr.org/blogs/deceptivecadence/2012/01/02/144482863/double-blind-violin-test-can-you-pick-the-strad?ps=cprs | archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> published in the study "[[Player preferences among new and old violins]]",<ref name="Fritz" /> expert players could not distinguish old from new instruments by playing them for a short time in a small room.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/03/science/in-play-off-between-old-and-new-violins-stradivarius-lags.html|author=Nicholas Wade|title=In Classic vs. Modern Violins, Beauty Is in Ear of the Beholder|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=2 January 2012|quote=[Carlyss] likened the test to trying to compare a Ford and a Ferrari in a Walmart parking lot.|access-date=2 January 2012|author-link=Nicholas Wade}}</ref> In an additional test, performed in a concert hall, one of the Stradivarius violins placed first, but one of the participants stated that "the audience in the concert hall were essentially equivocal on which instruments were better in each of the pair-wise instrument comparisons" and "I could tell slight differences in the instruments... but overall they were all great. None of them sounded substantially weaker than the others."<ref name="blogs.discovermagazine.com" /> Modern violins were rated as having better sound-carrying qualities and were preferred again in a study in 2017.<ref name="Curtin">{{cite journal |last1=Fritz |first1=Claudia |last2=Curtin |first2=Joseph |last3=Poitevineau |first3=Jacques |last4=Tao |first4=Fan-Chia |title=Listener evaluations of new and Old Italian violins |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=23 May 2017 |volume=114 |issue=21 |pages=5395–5400 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1619443114 |pmid=28484030 |pmc=5448217 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.5395F |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Distillations"/>

While many world-class soloists play violins by Antonio Stradivari, there are notable exceptions. For example, [[Christian Tetzlaff]] formerly played "a quite famous Strad", but switched to a violin made in 2002 by [[Stefan-Peter Greiner]]. He states that the listener cannot tell that his instrument is modern, and he regards it as excellent for [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] and better than a Stradivarius for "the big Romantic and 20th-century [[concerto]]s."<ref>{{cite news |last=Norris |first=Geoffrey |date=2005-02-10 |title=Debunking the Stradivarius Myth |newspaper=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/3636787/Debunking-the-Stradivarius-myth.html |access-date=2009-08-08 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923175048/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/3636787/Debunking-the-Stradivarius-myth.html |archive-date=2009-09-23 }}</ref>

==Theories and reproduction attempts==
Some maintain that the very best Stradivari have unique superiorities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Inskeep |first=Steve |author-link=Steve Inskeep |author2=Hoffman, Miles |date=2004-06-24 |title=The Sweet Sound of a Stradivarius |publisher=National Public Radio (U.S.) |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1972690 |access-date=2009-01-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216101434/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1972690 |archive-date=2008-02-16 }}</ref> Various attempts at explaining these supposed qualities have been undertaken, most results being unsuccessful or inconclusive. Over the centuries, numerous theories have been presented – and debunked<ref name="Distillations">{{cite journal|last1= Roberts |first1=Jacob |title=Stradivari and the Search for Brilliance |journal=Distillations |date=2017|volume=3|issue=3 |pages=12–23 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/stradivari-and-the-search-for-brilliance|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> – including an assertion that the wood was salvaged from old cathedrals.<ref name="Monte Cassino">{{cite news |title=The Secret of the Stradivarius Sound |url=http://www.newsweek.com/secret-stradivarius-sound-146397 |access-date=13 June 2018 |work=Newsweek |date=27 October 2002}}</ref>

A more modern theory attributes tree growth during a time of global low temperatures during the [[Little Ice Age]] associated with unusually low solar activity of the [[Maunder Minimum]], circa 1645 to 1750, during which cooler temperatures throughout Europe are believed to have caused stunted and slowed tree growth, resulting in unusually dense wood.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/science/12/08/stradivarius.secret.ap/ |title=Cool weather may be Stradivarius' secret |publisher=CNN |agency=Associated Press |date=8 December 2003 |access-date=2007-06-24 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070513143309/http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/science/12/08/stradivarius.secret.ap/ <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-05-13}}</ref><ref name="Distillations"/> Further evidence for this "Little Ice Age theory" comes from a simple examination of the dense growth rings in the wood used in Stradivari's instruments.<ref name="natgeo">{{Cite news |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0107_040107_violin.html |title=Did "Little Ice Age" Create Stradivarius Violins' Famous Tone? |work=National Geographic News |author=John Pickrell |date=7 January 2004 |access-date=2007-06-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702222205/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0107_040107_violin.html |archive-date=2 July 2007 }}</ref> Two researchers – University of Tennessee tree-ring scientist [[Henri Grissino-Mayer]] and Lloyd Burckle, a Columbia University climatologist – published their conclusions supporting the theory on increased wood density in the journal ''[[Dendrochronologia]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Rachelle Oblack |title=10 Non-Military Historical Events Drastically Changed by the Weather |publisher=About.com |url=http://weather.about.com/od/meteorologyandsociety/ss/weatherhistory_3.htm |date=10 March 2008 |access-date=2008-06-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621113020/http://weather.about.com/od/meteorologyandsociety/ss/weatherhistory_3.htm |archive-date=21 June 2008 }}</ref>

In 2008, researchers from the [[Leiden University Medical Center]] in the Netherlands, announced further evidence that wood density caused the claimed high quality of these instruments. After examining the violins with [[X-ray]]s, the researchers found that these violins all have extremely consistent density, with relatively low variation in the apparent growth patterns of the trees that produced this wood.<ref name="Stoel 2008 e2554"/>

Yet another possible explanation is that the [[maple]] wood used was sourced from the forests of northern [[Croatia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hill |first=W.H. |author2=Hill, A.F. |author3=Hill, A.E. |title=Antonio Stradivari: His Life and Work |location=New York |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1963 |isbn=978-0-486-20425-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/antoniostradivar00hill |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/antoniostradivar00hill/page/n207 162] |access-date=2008-07-03}}</ref> This wood is known for its extreme density resulting from the slow growth caused by harsh Croatian winters. Croatian wood was traded by Venetian merchants of the era, and is still used today by local [[luthier]]s and craftsfolk for musical instruments.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Some research points to wood preservatives used in that day as contributing to the resonant qualities. [[Joseph Nagyvary]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Marks |first1=Paul |title=Why do Stradivari's violins sound sublime? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn10686-why-do-stradivaris-violins-sound-sublime/ |work=New Scientist |date=29 November 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Choi |first1=Charles |title=Secrets of the Stradivarius: An Interview with Joseph Nagyvary |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/secrets-of-the-stradivari/ |work=Scientific American |date=10 June 2002 }}</ref> reveals that he has always held the belief that there are a wide range of chemicals that will improve the violin's sound. In a 2009 study co-authored with Renald Guillemette and Clifford Spiegelman, Nagyvary obtained shavings from a Stradivarius violin and examined them, and analysis indicated they contained "[[borax]], [[fluoride]]s, [[chromium]] and iron salts."<ref>Texas A&M University. [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090122141228.htm "Secrets Of Stradivarius' Unique Violin Sound Revealed, Professor Says"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002233428/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090122141228.htm |date=2016-10-02 }}, ''[[Science Daily]]'' 25 January 2009.</ref> He also found that the wood had decayed a little, to the extent that the filter plates in the pores between the wood's component [[tracheid]]s had rotted away, perhaps while the wood was stored in or under water in the [[Venice]] lagoon before Stradivarius used it.

Steven Sirr, a radiologist, worked with researchers to perform a [[X-ray computed tomography|CT]] scan of a Stradivari known as the "[[Betts Stradivarius|Betts]]". Data regarding the differing densities of woods used were then used to create a reproduction instrument.<ref>{{Cite news |author=RSNA |title=Researchers Use CT to Recreate Stradivarius Violin |url=http://www.rsna.org/Media/rsna/RSNA11_newsrelease_target.cfm?id=562 |date=28 November 2011 |access-date=2011-11-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130012405/http://www.rsna.org/Media/rsna/RSNA11_newsrelease_target.cfm?id=562 |archive-date=30 November 2011 }}</ref>{{what|reason=What what was the outcome of the test effort?|date=November 2022}}

==Instruments==
{{Main|List of Stradivarius instruments}}

Stradivari made mainly violins but also violas, cellos and some plucked string instruments (five guitars, two mandolins and one harp are known). About 650 original Stradivarius instruments have survived. Thousands of violins have been made in tribute to Stradivari, copying his model and bearing labels that read "Stradivarius". The presence of a Stradivarius label does not confirm that the instrument is a genuine work of Stradivari.<ref>[https://www.si.edu/spotlight/violins/stradivarius Stradivarius Violins] Smithsonian Institution, 2006.</ref>
{{clear}}

'''Recordings made with original Stradivarius string instruments'''
* [[Fabio Biondi]], Antonio Fantinuoli, Giangiacomo Pinardi, Paola Poncet. Francesco Maria Veracini, Francesco Geminiani, Arangelo Corelli, Giuseppe Tartini, Pietro Antonio Locatelli, Antonio Vivaldi. ''The 1690 'Tuscan' Stradivari''. Label: Glossa
* L'Archibudelli. Franz Schubert. ''Quintet in C D. 956, Rondo in A D. 438''. Label: Sony
* L'Archibudelli, Smithsonian Chamber Players. George Onslow. ''Quintets Opp. 38, 39 & 40''. Label: Sony
* L'Archibudelli, Smithsonian Chamber Players. Felix Mendelssohn, Niels Gade. ''Octets for Strings''. Label: Sony
* [[Frank Peter Zimmermann]], [[Antoine Tamestit]], Christian Poltéra. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''String Trios, Op. 9''. Label: BIS
* Ralph Holmes, Richard Burnett. Johann Nepomuk Hummel. ''Works for Violin and Piano''. Label: Amon-Ra
* Paolo Ghidoni, Alfredo Zamarra. Luigi Gatti. ''Six Sonatas for Violin & Viola''. Label: Brilliant Classics
* [[Steven Isserlis]], [[Robert Levin (musicologist)|Robert Levin]]. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''Cello Sonatas''. Label: Hyperion
* [[Rainer Kussmaul]], [[Andreas Staier]], [[Concerto Köln]]. Felix Mendelssohn. P''iano Concerto in A minor, Concerto for Piano and Violin in D minor''. Label: Teldec
* [[Isabelle Faust]], Pavlo Beznosiuk, [[Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment]]. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn. ''Sinfonia Concertante; Violin Concerti 1 & 4''. Label: Channel Classics
* Isabelle Faust, Anne Katharina Schreiber, Antoine Tamestit, [[Jean-Guihen Queyras]], [[Alexander Melnikov (pianist)|Alexander Melnikov]]. Robert Schumann. ''Piano Quartet & Quintet''. Label: Harmonia Mundi
* Isabelle Faust, Alexander Melnikov, Boris Faust, Wolfgang Emanuel Schmidt. Carl Maria von Weber. ''Sonatas for violin and piano, Piano Quartet''. Label: Harmonia Mundi
* Isabelle Faust, Alexander Melnikov, Teunis van der Zwart. Johannes Brahms. ''Horn Trio Op. 40, Violin Sonata Op. 78, Fantasies Op. 116''. Label: Harmonia Mundi
* Isabelle Faust, Alexander Melnikov. Albert Dietrich, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms. ''Violin Sonatas Op. 100 & 108''. Label: Harmonia Mundi
* Alexander Melnikov, Isabelle Faust, Salagon Quartet. Franck, Chausson. Label: Harmonia Mundi, 2017.
* Gudrun Schaumann, Wolfgang Brunner. Clara Schumann, Albert Dietrich, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Carl Reinecke, Theodor Kirchner, Woldemar Bargiel,  Joseph Joachim. ''The Circle of Robert Schumann''. Label: Capriccio
* Antti Tikkanen,  Markus Hohti, Joonas Ahonen (Rödberg Trio). Fanny Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn. ''The Mendelssohn Siblings''. Label: Alba Records
* [[Anne-Sophie Mutter]], Across the Stars, Various works by [[John Williams]]. Label: Deutsche-Grammophon
* [[Anne Sofie von Otter]], [[Melvyn Tan]], Erich Hoeprich, Nils-Erik Sparf, Christina Högman, Christina Högman. Ludwig van Beethoven, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Louis Spohr. ''Lieder, Mélodies''. Label: Archiv Produktion
* Janine Jansen, Antonio Pappano. 12 Stradivari, Various works by Falla, Suk, C. Schumann, Schumann, Vieuxtemps, Tchaikovsky, Szymanowski, Ravel, Elgar, Rachmaninoff, Heuberger, Kreisler, Kern on 12 different Stradivari brought together. Label: Decca 4851605 (2021) 

'''Recordings made with replicas of Stradivarius string instruments'''
* [[Roel Dieltiens]], Andreas Staier. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''Cello Sonatas & Bagatelles: Opp. 102, 119 and 126''. Label: Harmonia Mundi. Cello by Marten Cornelissen (1994).
* Jaroslaw Thiel, Katarzyna Drogosz. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''Sonatas Op. 5, Variations WoO 45''. Label: Narodowe Forum Muzyki. Cello by Bastian Muthesius (2004).

== Sound preservation ==
The [[Museo del Violino]] in [[Cremona]], Italy embarked on a project to preserve the sound of Stradivarius instruments. In January 2019, four musicians recorded scales and arpeggios using two violins, a viola, and a cello, including a famous 1727 violin named "Vesuvio." These recordings, known as the "Stradivarius Sound Bank," preserve the sounds. The project involved closing off streets and minimizing noise to ensure a quiet environment during the recordings.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paradiso |first1=Max |title=To Save the Sound of a Stradivarius, a Whole City Must Keep Quiet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/17/arts/music/stradivarius-sound-bank-recording-cremona.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2019-01-17}}</ref> The musicians recorded over one million sound files across different techniques to capture the instruments' tonal characteristics. These recordings are stored as part of a permanent collection at the Museo del Violino.<ref>{{cite web |title=Inside the extraordinary experiment to save the Stradivarius sound |url=https://www.popsci.com/story/stradivarius-sound-bank-preservation/ |website=Popular Science |date=April 2022 |access-date=September 9, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=To save the true sound of a Stradivarius, an entire Italian city is keeping quiet |url=https://www.classicfm.com/music-news/stradivarius-sound-bank/ |website=Classic FM |date=April 2022 |access-date=September 9, 2024}}</ref> Fausto Cacciatori, curator of the museum, emphasized that while the sounds of these instruments change over time due to natural aging, the project will allow future generations to experience the original sound of these Stradivarius instruments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saving The Stradivarius Sound |url=https://www.readersdigest.in/features/story-saving-the-stradivarius-sound-2022-123461 |website=Reader's Digest |date=April 2022 |access-date=September 9, 2024}}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{Portal inline|Music}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* How Many Strads?, Ernest N. Doring, William Lewis & Son, Chicago, 1945
* {{Cite book|last=Hill |first=William Henry |author2=Hill, Arthur F. |author3=Hill, Alfred Ebsworth |title=Antonio Stradivari, His Life and Work (1644–1737) |location=London |publisher=W.E. Hill & Sons |year=1902 |isbn=9780521873048 |oclc=8179349 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Faber |first=Toby |title=Stradivari's Genius: Five Violins, One Cello, and Three Centuries of Enduring Perfection |location=New York |publisher=Random House |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-375-50848-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/stradivarisgeniu00fabe }}
* {{Cite book|last=Vannes |first=Rene |title=Dictionnaire Universel del Luthiers (vol.3) |location=Bruxelles |publisher=Les Amis de la musique |year=1985 |orig-year=1951 |oclc=53749830 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Henley |first=William |title=Universal Dictionary of Violin & Bow Makers |location=Brighton; England |publisher=Amati |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-901424-00-6 | author-link=William Henley (violinist)|title-link=Universal Dictionary of Violin & Bow Makers }}
* {{cite book |author-link=Walter Hamma |first=Walter |last=Hamma |title=Meister Italienischer Geigenbaukunst |location=Wilhelmshaven |year=1993 |isbn=3-7959-0537-0 }}
* Violin Iconography of Antonio Stradivari 1644–1737, Herbert K. Goodkind, Larchmont, New York, 1972.
* {{cite news |last=Kestenbaum |first=David |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2014/05/16/313099219/is-a-stradivarius-just-a-violin |title=Is A Stradivarius Just A Violin? |publisher=NPR |work=[[All Things Considered]] |date=16 May 2014 |access-date=1 April 2020 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Millant |first=Roger |title=J.B. Vuillaume: Sa Vie et son Oeuvre |publisher=W.E. Hill |year=1972 |location=London |language=fr |oclc=865746 }}
* {{cite book |author-link=David Schoenbaum |first=David |last=Schoenbaum |year=2012 |title=The Violin: A Social History of the World's Most Versatile Instrument |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |oclc=783162545}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Stradivarius}}
* [http://www.channel4.com/fourdocs/film/film-detail.jsp?id=31945 A FourDoc (short on-line documentary) about a group of violin makers making a violin in the original spec of the maurin Stradivarius in just five days]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110521213254/http://www.cozio.com/Luthier.aspx?id=17 Cozio.com] Online database of instruments by Antonio Stradivari.
* [http://www.mimo-international.com/MIMO/search.aspx?instance=Exploitation&SC=DEFAULT&QUERY=stradivari&_lg=en-US Instruments by Antonio Stradivari on the MIMO online database]

{{Violin family}}

[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Stradivari instruments]]
[[Category:Lost inventions]]