Editing Stir frying

{{Short description|Cooking technique}}
{{For|the song by Migos|Stir Fry (song)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
[[File:Making Stir-Fry (3286445383).jpg|alt=Ingredients being fried in a wok|thumb|Broccoli, mushrooms, [[beansprouts]] and other ingredients being stir-fried in a [[wok]]]]
{{Cuisine of China}}

'''Stir frying''' ({{lang-zh|c=[[wikt:炒|炒]]|p=chǎo|w=ch'ao<sup>3</sup>|cy=cháau}}) is a [[List of cooking techniques|cooking technique]] in which ingredients are fried in a small amount of very hot oil while being stirred or tossed in a [[wok]]. The technique originated in [[China]] and in recent centuries has spread into other parts of Asia and the West. It is similar to [[sauté]]ing in Western cooking technique.

Wok frying may have been used as early as the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC&nbsp;– 220 AD) for drying grain, not for cooking. It was not until the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) that the wok reached its modern shape and allowed quick cooking in hot oil.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}} However, there is research indicating that metal woks and stir-frying of dishes were already popular in the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279),<ref name="shine">{{cite web |last1=Anlan |first1=Li |title=Ancient utensils were not just for cooking food |url=https://www.shine.cn/feature/taste/1809142143/ |website=SHINE |access-date=21 November 2023 |language=en |date=14 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://ctee.com.tw/bookstore/selection/186576.html | title=叫外賣、逛夜市 宋朝人一日三餐 | date=8 December 2019 }}</ref> and stir-frying as a cooking technique is mentioned in the 6th-century AD [[Qimin Yaoshu]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E9%BD%8A%E6%B0%91%E8%A6%81%E8%A1%93/%E5%8D%B7%E7%AC%AC%E5%85%AD|title=齊民要術/卷第六 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|website=zh.wikisource.org|accessdate=11 March 2023}}</ref> Stir frying has been recommended as a healthy and appealing method of preparing vegetables, meats, and fish, provided calories are kept at a reasonable level.<ref>Foreword, [[Paul Dudley White]] in {{harvnb|Chen|1962|p= }}</ref>

The English-language term "stir-fry" was coined and introduced in [[Buwei Yang Chao]]'s ''[[How to Cook and Eat in Chinese]]'', first published in 1945, as her translation of the Chinese word ''chǎo''  炒.<ref>{{harvnb|Chao|1945|pp=43–44}}</ref> Although using "stir-fry" as a noun is commonplace in English, in Chinese, ''chǎo'' is used as a verb or adjective only.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=辭典檢視 - 教育部《國語辭典簡編本》2021|url=https://dict.concised.moe.edu.tw/dictView.jsp?ID=31802&q=1|access-date=2021-12-31|website=dict.concised.moe.edu.tw}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=What is 炒 in English Translation? Mandarin Chinese-English Dictionary & Thesaurus - YellowBridge|url=https://www.yellowbridge.com/chinese/dictionary.php?word=%E7%82%92|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.yellowbridge.com}}</ref>

== History ==

=== In China ===
{{further|History of Chinese cuisine}}
[[File:Stir frying Xi Hu Longjing.png|thumb|left|During the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) ''chao'' referred to roasting tea leaves. Stir frying became a popular method for cooking food only later, during the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644).]]
The [[Chinese characters|Chinese character]] 炒 is attested in [[Chinese bronze inscriptions|inscriptions on bronze vessels]] from the [[Eastern Zhou]] period (771–256 BC), but not in the sense of stir frying.{{sfn|Institut Ricci|2001|p=257}} Dry stirring was used in the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC{{spaced ndash}} 220 AD) to parch grain.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}} Although there are no surviving records of Han dynasty stir frying, archaeological evidence of [[wok]]s and the tendency to slice food thinly indicate that the technique was likely used for cooking.{{sfnb|Anderson|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BAcknxN_S8QC&dq=e.n.+anderson+chinese+cooking+is+cooking+of+scarcity&pg=PA182 188], 52}}

The term initially appears in the sense of "stir frying" in the ''[[Qimin Yaoshu]]'' (齊民要術), a sixth-century agricultural manual, including in a [[recipe]] for [[scrambled eggs]].<ref>《齊民要術．卷第六．養雞第五十九·炒雞子法》：「打破，著鐺中，攪令黃白相雜。細擘蔥白，下鹽米、渾豉，麻油炒之，甚香美。」https://zh.m.wikisource.org/zh-hant/齊民要術/卷第六</ref><!---{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}}---> In sources from the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907), ''chao'' refers not to a cooking technique, but to a method for [[Tea processing|roasting tea leaves]]. It reappears as a cooking method in a dozen recipes from the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279).<!---{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}}---> The Song period is when the Chinese started to use [[vegetable oil]] for frying instead of [[animal fat]]s. Until then, vegetable oil had been used chiefly in lamps.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}}

Historically, stir frying was not as important a technique as [[Boiling#In cooking|boiling]] or [[steaming]], since the oil needed for stir frying was expensive. The technique became increasingly popular in the late [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644),{{sfn|Newman|2004|p=5}} in part because the wood and charcoal used to fire stoves were becoming increasingly expensive near urban centers, and stir-frying could cook food quickly without wasting fuel.{{sfnb|Anderson|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BAcknxN_S8QC&dq=e.n.+anderson+chinese+cooking+is+cooking+of+scarcity&pg=PA182 188]}} "The increasingly commercial nature of city life" in the late Ming and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] (1644–1912) periods also favored speedy methods.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}} But even as stir frying became an important method in Chinese cuisine, it did not replace other cooking techniques. For instance, "only five or six of over 100 recipes recorded in the sixteenth-century novel ''[[Jin Ping Mei]]'' are stir fry recipes and wok dishes accounted for only 16 percent of the recipes in the most famous eighteenth century recipe book, the ''[[Suiyuan shidan]]''".{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}}

By the late Qing, most Chinese kitchens were equipped with a [[Wok#Wok stoves|wok range]] (''chaozao'' 炒灶 or ''paotai zao'' 炮臺灶) convenient for stir-frying because it had a large hole in the middle to insert the bottom of a wok into the flames.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}}

=== In the West ===
Stir frying was brought to America by early [[Chinese American|Chinese immigrants]], and has been used in non-Asian cuisine.<ref name="Smith">{{cite book|author=Merril D. Smith|title=History of American Cooking|date=9 January 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38712-8|pages=65}}</ref>

The term "stir fry" as a translation for "chao" was coined in the 1945 book ''How To Cook and Eat in Chinese'', by Buwei Yang Chao. The book told the reader:
{{blockquote|Roughly speaking, ''ch'ao'' may be defined as a big-fire-shallow-fat-continual-stirring-quick-frying of cut-up material with wet seasoning. We shall call it 'stir-fry' or 'stir' for short. The nearest to this in western cooking is ''sauté''. ... Because stir-frying has such critical timing and is done so quickly, it can be called 'blitz-cooking.'<ref>{{Harvnb|Chao|1945|p=43}}</ref>}}

Although using the term "stir-fry" as a noun is commonplace in English, in Chinese, the word 炒 (chǎo) is used as a verb or adjective only.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> In the West, stir frying spread from Chinese family and restaurant kitchens into general use. One popular cookbook noted that in the "health-conscious 1970s" suddenly it seemed that "everyone was buying a wok, and stir frying remained popular because it was quick." Many families had difficulty fitting a family [[dinner]] into their crowded schedules but found that stir-fried dishes could be prepared in as little as fifteen minutes.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQSksBCjyVcC&q=stir+frying+history&pg=PR7 | title=The Everything Stir-Fry Cookbook | publisher=Adams Media | work=The Everything Stir-Fry Cookbook: 300 Fresh and Flavorful Recipes the Whole | date=2007 | access-date=7 July 2014 | author=Parkinson, Rhonda Lauret | pages=vii| isbn=9781605502786 }}</ref>

== Technique ==
Broadly speaking, there are two primary techniques: ''chao'' and ''bao''. Both techniques use high heat, but ''chao'' adds a liquid and the ingredients are softer, whereas ''bao'' stir fries are more [[Crispiness|crispy]] because of the [[Maillard reaction]].{{sfn|Klosse|2010|pp=131–132}}

=== ''Chao'' technique ===
[[File:Stir fry à la Gabi-showcasingbabycorn.jpg|thumb|Ingredients are typically added in succession after cooking oil has been applied onto a hot pan. The ingredients that take longest to cook, like meat or [[tofu]], are added first.]]
The ''chao'' (炒) technique is similar to the Western technique of [[sautéing]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Chinese cooking method&nbsp;— Stir-Frying|url=http://www.hugchina.com/china/food/cooking-methods/chinese-cooking-method-stir-frying-2010-10-04.html|website=www.hugchina.com|access-date=5 July 2014}}</ref> There are regional variations in the amount and type of oil, the ratio of oil to other liquids, the combinations of ingredients, the use of hot peppers, and such, but the same basic procedure is followed in all parts of the country.

First the [[wok]] is heated to a high temperature, and just as or before it smokes, a small amount of cooking oil is added down the side of the wok (a traditional expression is 热锅冷油 "hot wok, cold oil") followed by dry seasonings such as [[ginger]], [[garlic]], [[scallion]]s, or [[shallot]]s. The seasonings are tossed with a spatula until they are [[fragrant]], then other ingredients are added, beginning with the ones taking the longest to cook, such as meat or [[tofu]]. When the meat and vegetables are nearly cooked, combinations of [[soy sauce]], vinegar, wine, salt, or sugar may be added, along with thickeners such as cornstarch, [[water chestnut]] flour, or [[arrowroot]].{{sfnb|Newman| 2004|p=73, 90, 93, 95}}

A single ingredient, especially a vegetable, may be stir-fried without the step of adding another ingredient, or two or more ingredients may be stir-fried to make a single dish. Although large leaf vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach, do not need to be cut into small pieces, for dishes which combine ingredients, they should all be cut to roughly the same size and shape.

==== ''Wok hei'' ====
{{Main|Wok#Wok hei}}

''Wok hei'' ({{zh|t=鑊氣|s=镬气|links=no|j=wok<sup>6</sup> hei<sup>3</sup>}}) [[romanization]] is based on the [[Cantonese Chinese]] pronunciation of the phrase; when literally translated into English, it can be translated as "wok [[thermal radiation]]"<ref name="YOU">Young, Grace, and Richardson, Alan, ''The Breath of a Wok'', New York: Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|0-7432-3827-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7432-3827-4}} (2004), pp. 4, 38, 40</ref><ref name="WOKH">{{cite web|url=http://www.wokhei.com/about.html#whatWokhei|title=What does Wokhei mean?|publisher=Wokhei|access-date=4 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021043753/http://www.wokhei.com/about.html#whatWokhei|archive-date=21 October 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> or, metaphorically, as the "breath of the wok". The phrase "breath of a wok" is a poetic translation Grace Young first coined in her cookbook ''The Wisdom of the Chinese Kitchen''.<ref>Young, Grace, ''The Wisdom of the Chinese Kitchen'', New York: Simon & Schuster, (1999), pp. 20</ref> In her book, ''The Breath of a Wok'', Young further explores the ideas and concepts of ''wok hei''.<ref>Young, Grace, and Richardson, Alan, ''The Breath of a Wok'', New York: Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|0-7432-3827-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7432-3827-4}} (2004), pp. 60</ref> An essay called "Wok Hay: The Breath of a Wok" explains how the definition of ''wok hei'' varies from cook to cook and how difficult it is to translate the term. Some define it as the "taste of the wok," a "harmony of taste," etc.: "I think of wok hay as the breath of a wok—when a wok breathes energy into a stir-fry, giving foods a unique concentrated flavor and aroma."<ref>{{cite journal|title=Wok Hay: The Breath of a Wok|journal=Gastronomica: The Journal of Critical Food Studies|volume=4|issue=3|pages=26–30|doi=10.1525/gfc.2004.4.3.26|year=2004|last1=Young|first1=Grace}}</ref>

When read in Mandarin, the second character is transliterated as ''[[qi]]'' (''ch'i'' according to its [[Wade-Giles]] romanization, so ''wok hei'' is sometimes rendered as ''wok chi'' in Western cookbooks) is the [[Flavour (taste)|flavour]], [[taste]]s, and "essence" imparted by a hot wok on food during stir frying.<ref name="YOU" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Harpham, Zoė |title=Essential Wok Cookbook |year=2002 |publisher=Murdoch Books |isbn=978-1-74045-413-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialwokcook0000unse }}</ref> Out of the [[Eight Cuisines of China|Eight Culinary Traditions of China]], wok hei is encountered the most in [[Cantonese cuisine]], whereas it may not even be an accepted concept in some of the others.

To impart ''wok hei'' the traditional way, the food is cooked in a seasoned wok over a high flame while being stirred and tossed quickly.<ref name="YOU" /> The distinct taste of ''wok hei'' is partially imbued into the metal of the wok itself from previous cooking sessions and brought out again when cooking over high heat.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} In practical terms, the flavour imparted by chemical compounds results from [[caramelization]], [[Maillard reaction]]s, and the partial combustion of oil that come from charring and searing of the food at very high heat in excess of {{convert|200|C}}.<ref name="WOKH" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://guide.michelin.com/en/article/dining-out/what-is-wok-hei|title=What is...wok hei?|date=2016-10-12|access-date=2019-11-17|publisher=Michelin Guide}}</ref>  Aside from flavour, ''wok hei'' also manifests itself in the texture and smell of the cooked items.

=== ''Bao'' technique ===
[[File:Wok cooking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Bao'' stir frying involves high heat combined with continuous tossing. This keeps juices from flowing out of the ingredients and keeps the food crispy.]]

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ''bao'' technique ({{zh|c=[[wikt:爆|爆]]|p=bào|l=pop, explosion}}) of stir-frying on a high flame was typical of cuisine from the northern Chinese province of [[Shandong]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=459}} The wok is first heated to a dull red glow over a high fire. The oil, seasonings, and meats are then added in rapid succession. The food is continually tossed, stopping only to add other ingredients such as broths, vegetables, or more seasonings. The purpose of ''bao'' is to highlight natural tastes, so minimal seasoning is added.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Chinese Cooking Techniques|url = http://www.flavorandfortune.com/dataaccess/article.php?ID=200|website = www.flavorandfortune.com|access-date = 2016-02-23|archive-date = 24 October 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151024045239/http://www.flavorandfortune.com/dataaccess/article.php?ID=200|url-status = dead}}</ref> Because of the high heat, ''bao'' is ideal for small amounts of food that cook quickly, so the juices do not flow out of the items.{{sfn|Klosse|2010|p=131}} Meat is coated with egg white or starch in order to contain the juices.<ref name=":0" /> When the food is cooked it is poured and ladled out of the wok. The wok must then be quickly rinsed to prevent food residues from charring and burning to the wok bottom because of residual heat.

A larger amount of cooking fat with a high [[smoke point]], such as refined plant oils, is often used in ''bao''. The main ingredients are usually cut into smaller pieces to aid in cooking.

== Effects on nutritional value ==
[[File:Cantonese stir-fried kai-lan.jpg|thumb|Stir frying can affect the [[nutritional value]] of vegetables. Fat content is increased because of the additional oil, and [[antioxidative|anti-oxidants]] are preserved better than by boiling.]]

Writers extol the quick cooking at high heat for retaining color, texture, and nutritional value.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edPzm5KSMmYC|title=Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation|author=Amy Brown|pages=264|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2007|isbn=9780495107453}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/food-nutrition/vary-your-veggies-how-to-prepare-vegetables|title=VARY YOUR VEGGIES: How to Prepare Vegetables|date=October 2019 |publisher=North Dakota State University|access-date=2019-11-17}}</ref> One study compared the effects of boiling, steaming, and stir frying on [[bamboo shoot]]s. Boiling and steaming decreased the amount of [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]], soluble sugar, ash, and total free [[amino acid]]s by more than one-third. Stir-frying bamboo shoots increased their fat content by 528.57% due to the addition of oil. With 78.9% retention, stir frying preserved significantly more [[vitamin C]] than boiling. Taking into consideration the total retention of nutrients, the study concluded that stir frying is the method best suited for bamboo shoots.<ref name="BAMBOO">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Jin-jie|last2=Ji|first2=Rong|last3=Hu|first3=Ya-qin|last4=Chen|first4=Jian-chu|last5=Ye|first5=Xing-qian|title=Effect of three cooking methods on nutrient components and antioxidant capacities of bamboo shoot (Phyllostachys praecox C.D. Chu et C.S. Chao)|journal=Journal of Zhejiang University Science B|date=4 September 2011|volume=12|issue=9|pages=752–759|doi=10.1631/jzus.B1000251|pmid=21887851|pmc=3167909}}</ref> Similar results were found for stir frying red peppers.<ref name="PEPPER">{{cite journal|last1=Hwang|first1=IG|last2=Shin|first2=YJ|last3=Lee|first3=S|last4=Lee|first4=J|last5=Yoo|first5=SM|title=Effects of Different Cooking Methods on the Antioxidant Properties of Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)|journal=Prev Nutr Food Sci|date=December 2012|volume=17|issue=4|pages=286–92 |doi=10.3746/pnf.2012.17.4.286|pmid=24471098|pmc=3866734}}</ref>

Another study examined the nutritional value of broccoli after five common cooking techniques: steaming, boiling, microwaving, stir-frying and stir-frying followed by deep frying. The study found that the two most common methods of home cooking in China, stir-frying and stir-frying combined with deep frying in [[soybean oil]], resulted in a much greater loss of [[chlorophyll]], soluble protein, soluble sugar and vitamin C. The method which affected these values the least was steaming. Stir frying for five minutes and stir frying combined with boiling caused the highest loss of [[glucosinolate]]s, which according to this study are best preserved by steaming.<ref name="NURTI">{{Cite journal| pmc=2722699 | title=Effects of different cooking methods on health-promoting compounds of broccoli | publisher=NCBI | date=August 2009 |author1=Yuan, Gao-feng |author2=Sun, Bo |author3=Yuan, Jing |author4=Wang, Qiao-mei  | journal=Journal of Zhejiang University Science B |name-list-style=amp | pages=580–588 | pmid=19650196 | doi=10.1631/jzus.B0920051 | volume=10| issue=8 }}</ref> A study performed by the Spanish National Research Counsel stir-fried the broccoli for only three minutes and thirty seconds and found that nutritional value of these broccoli samples varied depending on which cooking oil was used. Comparing these results to an uncooked sample, the study found that phenolics and vitamin C were reduced more than glucosinolates and minerals. Stir-frying with soybean, peanut, safflower or extra virgin olive oil did not reduce [[glucosinolates]], and broccoli stir-fried with [[extra virgin olive oil]] or [[sunflower oil]] had [[vitamin C]] levels similar to uncooked [[broccoli]]. These levels were significantly lower with other edible [[oil]]s.<ref name="EFFBROC">{{cite journal | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5850788 | title=Effects of stir-fry cooking with different edible oils on the phytochemical composition of broccoli. | date=1 June 2014 | access-date=10 July 2014 | author=Moreno, Diego A. | journal=Journal of Food Science | volume=72 | issue=1 | pages=S064-8| pmid=17995900 | doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00213.x }}</ref>

Stir frying is not without [[health]] [[risk]]s. Recent studies show that [[heterocyclic amines]] and [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] are formed by stir frying [[meat]] at very high [[temperature]]s. These chemicals may cause [[DNA]] changes that may contribute to increased risk of [[cancer]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet | title=Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk. | publisher=National Cancer Institute | date=19 October 2015 | access-date=21 October 2015 | author=National Cancer Institute}}</ref>

== Uses in traditional medicine ==
The process of stir-frying is used in the preparation of some [[Chinese herbology|Chinese herbal medicines]] under the term 'dry-frying'.  Stir frying a medical herb with honey is commonly used to increase its sweetness and therefore its spleen and stomach [[qi]] tonic effects.  Stir frying in [[vinegar]] is typically used whenever one wants to direct the properties of an herb more to the liver based on the principle that the sour taste belongs to the liver.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tierra L.Ac., O.M.D.|first1=Dr. Michael|title=PROCESSING CHINESE HERBS|url=http://ip.aaas.org/tekindex.nsf/2a9c4e44835b04ea85256a7200577a64/25c0eecac8a81cf385256ae700755f2d/Body/M1?OpenElement|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714191731/http://ip.aaas.org/tekindex.nsf/2a9c4e44835b04ea85256a7200577a64/25c0eecac8a81cf385256ae700755f2d/Body/M1?OpenElement|archive-date=14 July 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> There is no scientific evidence for any of these medicinal claims.

== Stir-fried dishes ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Stir fried pea sprouts.jpg|Stir-fried pea [[Edible sprouts|sprouts]]
File:Nakji-bokkeum, Stir-Fried Octopus.jpg|Stir-fried [[octopus]]
File:Baingan Patiala.JPG|Stir-fried [[eggplant]]
File:Stired-fried Razor Clams with Black Beans and Pepper.jpg|Stir fried [[razor clam]]s
File:Pla duk phat phet 01.jpg|Catfish stir fried in a spicy [[curry]] paste
File:Korean cuisine-Kkomjangeo bokkeum-01.jpg|Korean stir-fried [[inshore hagfish]]
File:Stir-fry spinach with tofu - Golden white jade and Green Parrot (菠菜炒豆腐 - 金鑲白玉板，紅嘴綠鸚哥)(2).jpg|Chinese-style stir-fried spinach with tofu
File:Ginger and Onion Beef 薑蔥牛肉 (Golden Dynasty Chinese Restaurant).jpg|Chinese stir-fried ginger and onion beef
File:Stir-fried Water Convolvulus (炒空心菜).jpg|Stir-fried water convolvulus (''[[Ipomoea aquatica]]'')
File:Stir-fried spinach and ground pork(1).jpg|Stir-fried spinach and garlic
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{portal|Cooking|Food|China}}
* [[List of cooking techniques]]
* ''[[Bokkeum]]''
* [[Pan frying]]
* [[Sautéing]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last = Anderson|first =  Eugene N.  |year = 1988 |title = The Food of China |publisher = Yale University Press| location = New Haven |isbn = 0-300-04739-8}}
* {{cite book |last = Chao |first =  Buwei Yang |year = 1945 |title = How to Cook and Eat in Chinese |publisher = John Day| location = New York |title-link = How to Cook and Eat in Chinese }}. Several reprints.
* {{cite book |last = Chen|first = Joyce   |year = 1962 |title = Joyce Chen Cook Book |publisher = Lippincott| location = Philadelphia }}
*{{citation|last=Institut Ricci|year=2001|title=Grand dictionnaire Ricci de la langue chinoise|language=fr|location=Paris and Taipei|publisher=Institut Ricci (Paris–Taipei), Desclée de Brouwer (Paris)|isbn=2-220-04667-2|postscript=.}}
*{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YSYtAgAAQBAJ&q=stir+frying+bao+technique&pg=PA131 | title=The Essence of Gastronomy: Understanding the Flavor of Foods and Beverages | publisher=CRC | work=The Essence of Gastronomy | date=2010 | access-date=11 July 2014 | last=Klosse|first=Peter| isbn=9781482216769 }}
* {{cite book |last = Newman  |first =  Jacqueline M.|year = 2004 |title = Food Culture in China |publisher = Greenwood Press| location = Westport, Conn. |isbn = 0-313-32581-2 }}
*{{citation|last=Wilkinson|first=Endymion|year=2012|title=Chinese History: A New Manual|location=Cambridge (MA)|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center, distributed by Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-06715-8|postscript=.|title-link=Chinese History: A New Manual}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation|last=Young|first=Grace|year=2014|title=Stir-Frying to the Sky's Edge|location=New York|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-4165-8057-7|postscript=.}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Cookbook|Stir-fry}}
{{Wiktionary|stir}}
* [http://vegetarian.about.com/od/cookingtipstools/ss/Howtostirfry.htm How to Stir-fry: Illustrated Step-by-step] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222161543/http://vegetarian.about.com/od/cookingtipstools/ss/Howtostirfry.htm |date=22 December 2016 }}
* [http://chinesefood.about.com/library/blstirfryrecipes.htm Stir-fry Recipes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061224080135/http://chinesefood.about.com/library/blstirfryrecipes.htm |date=24 December 2006 }}

{{Cooking Techniques}}

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