Editing Stigand

{{Short description|Archbishop of Canterbury from 1052 to 1070}}
{{For|the last bishop of Selsey|Stigand of Selsey}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
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{{Infobox Christian leader
| name = Stigand
| title = [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
| image = Bayeux_Tapestry_scene31_detail_Stigand.jpg
| imagesize = 220px
| alt = A standing tonsured man with his arms outstretched wearing clerical robes.
| caption = Stigand from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]
| appointed = 1052
| ended = 11 April 1070
| predecessor = [[Robert of Jumièges]]
| successor = [[Lanfranc]]
| other_post = [[Bishop of Elmham]]<br />[[Bishop of Winchester]]
| consecration= 1043
| birth_name = Stigand
| death_date = 1072, probably 21 or 22 February
| buried = Old Minster, [[Winchester]]
}}

'''Stigand'''{{efn|{{langx|la|Stigantus}}}} (died 1072) was an [[Anglo-Saxon]] churchman in pre-[[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] England who became [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. His birth date is unknown, but by 1020 he was serving as a royal chaplain and advisor. He was named [[Bishop of Elmham]] in 1043, and was later [[Bishop of Winchester]] and Archbishop of Canterbury. Stigand was an advisor to several members of the [[House of Wessex|Anglo-Saxon]] and [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] English royal dynasties, serving six successive kings. [[Excommunication|Excommunicated]] by several popes for his [[Benefice#Pluralism|pluralism]] in holding the two [[Episcopal see|sees]], or bishoprics, of Winchester and Canterbury concurrently, he was finally deposed in 1070, and his estates and personal wealth were confiscated by [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]]. Stigand was imprisoned at [[Winchester]], where he died.

Stigand served King [[Cnut the Great|Cnut]] as a chaplain at a royal foundation at [[Ashingdon]] in 1020, and as an advisor then and later. He continued in his role of advisor during the reigns of Cnut's sons, [[Harold Harefoot]] and [[Harthacnut]]. When Cnut's stepson [[Edward the Confessor]] succeeded Harthacnut, Stigand in all probability became England's main administrator. Monastic writers of the time accused Stigand of extorting money and lands from the church, and by 1066 the only estates richer than Stigand's were the royal estates and those of [[Harold Godwinson]].

In 1043 Edward appointed Stigand to the see of Elmham. Four years later he was appointed to the see of Winchester, and then in 1052 to the [[Province of Canterbury|archdiocese of Canterbury]], which Stigand held jointly with Winchester. It was later claimed that five successive popes, including [[Pope Nicholas II|Nicholas II]] and [[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II]], excommunicated Stigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury, but there is no evidence for this.<ref>Cowdrey ''Lanfranc: Scholar, Monk, and Archbishop'' p. 82</ref> Stigand was present at the deathbed of King Edward and at the coronation of Harold Godwinson as king of England in 1066. After Harold's death, Stigand submitted to William the Conqueror. On Christmas Day 1066 [[Ealdred (archbishop)|Ealdred]], the [[Archbishop of York]], crowned William King of England. Stigand's excommunication meant that he could only assist at the coronation.

Despite growing pressure for his deposition, Stigand continued to attend the [[royal court]] and to consecrate bishops, until in 1070 he was deposed by [[papal legate]]s and imprisoned at Winchester. His intransigence towards the papacy was used as propaganda by Norman advocates of the view that the English church was backward and needed reform.

==Early life==
Neither the year nor the date of Stigand's birth is known.<ref name=DNB/>{{efn|The canonical age for ordination as a priest was 30, which would mean that he was born by 990, but dispensations allowing for ordination before the required age were common. If Stigand had been born by 990, he would have been at least 82 at his death, a remarkable age for his time. No chronicler or other source mentions Stigand being of a great age, which argues against him being born before 990.<ref name=Rumble173/>}} He was born in [[East Anglia]], possibly in [[Norwich]],<ref name=Barlow59>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 59</ref> to an apparently prosperous family<ref name=Douglas324/> of mixed English and Scandinavian ancestry,<ref name=Hill61/> as is shown by the fact that Stigand's name was Norse but his brother's was English.{{efn|Stigand derives from "Stigandr", meaning either "he who goes by long strides" or "the swift footed one".<ref name=Rumble175>Rumble "From Winchester to Canterbury" ''Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church'' p. 175</ref>}} His brother [[Æthelmær of Elmham|Æthelmær]], also a cleric, later succeeded Stigand as bishop of Elmham.<ref name=Douglas324/> His sister held land in Norwich,<ref name=Conquest46>Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' p. 46</ref> but her given name is unrecorded.<ref name=Smith200/>

Stigand first appears in the historical record in 1020 as a royal chaplain to King Cnut of England (reigned 1016–1035). In that year he was appointed to Cnut's church at Ashingdon, or Assandun,<ref name=Hill61>Hill ''Road to Hastings'' p. 61</ref><ref name=Handbook28>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 28</ref><ref name=Lawson138>Lawson ''Cnut'' p. 138</ref> which was dedicated by the reforming bishop [[Wulfstan (died 1023)|Wulfstan of York]].<ref name=1000Church77>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 77</ref>{{efn|The church was dedicated to the memory of the dead of the [[Battle of Assandun]] in 1016. It is not known whether Stigand was the first priest appointed to the church.<ref name=Rumble173>Rumble "From Winchester to Canterbury" ''Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church'' pp. 173–174</ref>}} Little is known of Stigand's life during Cnut's reign, but he must have had a place at the royal court,<ref name=Smith200/> as he witnessed occasional charters.<ref name=DNB/> Following Cnut's death Stigand successively served Cnut's sons, Harold Harefoot (reigned 1035–1040) and Harthacnut (reigned 1040–1042).<ref name=Barlow59/><ref name=Handbook29>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' pp. 28–29</ref> After Harthacnut died Stigand became an advisor to [[Emma of Normandy]], Cnut's widow and the mother of Harthacnut and his successor Edward the Confessor.<ref name=Barlow59/><ref name=Handbook29/>{{efn|Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut were half-brothers, both being sons of Cnut, but by different mothers&nbsp;– Harold's was Ælfgifu, Harthacnut's was Emma of Normandy. Harthacnut and Edward the Confessor were half-brothers, both being sons of Emma of Normandy, by different fathers&nbsp;– Harthacnut's being Cnut and Edward's being Æthelred the Unready, the king whom Cnut had overthrown. Thus, while Harthacnut was related to both his predecessor and successor, Harold Harefoot and Edward were not closely related.<ref name=Handbook29/>}} He may have been Emma's chaplain,<ref name=Emma112>Stafford ''Queen Emma and Queen Edith'' pp. 112–113</ref> and it is possible that Stigand was already one of her advisors while Cnut was alive, and that he owed his position at Ashingdon to Emma's influence and favour. Because little is known of Stigand's activities before his appointment as a bishop, it is difficult to determine to whom he owed his position.<ref name=Smith200>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' p. 200</ref>

==Bishop of Elmham and Winchester==
Stigand was appointed to the [[Bishop of Elmham|see of Elmham]] shortly after Edward the Confessor's coronation on 3 April 1043,<ref name=Handbook29b>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 29</ref> probably on Emma's advice.<ref name=Barlow76>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 76</ref> This was the first episcopal appointment of Edward's reign.<ref name=Higham122>Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 122</ref> The diocese of Elmham covered East Anglia in eastern England,<ref name=Handbook217/> and was one of the poorer episcopal sees at that time.<ref name=Smith200/>{{efn|It was so poor that later, under successive bishops, the seat of the bishopric was moved first to Thetford, and then to Norwich.<ref name=Barlow48>Barlow ''English Church 1066–1154'' pp. 48–49</ref>}}  He was consecrated bishop in 1043,<ref name=Handbook217>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 217</ref> but later that year Edward deposed Stigand and deprived him of his wealth.{{efn|According to later texts, Elmham was briefly passed to [[Grimketel]] who was also [[Bishop of Selsey]], at the time, and thus guilty of [[simony]].<ref name=DNB />}} During the next year, however, Edward returned Stigand to office.<ref name=Barlow77>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 77</ref> The reasons for the deposition are unknown, but it was probably connected to the simultaneous fall from power of the dowager queen, Emma.<ref name=Emma248>Stafford ''Queen Emma and Queen Edith'' pp. 248–250</ref> Some sources state that Emma had invited King [[Magnus I of Norway]], a rival claimant to the English throne, to invade England and had offered her personal wealth to aid Magnus.<ref name=ASE426>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 426</ref>{{efn|Magnus was the son of St. Olaf of Norway, and his claim to the English throne came from a treaty Harthacnut and Magnus signed around 1038 that provided that if either of the two should die without heirs, the other would inherit their kingdom.<ref name=ASE419>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 419–421</ref>}} Some suspected that Stigand had urged Emma to support Magnus, and claimed that his deposition was because of this.<ref name=Mason44>Mason ''House of Godwine'' p. 44</ref> Contributing factors in Emma and Stigand's fall included Emma's wealth, and dislike of her political influence, which was linked to the reign of the unpopular Harthacnut.<ref name=Stafford87>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 87</ref>

[[File:British.Library.MS.Add.33241.jpg|left |thumb|350px|[[Emma of Normandy]], seated with sons [[Harthacnut]] and [[Edward the Confessor]], in this manuscript copy of the ''[[Encomium Emmae Reginae]]'' from about 1042|alt=Two pages from an illuminated book, one page with a seated female figure receiving a book from two males. The other page has coloured writing on it.]]

By 1046 Stigand had begun to witness charters of Edward the Confessor, showing that he was once again in royal favour.<ref name=Smith201>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' p. 201</ref> In 1047 Stigand was [[Translation (ecclesiastical)|translated]] to the [[Bishop of Winchester|see of Winchester]],<ref name=Handbook217/><ref name=Handbook223>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 223</ref> but he retained Elmham until 1052.<ref name=Barlow87>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 87</ref> He may have owed the preferment to Earl [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex|Godwin of Wessex]], the father-in-law of King Edward,<ref name=Loyn58>Loyn ''English Church'' pp. 58–62</ref> although that is disputed by some historians.<ref name=1000Church108>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 108</ref> Emma, who had retired to Winchester after regaining Edward's favour, may also have influenced the appointment, either alone or in concert with Godwin. After his appointment to Winchester, Stigand was a witness to all the surviving charters of King Edward during the period 1047 to 1052.<ref name=Smith201/>

Some historians, such as [[Frank Barlow (historian)|Frank Barlow]] and Emma Mason, state that Stigand supported Earl Godwin in his quarrel with Edward the Confessor in 1051–1052;<ref name=Barlow123>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 123</ref><ref name=Mason65>Mason ''House of Godwine'' p. 65</ref> others, including Ian Walker, hold that he was neutral.<ref name=Walker49>Walker ''Harold'' p. 49</ref> Stigand, whether or not he was a supporter of Godwin's, did not go into exile with the earl.<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Brooks305a>Brooks ''Early History'' pp. 305–306</ref> The quarrel started over a fight between [[Eustace II of Boulogne|Eustace of Boulogne]], brother-in-law of the king, and men of the town of Dover. The king ordered Godwin to punish the town, and the earl refused. Continued pressure from Edward undermined Godwin's position, and the earl and his family fled England in 1051.<ref name=Stafford90>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 90–91</ref> The earl returned in 1052 with a substantial armed force but eventually reached a peaceful accord with the king.<ref name=Barlow123/> Some medieval sources state that Stigand took part in the negotiations that reached a peace between the king and his earl;<ref name=Mason73>Mason ''House of Godwine'' p. 73</ref> the Canterbury manuscript of the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' calls Stigand the king's chaplain and advisor during the negotiations.<ref name=Rex61>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 61</ref>

==Archbishop of Canterbury==

===Appointment to Canterbury and issues with the papacy===
The Archbishopric of Canterbury became drawn into the conflict between Edward and Godwin.<ref name=Smith202>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' pp. 201–203</ref> Pope [[Pope Leo IX|Leo IX]] was beginning a reform movement later known as the [[Gregorian Reform]]. Leo first focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting [[simony]]&nbsp;– the buying and selling of clerical and ecclesiastical offices. In 1049 Leo IX publicly pronounced that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them.<ref name=Stafford89/> When Archbishop [[Edsige]] of Canterbury died in 1051 the monks of the cathedral chapter elected Æthelric, a relative of Earl Godwin's, as archbishop.<ref name=Huscroft6>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 6</ref> King Edward opposed the election and instead appointed [[Robert of Jumièges]], who was Norman and already [[Bishop of London]].  Besides furthering Edward's quarrel with Godwin, the appointment signalled that there were limits to Edward's willingness to compromise on ecclesiastical reform.<ref name=Stafford89/>

Although not known as a reformer before his appointment, Robert returned in 1051 from Rome, where he had gone to be confirmed by the papacy, and opposed the king's choice for Bishop of London on the grounds that the candidate was not suitable. Robert's attempts to recover church property that had been appropriated by Earl Godwin contributed to the quarrel between the earl and the king. When Godwin returned to England in 1052 Robert was outlawed and exiled,<ref name=Stafford89>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 89–92</ref> following which King Edward appointed Stigand to the archbishopric.<ref name=Handbook214>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 214</ref> The appointment was either a reward from Godwin for Stigand's support during the conflict with Edward or a reward from King Edward for successfully negotiating a peaceful conclusion to the crisis in 1052.<ref name=Walker49/> Stigand was the first non-monk to be appointed to either English archbishopric since before the days of [[Dunstan]] (archbishop from 959 to 988).<ref name=Handbook214/><ref name=Monastic66>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 66</ref><ref name=Brooks306>Brooks ''Early History'' p. 306</ref>

The papacy refused to recognise Stigand's elevation, as Robert was still alive and had not been deprived of office by a pope.<ref name=Smith202/> Robert of Jumièges appealed to Leo IX, who summoned Stigand to Rome. When Stigand did not appear, he was excommunicated.<ref name=ASE465>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 465–466</ref> Historian [[Nicholas Brooks (historian)|Nicholas Brooks]] holds the view that Stigand was not excommunicated at this time, but rather was ordered to refrain from any archiepiscopal functions, such as the consecration of bishops. He argues that in 1062 papal legates sat in council with Stigand, something they would not have done had he been excommunicated.<ref name=Brooks307>Brooks ''Early History'' p. 307</ref> The legates did nothing to alter Stigand's position either,<ref name=Rex184>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 184</ref> although one of the legates later helped depose Stigand in 1070.<ref name=1000Church306>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 306</ref> However Pope Leo IX and his successors, [[Pope Victor II|Victor II]] and [[Pope Stephen IX|Stephen IX]], continued to regard Stigand as uncanonically elected.<ref name=ASE465/><ref name=Intro108>Blair ''Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 108</ref>

Stigand did not travel to Rome to receive a [[pallium]],<ref name=DNB/> the band worn around the neck that is the symbol of an archbishop's authority,<ref name=Coredon>Coredon ''Dictionary'' p. 209</ref> from the pope. Travelling to Rome for the pallium had become a custom, practised by a number of his predecessors.<ref name=Brooks291>Brooks ''Early History'' pp. 291, 299, 304</ref> Instead, some medieval chroniclers state that he used Robert of Jumièges' pallium.<ref name=DNB/> It is not known if Stigand even petitioned the papacy for a pallium soon after his appointment.<ref name=Reform420>Darlington "Ecclesiastical Reform" ''English Historical Review'' p. 420</ref> Owing to the reform movement, Stigand probably knew the request would be unsuccessful.<ref name=Smith202/> In 1058 Antipope [[Antipope Benedict X|Benedict X]], who opposed much of the reform movement, gave Stigand a pallium.<ref name=Brooks306/><ref name=BHOArchCant>Greenway ''Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300: Volume 2: Monastic Cathedrals (Northern and Southern Provinces): Canterbury: Archbishops''</ref> However, Benedict was deposed the following year;<ref name=Brooks306/><ref name=Huscroft62/> the reforming party declared Benedict an [[antipope]], and nullified all his acts,<ref name=Brooks306/> including Stigand's pallium grant.<ref name=Huscroft48>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 48</ref> The exact circumstances that led to Benedict granting a pallium are unknown, whether it was at Stigand's request or was given without prompting.<ref name=Reform420/>

After his translation to Canterbury, Stigand released Elmham to his brother Æthelmær but retained the bishopric of Winchester.<ref name=Handbook223/> Canterbury and Winchester were the two richest sees in England,<ref name=Higham137>Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 137</ref><ref name=1000Church79>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 79</ref> and while precedent allowed the holding of a rich see along with a poor one, there was no precedent for holding two rich sees concurrently.<ref name=Brooks305>Brooks ''Early History'' p. 205</ref> He may have retained Winchester out of avarice, or his hold on Canterbury may not have been secure.<ref name=Stafford94>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 94</ref> Besides these, he held the [[Gloucester Cathedral|abbey of Gloucester]] and the [[Ely Cathedral|abbey of Ely]] and perhaps other abbeys also.<ref name=Knowles72>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 72</ref> Whatever his reasons, the retention of Winchester made Stigand a pluralist: the holder of more than one [[benefice]] at the same time.<ref name=Stafford94/> This was a practice that was targeted for elimination by the growing reform movement in the church.<ref name=Huscroft62/> Five successive popes (Leo IX, Victor II, Stephen IX, Nicholas II, and Alexander II)<ref name=BHOArchCant/> excommunicated Stigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury at the same time.<ref name=Knowles72/> It has been suggested by the historian Emma Mason that Edward refused to remove Stigand because this would have undermined the royal prerogative to appoint bishops and archbishops without papal input.<ref name=Mason78/> Further hurting Stigand's position, Pope Nicholas II in 1061 declared pluralism to be uncanonical unless approved by the pope.<ref name=Huscroft62>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 62</ref>

Stigand was later accused of simony by monastic chroniclers, but all such accusations date to after 1066, and are thus suspect owing to the post-Conquest desire to vilify the English Church as corrupt and backward.<ref name=Huscroft46>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 46–47</ref> The medieval chronicler [[William of Poitiers]] also claimed that in 1052 Stigand agreed that William of Normandy, the future William the Conqueror, should succeed King Edward. This claim was used as propaganda after the Conquest, but according to the historian [[David Bates (historian)|David Bates]], among others, it is unlikely to be true.<ref name=BatesWC77>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 77–78</ref><ref name=Rex141>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 141</ref> The position of Stigand as head of the church in England was used to good effect by the Normans in their propaganda before, during and after the Conquest.<ref name=Douglas170>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 170</ref>

===Ecclesiastical affairs===
The [[Archbishop of York|diocese of York]] took advantage of Stigand's difficulties with the papacy and encroached on the suffragans, or bishops owing obedience to an archbishop, normally subject to Canterbury. York had long been held in common with [[Bishop of Worcester|Worcester]], but during the period when Stigand was excommunicated, the see of York also claimed oversight over the sees of [[Bishop of Lichfield|Lichfield]] and [[Bishop of Lincoln|Dorchester]].<ref name=Barlow27>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' p. 27</ref> In 1062 [[papal legate]]s of Alexander II came to England. They did not depose Stigand, and even consulted with him and treated him as archbishop.<ref name=Walker127>Walker ''Harold'' p. 127</ref> He was allowed to attend the council they held and was an active participant with the legates in the business of the council.<ref name=Walker148>Walker ''Harold''  pp. 148–149</ref>

Many of the bishops in England did not want to be consecrated by Stigand.<ref name=Chibnall39>Chibnall ''Anglo-Norman England'' p. 39</ref> Both [[Gisa, Bishop of Wells|Giso of Wells]] and [[Walter of Lorraine|Walter of Hereford]] travelled to Rome to be consecrated by the pope in 1061, rather than be consecrated by Stigand.<ref name=Huscroft51>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 51</ref> During the brief period that he held a legitimate pallium, however, Stigand did consecrate [[Æthelric II|Aethelric of Selsey]] and [[Siward, Bishop of Rochester|Siward of Rochester]].<ref name=Walker136>Walker ''Harold''  pp. 136–138</ref> Abbots of monasteries came to Stigand for consecration throughout his time as archbishop. These included not only abbots from monastic houses inside his province, such as [[Æthelsige]] as abbot of [[St Augustine's Abbey]] in Canterbury, but also [[Baldwin (abbot of Bury St Edmunds)|Baldwin]] as [[Abbot of Bury St. Edmunds]] and Thurstan as [[List of bishops of Ely|Abbot of Ely]].<ref name=Brooks307/> After the Norman Conquest, Stigand was accused of selling the office of abbot, but no abbot was deposed for buying the office, so the charge is suspect.<ref name=1000Church113>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' pp. 113–115</ref>

Stigand was probably the most lavish clerical donor of his period when great men gave to churches on an unprecedented scale.<ref name=ASA230>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 230–231</ref> He was a benefactor to the Abbey of Ely,<ref name=Conquest46/> and gave large gold or silver crucifixes to Ely, St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury, [[Bury St. Edmunds Abbey]], and to his [[Cathedral|cathedral church]] at Winchester.<ref name=Piety576>Smith, et al. "Court and Piety" ''Catholic Historical Review'' p. 576</ref> The crucifixes given to Ely, Bury and Winchester all appear to have had about life-size figures of Christ with matching figures of the Virgin and [[John the Evangelist]], as is recorded in the monastic histories, and were probably permanently mounted over the altar or elsewhere. These would have been made with thin sheets of precious metal over a wooden core.<ref name=ASA220>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 211–213, 220 n. 39</ref> No comparably early [[rood]] crosses with the side figures of Mary and John seem to survive, though we have large painted wooden crucifixes like the German [[Gero Cross]] of around 980, and the [[Volto Santo of Lucca]] (renewed with a later figure) which is known to have inspired Leofstan, Abbot of Bury (d. 1065) to create a similar figure, perhaps covered in precious metal, on his return from a visit to Rome.<ref name=ASA211>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' p. 211</ref>{{efn|No early large metal examples have survived, though for example [[Charlemagne]] is known to have had one in his chapel at Aachen. For further information on the evolution of the large crucifix, see Schiller, ''Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I'', pp. 140–149, {{ISBN|0-85331-270-2}}.}} To Ely he gave gold and silver vessels for the altar, and a [[chasuble]] embroidered in gold "of such inestimable workmanship and worth, that none in the kingdom is considered richer or more valuable".<ref name=ASA181>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 181 and 205</ref> Although it does not appear that Stigand ever travelled to Rome, there are indications that Stigand did go on pilgrimage. A 12th-century life of Saint [[Willibrord]], written at the [[Abbey of Echternach]] in what is now [[Luxembourg]], records that "to this place also came Stigand, the eminent archbishop of the English". In the work, Stigand is recorded as giving rich gifts to the abbey as well as relics of saints.<ref name=Piety575>Smith, et al. "Court and Piety" ''Catholic Historical Review'' p. 575</ref>

===Advisor to the king===
During Edward's reign, Stigand was an influential advisor at court and used his position to increase his own wealth as well as that of his friends and family. Contemporary valuations of the lands he controlled at the death of King Edward, as listed in [[Domesday Book]], come to an annual income of about 2500 pounds.<ref name=DNB/> There is little evidence, however, that he enriched either Canterbury or Winchester.<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Brooks307a>Brooks ''Early History'' pp. 307–309</ref> He also appointed his followers to sees within his diocese in 1058, having Siward named [[Bishop of Rochester]] and Æthelric installed as [[Bishop of Chichester|Bishop of Selsey]].<ref name=Loyn58/> Between his holding of two sees and the appointment of his men to other sees in the southeast of England, Stigand was an important figure in defending the coastline against invasion.<ref name=Loyn64>Loyn ''English Church'' p. 64</ref>

Stigand may have been in charge of the royal administration.<ref name=Mason78>Mason ''House of Godwine'' pp. 78–79</ref> He may also have been behind the effort to locate [[Edward the Exile|Edward the Atheling]] and his brother [[Edmund Ætheling|Edmund]] after 1052, possibly to secure a more acceptable heir to King Edward.<ref name="Harold75">Walker ''Harold'' p. 75</ref> His landholdings were spread across ten counties, and in some of those counties, his lands were larger than the king's holdings.<ref name=Smith204>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' p. 204</ref> Although Norman propagandists claimed that as early as 1051 or 1052 King Edward promised the throne of England to Duke [[William I of England|William of Normandy]], who later became King William the Conqueror, there is little contemporary evidence of such a promise from non-Norman sources.<ref name=Stafford92>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 92</ref> By 1053, Edward probably realised that he would not have a son from his marriage, and he and his advisors began to search for an heir.<ref name=Confessor214>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' pp. 214–215</ref> Edward the Atheling, the son of King [[Edmund Ironside]] (reigned 1016), had been exiled from England in 1017, after his father's death.<ref name="Harold75" />{{efn|Edmund Ironside was the elder half-brother of Edward the Confessor; both were sons of Æthelred, with Edmund being the son of [[Ælfgifu of York]], and Edward being the son of [[Emma of Normandy]]. Edmund Ironside had two sons, [[Edward the Exile]] and Edmund, who probably died while young in exile. Edward the Exile married while in exile and was the father of [[Edgar the Ætheling]] and [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret of Scotland]], the wife of King [[Malcolm III of Scotland]].<ref name=Handbook27>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' pp. 27–29 and p. 57</ref>}} Although Ealdred, the Bishop of Worcester, went to the Continent in search of Edward the Exile, Ian Walker, the biographer of King Harold Godwinson, feels that Stigand was behind the effort.<ref name="Harold75"/> In the end, although Edward did return to England, he died soon after his return, leaving a young son [[Edgar the Ætheling]].<ref name=Thomas18>Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' p. 18</ref>

==Final years and legacy==

===Norman Conquest===
[[File:KingHarold Coronation BayeuxTapestry.PNG|thumb|250px|''HIC RESIDET HAROLD REX ANGLORUM. STIGANT ARCHIEP(I)S(COPUS)''. "Here sits Harold King of the English. Archbishop Stigand". Scene immediately after the crowning of Harold by (according to the Norman tradition) Stigand. Detail from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]].]]
[[Image:William1.jpg|thumb|upright|250px|[[William the Conqueror]], shown here from the Bayeux Tapestry, at first accepted Stigand's position, but later allowed papal legates to depose him.|alt=A seated man in robes holding a sword upright in one hand and pointing with his other hand. Behind the seated figure is a standing man pointing in the same direction as the seated figure.]]

King Edward, on his deathbed, left the crown to his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, the son of Earl Godwin.<ref name=Thomas18/> Stigand performed the funeral services for Edward.<ref name=Rex197>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 197</ref> Norman writers claimed that Stigand crowned Harold as king in January 1066.<ref name=Chibnall21>Chibnall ''Anglo-Norman England'' p. 21</ref> This is generally considered false propaganda, as it was in William's interest to portray Harold as uncanonically crowned. If Harold was improperly crowned, then William was merely claiming his rightful inheritance, and not deposing a rightful king.<ref name=Higham175>Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 175–180</ref> The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicts Stigand at Harold's coronation, although not actually placing the crown on Harold's head.<ref name=Rex151>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 151</ref>{{efn|The Tapestry also depicts Stigand wearing a pallium, which Norman sources usually claimed he had no right to wear.<ref name=Owen124>Owen-Crocker "Image Making" ''Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church'' p. 124</ref>}} The English sources claim that Ealdred, the Archbishop of York, crowned Harold, while the Norman sources claim that Stigand did so, with the conflict between the various sources probably tracing to the post-Conquest desire to vilify Harold and depict his coronation as improper.<ref name=Walker136/> Current historical research has shown that the ceremony was performed by Ealdred, owing to the controversy about Stigand's position.<ref name=Huscroft48/><ref name=Chibnall39/><ref name=Walker136/> However, one historian, [[Pauline Stafford]], theorises that both archbishops may have consecrated Harold.<ref name=Stafford83>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 83</ref> Another historian, Frank Barlow, writing in 1979, felt that the fact that some of the English sources do not name who consecrated Harold "tip(s) the balance in favour of Stigand".<ref name=1000Chuch60>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 60 footnote 4</ref>

Stigand did support Harold, and was present at Edward the Confessor's deathbed.<ref name=Barlow249>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' pp. 249–250</ref> Stigand's controversial position may have influenced Pope Alexander II's support of [[William the Conqueror]]'s [[Norman conquest of England|invasion of England]].<ref name=ASE586>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 586</ref><ref name=Loyn98>Loyn ''English Church'' p. 98</ref> The reformers, led by Archdeacon Hildebrand, later Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]], opposed the older type of bishop, rich and installed by the lay powers.<ref name=Rex208>Rex ''Harold II'' pp. 208–209</ref>

After the death of Harold at the [[Battle of Hastings]], Stigand worked with [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia|Earl Edwin]] and [[Morcar of Northumbria|Earl Morcar]], as well as Archbishop Ealdred of York, to put Edgar the Ætheling on the throne.<ref name=Walker183>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 183–185</ref> This plan did not come to fruition, however, due to opposition from the northern earls and some of the other bishops.<ref name=Douglas204>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 203–206</ref> Stigand submitted to William the Conqueror at [[Wallingford, Oxfordshire|Wallingford]] in early December 1066,<ref name=Huscroft18>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 18–19</ref><ref name=BatesWC94>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 94</ref> and perhaps assisted at his coronation on Christmas Day, 1066,<ref name=DNB/> although the coronation was performed by Ealdred.<ref name=BatesWC96>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 96</ref> William took Stigand with him to [[Normandy]] in 1067,<ref name=Knowles104>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 104</ref> although whether this was because William did not trust the archbishop, as the medieval chronicler William of Poitiers alleges, is uncertain.<ref name=Conquest11>Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' p. 11</ref> Stigand was present at the coronation of William's queen, [[Matilda of Flanders|Matilda]], in 1068, although once more the ceremony was actually performed by Ealdred.<ref name=BatesWC100>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 100–101</ref>

===Deposition and death===

After the first rebellions broke out in late 1067 William adopted a policy of conciliation towards the church. He gave Stigand a place at court, as well as giving administrative positions to Ealdred of York and [[Æthelwig]], Abbot of [[Evesham Abbey|Evesham]].<ref name=Barlow57>Barlow ''English Church 1066–1154'' p. 57</ref> Archbishop Stigand appears on several royal charters in 1069, along with both Norman and English leaders.<ref name=ASE623>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 623–624</ref> He even consecrated [[Remigius de Fécamp]] as Bishop of Dorchester in 1067.<ref name=DNB/> Once the danger of rebellion was past, however, William had no further need of Stigand.<ref name=FeuBarlow87>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' p. 87</ref> At a council held at Winchester at Easter 1070,<ref name=Huscroft60>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 60–61</ref> the bishops met with papal legates from Alexander II.<ref name=Handbook590>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 590</ref> On 11 April 1070 Stigand was deposed<ref name=Handbook214/> by the papal legate, [[Ermenfrid]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Sion|Bishop of Sion]] in the Alps,<ref name=BHOArchCant/><ref name=Blumenthal148>Blumenthal ''Investiture Controversy'' pp. 148–149</ref> and was imprisoned at Winchester. His brother Æthelmær, Bishop of Elmham, was also deposed at the same council. Shortly afterward Aethelric the Bishop of Selsey, [[Ethelwin]] the [[Bishop of Durham]] and [[Leofwin]] Bishop of Lichfield, who was married, were deposed at a council held at Windsor.<ref name=Douglas324>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 324</ref><ref name=Barlow93>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' p. 93</ref><ref name=ASE659/> There were three reasons given for Stigand's deposition: that he held the bishopric of Winchester in plurality with Canterbury; that he not only occupied Canterbury after Robert of Jumièges fled but also seized Robert's pallium which was left behind; and that he received his own pallium from Benedict X, an anti-pope.<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Lords33>Powell and Wallis ''House of Lords'' pp. 33–34</ref> Some accounts state that Stigand did appear at the council which deposed him, but nothing is recorded of any defence that he attempted. The charges against his brother are nowhere stated, leading to a belief that the depositions were mainly political.<ref name=ASE659/> That spring he had deposited his personal wealth at Ely Abbey for safekeeping,<ref name=Conquest46/> but King William confiscated it after his deposition, along with his estates.<ref name=Brooks309>Brooks ''Early History'' p. 309</ref> The king appointed [[Lanfranc]], a native of Italy and a scholar and abbot in Normandy, as the new archbishop.<ref name=Thomas123>Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' p. 123</ref>

King William appears to have left the initiative for Stigand's deposition to the papacy and did nothing to hinder Stigand's authority until the papal legates arrived in England to depose the archbishop and reform the English Church. Besides witnessing charters and consecrating Remigius, Stigand appears to have been a member of the royal council, and able to move freely about the country. But after the arrival of the legates, William did nothing to protect Stigand from deposition, and the archbishop later accused the king of acting with bad faith.<ref name=ASE623/> Stigand may even have been surprised that the legates wished him deposed.<ref name=Loyn69>Loyn ''English Church'' p. 69</ref> It was probably the death of Ealdred in 1069 that moved the pope to send the legates, as that left only one archbishop in England; and he was not considered legitimate and unable to consecrate bishops.<ref name=ASE659>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 659–661</ref> The historian George Garnett draws the parallel between the treatment of King Harold in the ''Domesday Book'', where he is essentially ignored as king, and Stigand's treatment after his deposition, where his time as archbishop is as much as possible treated as not occurring.<ref name=Garnett107>Garnett "Coronation and Propaganda" ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' pp. 107–108</ref>

Stigand died in 1072<ref name=BHOArchCant/> while still imprisoned,<ref name=BatesWC168>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 168–169</ref> and his death was commemorated on 21 February or 22 February.<ref name=BHOArchCant/> Sometime between his deposition and his death the widow of King Edward and sister of King Harold, [[Edith of Wessex]], visited him in his imprisonment and allegedly told him to take better care of himself.<ref name=Godwins161>Barlow ''Godwins'' p. 161</ref> He was buried in the [[Old Minster, Winchester|Old Minster]] at Winchester.<ref name=DNB/>

At King Edward's death, only the royal estates and the estates of Harold were larger and wealthier than those held by Stigand.<ref name=Emma>Stafford ''Queen Emma and Queen Edith'' p. 123 footnote 136</ref> Medieval writers condemned him for his greed and for his pluralism.<ref name=DNB>Cowdrey "Stigand" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> [[Hugh the Chanter]], a medieval chronicler, claimed that the confiscated wealth of Stigand helped keep King William on the throne.<ref name=Rex79>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 79</ref> A recent study of his wealth and how it was earned shows that while he did engage in some exploitative methods to gain some of his wealth, other lands were gained through inheritance or through royal favour.<ref name=Smith211>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' p. 211</ref> The same study shows little evidence that he despoiled his episcopal estates, although the record towards monastic houses is more suspect.<ref name=Smith213>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' p. 213</ref> There is no complaint in contemporary records about his private life and the accusations that he committed simony and was illiterate only date from the 12th century.<ref name=1000Church80>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' pp. 80–81</ref>

Although monastic chroniclers after the Norman Conquest accused him of crimes such as perjury and homicide, they do not provide any evidence of those crimes.<ref name=Smith217>Smith "Archbishop Stigand" ''Anglo-Norman Studies 16'' p. 217</ref><ref name=Emma151>Stafford ''Queen Emma and Queen Edith'' p. 151</ref> Almost 100 years after his death, another Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Thomas Becket]], was taunted in 1164 by King [[Henry II of England|Henry II]]'s barons with Stigand's fate for daring to oppose his king.<ref name=Rumble180>Rumble "From Winchester to Canterbury" ''Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church'' p. 180</ref> Modern historians views tend to see him as either a wily politician and indifferent bishop or to see him purely in terms of his ecclesiastical failings. The historian [[Frank Stenton]] felt that his "whole career shows that he was essentially a politician".<ref name=ASEQ466>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 466</ref> Concurring with this, the historian [[Nick Higham (historian)|Nick Higham]] said that "Stigand was a seasoned politician whose career had been built on an accurate reading of the balance of power."<ref name=Higham219>Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 219–220</ref> Another historian, [[Eric John]], said that "Stigand had a fair claim to be the worst bishop of Christendom".<ref name=John174>John ''Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 174</ref> However, the historian Frank Barlow felt that "he was a man of cultured tastes, a patron of the arts who was generous to the monasteries which he held".<ref name=1000Church79/> Alexander Rumble argued that Stigand was unlucky in living past the Conquest, stating that it could be said that Stigand was "unlucky to live so long that he saw in his lifetime not only the end of the Anglo-Saxon state but also the challenging of uncanonical, but hitherto tolerated, practices by a wave of papal reforms".<ref name=Rumble179>Rumble "From Winchester to Canterbury" '' Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church'' p. 179</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist|60em}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|40em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|60em}}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=Edward the Confessor |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian)|publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |year=1970 |isbn=0-520-01671-8 }}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=The English Church 1000–1066: A History of the Later Anglo-Saxon Church |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1979 |isbn=0-582-49049-9 |edition=Second }}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=The English Church 1066–1154: A History of the Anglo-Norman Church |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1979 |isbn=0-582-50236-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042–1216 |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |edition=Fourth |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=0-582-49504-0 }}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=The Godwins: The Rise and Fall of a Noble Dynasty |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=0-582-78440-9 }}
* {{cite book |author=Bates, David |title=William the Conqueror |author-link=David Bates (historian) |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2001 |isbn=0-7524-1980-3 }}
* {{cite book |author=Blair, Peter Hunter |title=An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England |author-link=Peter Hunter Blair |edition=Third |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2003  |isbn=0-521-53777-0 }}
* {{cite book |author=Blumenthal, Uta-Renate |title=The Investiture Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia, PA |year=1988 |isbn=0-8122-1386-6 }}
* {{cite book |author=Brooks, Nicholas |title=The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 |author-link=Nicholas Brooks (historian) |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1984 |isbn=0-7185-0041-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Chibnall, Marjorie |title=Anglo-Norman England 1066–1166 |author-link=Marjorie Chibnall |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=Oxford, UK |year=1986 |isbn=0-631-15439-6 }}
* {{cite book |author=Coredon, Christopher |title=A Dictionary of Medieval Terms & Phrases |year=2007 |edition=Reprint |publisher=D. S. Brewer |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=978-1-84384-138-8 }}
* {{cite book |author=Cowdrey, H. E. J. |title=Lanfranc: Scholar, Monk, and Archbishop |author-link=H. E. J. Cowdrey |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2003 |isbn=0-19-925960-7 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Cowdrey, H. E. J. |title=Stigand (d. 1072) |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=H. E. J. Cowdrey |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/26523 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/26523 }} {{ODNBsub}}
* {{cite journal |author=Darlington, R. R. |title=Ecclesiastical Reform in the Late Old English Period |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=51 |issue=203 |date=July 1936 |pages=385–428 |jstor=553127 |doi=10.1093/ehr/LI.CCIII.385 }}
* {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C.R. |title= Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective |author-link=Charles Reginald Dodwell |year=1982 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |isbn=0-7190-0926-X }}
* {{cite book |author= Douglas, David C. |title=William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England |author-link=David C. Douglas |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |oclc=399137 }}
* {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X}}
* {{cite journal |author=Garnett, George |title=Coronation and Propaganda: Some Implications of the Norman Claim to the Throne of England in 1066 |author-link=George Garnett |journal=[[Transactions of the Royal Historical Society]] |series=Fifth Series |volume=36 |year=1986 |pages=91–116 |doi=10.2307/3679061 |jstor=3679061 |s2cid=159491086 }}
* {{cite book |author=Greenway, Diana E. |section=Canterbury: Archbishops |title=Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300|volume=2: Monastic Cathedrals (Northern and Southern Provinces)|section-url=http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=33853 |year=1971 |publisher=Institute for Historical Research |access-date=23 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809060306/http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=33853 |archive-date=9 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |author=Higham, Nick |title=The Death of Anglo-Saxon England |author-link=N. J. Higham |publisher=Sutton |location=Stroud, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-7509-2469-1 }}
* {{cite book |author=Hill, Paul |title=The Road to Hastings: The Politics of Power in Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2005 |isbn=0-7524-3308-3 }}
* {{cite book |author=Huscroft, Richard |title=Ruling England 1042–1217 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=0-582-84882-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=John, Eric |title=Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-7190-5053-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=Knowles, David |title=The Monastic Order in England: A History of its Development from the Times of St. Dunstan to the Fourth Lateran Council, 940–1216 |author-link=David Knowles (scholar) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1976 |edition=Second reprint |isbn=0-521-05479-6 }}
* {{cite book |author=Lawson, M. K. |title= Cnut: England's Viking King |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-7524-2964-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |title=The English Church, 940–1154 |author-link= H. R. Loyn |publisher=Pearson Education |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2000 |isbn=0-582-30303-6 }}
* {{cite book |author=Mason, Emma |title=House of Godwine: The History of Dynasty |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=1-85285-389-1 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Owen-Crocker, Gale R. |title=Image Making: Portraits of Anglo-Saxon Church Leaders |encyclopedia=Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church: From Bede to Stigand |year=2012 |publisher=Boydell Press |editor=Rumble, Alexander R. |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=978-1-84383-700-8 |pages=109–127 }}
* {{cite book |author1=Powell, J. Enoch |author2=Wallis, Keith |title=The House of Lords in the Middle Ages: A History of the English House of Lords to 1540 |author-link1=Enoch Powell |year=1968 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |location=London |oclc=463626 }}
* {{cite book |author=Rex, Peter |title=Harold II: The Doomed Saxon King |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7394-7185-2 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Rumble, Alexander R. |title=From Winchester to Canterbury: Ælheah and Stigand&nbsp;– Bishops, Archbishops and Victims |encyclopedia=Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church: From Bede to Stigand |year=2012 |publisher=Boydell |editor=Rumble, Alexander R. |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=978-1-84383-700-8 |pages=165–182 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Smith, Mary Frances |title=Archbishop Stigand and the Eye of the Needle |encyclopedia=Anglo-Norman Studies Volume 16 |publisher=Boydell |location=Woodbridge, UK |year=1993 |pages=199–219 |isbn=0-85115-366-6 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Smith, Mary Frances |author2=Fleming, Robin |author3=Halpin, Patricia |title=Court and Piety in Late Anglo-Saxon England |author-link2=Robin Fleming |journal=The Catholic Historical Review |number=4|date=October 2001 |pages=569–602 |doi=10.1353/cat.2001.0189 |volume=87 |jstor= 25026026 |s2cid=159900538 }}
* {{cite book |author=Stafford, Pauline |title=Queen Emma and Queen Edith: Queenship and Women's Power in Eleventh-century England |author-link=Pauline Stafford |publisher=Blackwell |location=Cambridge, MA |year=1997 |isbn=0-631-22738-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Stafford, Pauline |title=Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries |author-link=Pauline Stafford |publisher=Edward Arnold |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-7131-6532-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |title= Anglo-Saxon England |year=1971 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=Frank Stenton |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Thomas, Hugh |title=The Norman Conquest: England after William the Conqueror |series=Critical Issues in History |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, MD |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7425-3840-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Walker, Ian |title=Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King |publisher=Wrens Park |location=Gloucestershire, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-905778-46-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Williams, Ann |title=The English and the Norman Conquest |author-link=Ann Williams (historian) |publisher=Boydell |location=Woodbridge, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-85115-708-4 }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |author=Barlow, Frank |title=Two Notes: Cnut's Second Pilgrimage and Queen Emma's Disgrace in 1043 |date=October 1958 |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=73 |issue=289 |pages=649–656 |doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXIII.289.649 |jstor=557268 |s2cid=159927808 }}
* {{cite journal |author=John, Eric |title=Edward the Confessor and the Norman Succession |journal=[[The English Historical Review]]|volume=96 |issue=371 |date=April 1979 |pages=241–267 |doi=10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXI.241 |jstor= 566846 |s2cid=159601267 }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{PASE|185450|Stigand 1}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef| before=[[Ælfric III]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Bishop of Elmham]] | years=1043}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Grimketel]]}}
{{s-bef| before=[[Grimketel]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Bishop of Elmham]]| years=1044–1047}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Æthelmær of Elmham|Æthelmær]]}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Ælfwine of Winchester]]}}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Bishop of Winchester]]  | years=1047–1070}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Walkelin]]}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Robert of Jumièges]]}}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Archbishop of Canterbury]] | years=1052–1070}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Lanfranc]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Bishops of Norwich}}
{{Bishops of Winchester}}
{{Archbishops of Canterbury}}{{Norman Conquest}}{{Subject bar |portal1=England |portal2=Middle Ages |portal3=Catholicism |portal4=Biography|commons=y |commons-search= Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Stigand}}
[[Category:1072 deaths]]
[[Category:Bishops of Winchester]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Clergy from Norwich]]
[[Category:11th-century English Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:11th-century English Roman Catholic archbishops]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]