Editing Space suit

{{Short description|Garment worn to protect a human in space}}
{{Distinguish|Single-person spacecraft}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}}
[[File:Aldrin Apollo 11 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Apollo/Skylab spacesuit|Apollo spacesuit]] worn by astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] on [[Apollo 11]]]]
[[File:Iss009e29620.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Orlan space suit]] worn by astronaut [[Michael Fincke]] outside the [[International Space Station]]]]
[[File:Feitian space suit at NMC 02.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Feitian space suit]] being displayed at the [[National Museum of China]]]]

A '''space suit''' (or '''spacesuit''') is an [[environmental suit]] used for protection from the harsh [[Space environment|environment of]] [[outer space]], mainly from its [[Vacuum (outer space)|vacuum]] as a highly specialized [[pressure suit]], but also its temperature extremes, as well as [[Effects of ionizing radiation in spaceflight|radiation]] and [[micrometeoroid]]s. Basic space suits are worn as a safety precaution inside [[spacecraft]]s in case of loss of [[cabin pressure]]. For [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA) more complex space suits are worn, featuring a [[portable life support system]].

Pressure suits are in general needed at low pressure environments above the [[Armstrong limit]], at around {{convert|19000|m|ft|abbr=on}} above Earth. Space suits augment pressure suits with complex system of equipment and environmental systems designed to keep the wearer comfortable, and to minimize the effort required to bend the limbs, resisting a soft pressure garment's natural tendency to stiffen against the vacuum. A self-contained [[oxygen]] supply and environmental control system is frequently employed to allow complete freedom of movement, independent of the spacecraft.

Three types of space suits exist for different purposes: IVA (intravehicular activity), EVA (extravehicular activity), and IEVA (intra/extravehicular activity). IVA suits are meant to be worn inside a pressurized spacecraft, and are therefore lighter and more comfortable. IEVA suits are meant for use inside and outside the spacecraft, such as the [[Gemini space suit|Gemini G4C]] suit. They include more protection from the harsh conditions of space, such as protection from micrometeoroids and extreme temperature change. EVA suits, such as the [[Extravehicular Mobility Unit|EMU]], are used outside spacecraft, for either planetary exploration or spacewalks. They must protect the wearer against all conditions of space, as well as provide mobility and functionality.<ref name=thomas/>

The first full-pressure suits for use at extreme altitudes were designed by individual inventors as early as the 1930s. The first space suit worn by a human in space was the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[SK-1 spacesuit|SK-1]] suit worn by [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961. Since then space suits have been worn beside in Earth orbit, en-route and on the surface of the [[Moon]].

== Requirements ==
[[File:STS-116 spacewalk 1.jpg|thumb|Space suits being used to work on the International Space Station.]]

A space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably, inside or outside a spacecraft. It must provide:
* A stable internal pressure. This can be less than Earth's atmosphere, as there is usually no need for the space suit to carry [[nitrogen]] (which comprises about 78% of Earth's atmosphere and is not used by the body). Lower pressure allows for greater mobility, but requires the suit occupant to breathe pure oxygen for a time before going into this lower pressure, to avoid [[decompression sickness]].
* Mobility. Movement is typically opposed by the pressure of the suit; mobility is achieved by careful joint design. See the ''[[#Design concepts|Design concepts]]'' section.
* Supply of breathable oxygen and elimination of [[carbon dioxide]]; these gases are exchanged with the spacecraft or a [[Primary Life Support System|Portable Life Support System]] (PLSS)
* Temperature regulation. Unlike on Earth, where heat can be transferred by [[convection]] to the atmosphere, in space, heat can be lost only by [[thermal radiation]] or by [[heat conduction|conduction]] to objects in physical contact with the exterior of the suit. Since the temperature on the outside of the suit varies greatly between sunlight and shadow, the suit is heavily insulated, and air temperature is maintained at a comfortable level.
* A communication system, with external electrical connection to the spacecraft or PLSS
* [[File:AstroRad NASA.jpg|thumb|235x235px|AstroRad developed by Israeli StemRad anti Radiation spacesuit]]Means of collecting and containing solid and liquid bodily waste (such as a [[Maximum Absorbency Garment]])

=== Secondary requirements ===
[[File:First Six Women Astronauts with Rescue Ball - GPN-2002-000207.jpg|thumb|From left to right, Margaret R. (Rhea) Seddon, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Judith A. Resnick, Sally K. Ride, Anna L. Fisher, and Shannon W. Lucid{{mdash}}The first six female astronauts of the United States stand with a [[Personal Rescue Enclosure]], a spherical life support ball for emergency transfer of people in space]]
Advanced suits better regulate the [[astronaut]]'s temperature with a [[Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment]] (LCVG) in contact with the astronaut's skin, from which the heat is dumped into space through an external radiator in the PLSS.

Additional requirements for EVA include:
* Shielding against [[ultraviolet]] radiation
* Limited shielding against [[particle radiation]]
* Means to maneuver, dock, release, and tether onto a spacecraft
* Protection against small [[micrometeoroid]]s, some traveling at up to 27,000 kilometers per hour, provided by a puncture-resistant [[Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment]], which is the outermost layer of the suit. Experience has shown the greatest chance of exposure occurs near the [[gravitational field]] of a moon or planet, so these were first employed on the [[Apollo program|Apollo]] lunar EVA suits (see ''[[#United States suit models|United States suit models]]'' below).

[[File:Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment.gif|thumb|Layers of a space suit.]]

As part of [[astronautical hygiene]] control (i.e., protecting astronauts from extremes of temperature, radiation, etc.), a space suit is essential for extravehicular activity. The [[Apollo/Skylab A7L]] suit included eleven layers in all: an inner liner, a LCVG, a pressure bladder, a restraint layer, another liner, and a Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment consisting of five aluminized insulation layers and an external layer of white Ortho-Fabric. This space suit is capable of protecting the astronaut from temperatures ranging from {{convert|-156|°C}} to {{convert|121|°C}}.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}

During exploration of the Moon or Mars, there will be the potential for lunar or Martian dust to be retained on the space suit. When the space suit is removed on return to the spacecraft, there will be the potential for the dust to contaminate surfaces and increase the risks of inhalation and skin exposure. Astronautical hygienists are testing materials with reduced dust retention times and the potential to control the dust exposure risks during planetary exploration. Novel ingress and egress approaches, such as [[suitport]]s, are being explored as well.

In [[NASA]] space suits, communications are provided via a cap worn over the head, which includes earphones and a microphone. Due to the coloration of the version used for Apollo and [[Skylab]], which resembled the coloration of the comic strip character [[Snoopy]], these caps became known as "[[Snoopy cap]]s".

=== Operating pressure ===
[[File:Prebreathe.jpg|thumb|Astronaut [[Steve MacLean (astronaut)|Steven G. MacLean]] pre-breathes prior to an EVA]]
Generally, to supply enough oxygen for [[Respiratory system|respiration]], a space suit using pure oxygen must have a pressure of about {{convert|32.4|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, equal to the {{convert|20.7|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} [[partial pressure]] of oxygen in the [[Earth's atmosphere]] at sea level, plus {{convert|5.3|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} {{CO2}}{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} and {{convert|6.3|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on|lk=on}} [[water vapor]] pressure, both of which must be subtracted from the [[Pulmonary gas pressures|alveolar pressure]] to get alveolar oxygen partial pressure in 100% oxygen atmospheres, by the [[alveolar gas equation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalrph.com/martin_4_most2.htm |title=The Four Most Important Equations In Clinical Practice |last=Martin |first=Lawrence |website=GlobalRPh |publisher=David McAuley |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref> The latter two figures add to {{convert|11.6|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, which is why many modern space suits do not use {{convert|20.7|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, but {{convert|32.4|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} (this is a slight overcorrection, as alveolar partial pressures at sea level are slightly less than the former). In space suits that use 20.7&nbsp;kPa, the astronaut gets only 20.7&nbsp;kPa − 11.6&nbsp;kPa = {{convert|9.1|kPa|Torr psi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of oxygen, which is about the alveolar oxygen partial pressure attained at an altitude of {{convert|1860|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. This is about 42% of normal partial pressure of oxygen at sea level, about the same as [[Cabin pressurization#Aircraft|pressure in a commercial passenger jet aircraft]], and is the realistic lower limit for safe ordinary space suit pressurization which allows reasonable capacity for work.

====Oxygen prebreathing====
{{see also|Decompression practice#Oxygen prebreathing}}
When space suits below a specific operating pressure are used from craft that are pressurized to normal [[atmospheric pressure]] (such as the [[Space Shuttle]]), this requires astronauts to "pre-breathe" (meaning pre-breathe pure oxygen for a period) before donning their suits and depressurizing in the air lock. This procedure purges the body of dissolved nitrogen, so as to avoid decompression sickness due to rapid depressurization from a nitrogen-containing atmosphere.<ref name="thomas" />

In the US space shuttle, cabin pressure was reduced from normal atmospheric to 70kPa (equivalent to an altitude of about 3000m) for 24 hours before EVA, and after donning the suit, a pre-breathing period of 45 minutes on pure oxygen before decompressing to the EMU working pressure of 30kPa. In the ISS there is no cabin pressure reduction, instead a 4-hour oxygen pre-breathe at normal cabin pressure is used to desaturate nitrogen to an acceptable level. US studies show that a rapid decompression from 101kPa to 55kPa has an acceptable risk, and Russian studies show that direct decompression from 101kPa to 40kPa after 30 minutes of oxygen pre-breathing, roughly the time required for pre-EVA suit checks, is acceptable.<ref name="thomas" />

===Physiological effects of unprotected space exposure===
{{Main|Space exposure}}
The human body can briefly survive the hard vacuum of space unprotected,<ref name="Bellows2006">{{cite web |url=http://www.damninteresting.com/outer-space-exposure |title=Outer Space Exposure |last=Bellows |first=Alan |date=November 27, 2006 |website=Damn Interesting |id=Article #237 |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref> despite contrary depictions in some popular [[science fiction]]. Consciousness is retained for up to 15 seconds as the effects of [[Hypoxia (medical)|oxygen starvation]] set in. No snap freeze effect occurs because all heat must be lost through [[thermal radiation]] or the [[evaporation]] of liquids, and the blood does not boil because it remains pressurized within the body, but human flesh expands up to about twice its volume due to [[ebullism]] in such conditions, giving the visual effect of a body builder rather than an overfilled balloon.<ref name="Springel 2013" >{{cite web|date=30 July 2013 |first=Mark|last=Springel |publisher=Harvard University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences |url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2013/space-human-body/ |title=The human body in space: Distinguishing fact from fiction |access-date=6 October 2023}}</ref>

In space, there are highly energized [[subatomic particle]]s that can cause [[radiation damage]] by disrupting essential biological processes. Exposure to radiation can create problems via two methods: the particles can react with water in the human body to produce [[free radicals]] that break DNA molecules apart, or by directly breaking the DNA molecules.<ref name=thomas>{{cite book|last1=Thomas|first1=Kenneth S.|last2=McMann|first2=Harold J.|title=U.S. Spacesuits|date=23 November 2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-9566-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Space Radiation Analysis Group|url=http://srag.jsc.nasa.gov/Index.cfm|website=NASA, Johnson Space Center|publisher=NASA|access-date=16 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218045538/http://srag.jsc.nasa.gov/Index.cfm|archive-date=February 18, 2015}}</ref>

Temperature in space can vary extremely depending on the exposure to radiant energy sources. Temperatures from solar radiation can reach up to {{convert|250|°F}}, and in its absence, down to {{convert|-387|°F|0}}. Because of this, space suits must provide sufficient insulation and cooling for the conditions in which they will be used.<ref name=thomas/>

The vacuum environment of space has no pressure, so gases will expand and exposed liquids may evaporate. Some solids may [[Sublimation (phase transition)|sublimate]]. It is necessary to wear a suit that provides sufficient internal body pressure in space.<ref name=thomas/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hanslmeier|first1=Arnold|title=The Sun and Space Weather|date=1 January 2002|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=1-4020-0684-5|pages=166–67|edition=Illustrated}}</ref> The most immediate hazard is in attempting to hold one's breath during [[Uncontrolled decompression#Explosive decompression|explosive decompression]] as the expansion of gas can damage the lungs by overexpansion rupture. These effects have been confirmed through various accidents (including in very-high-altitude conditions, outer space and training [[vacuum chamber]]s).<ref name="Bellows2006" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/970603.html |title=Ask an Astrophysicist: Human Body in a Vacuum |website=Image the Universe! |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=December 14, 2008}}</ref> Human skin does not need to be protected from vacuum and is gas-tight by itself.<ref name="Springel 2013" /> It only needs to be mechanically restrained to retain its normal shape and the internal tissues to retain their volume. This can be accomplished with a tight-fitting elastic body suit and a [[helmet]] for containing [[breathing gas]]es, known as a [[space activity suit]] (SAS).{{clarify|how does this affect breathing?|date=September 2023 }}{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}<!-- uncontroversial but I can't remember the sources right now. It is probably in Thomas, but I don't have access-->

== Design concepts ==
[[File:Space suit patch.jpg|thumb|NASA's Extravehicular Mobility Unit ''[[Vitruvian Man|Vitruvian]] Spaceman'' patch ([[Space Shuttle]] version, with three stars representing NASA's [[human spaceflight programs]])]]
<!-- almost all the claims here are obvious to someone who understands the physics. I seriously doubt there is any original research as of September 2023, it just needs references.-->
A space suit should allow its user natural unencumbered movement. Nearly all designs try to maintain a constant volume no matter what movements the wearer makes. This is because [[Work (physics)|mechanical work]] is needed to change the volume of a constant pressure system. If flexing a joint reduces the volume of the space suit, then the astronaut must do extra work every time they bend that joint, and they have to maintain a force to keep the joint bent. Even if this force is very small, it can be seriously fatiguing to constantly fight against one's suit. It also makes delicate movements very difficult. The work required to bend a joint is dictated by the formula

:<math>W=\int_{V_i}^{V_f} \,P\,dV</math>

where ''V<sub>i</sub>'' and ''V<sub>f</sub>'' are respectively the initial and final volume of the joint, ''P'' is the pressure in the suit, and ''W'' is the resultant work. It is generally true that all suits are more mobile at lower pressures. However, because a minimum internal pressure is dictated by life support requirements, the only means of further reducing work is to minimize the change in volume.

All space suit designs try to minimize or eliminate this problem. The most common solution is to form the suit out of multiple layers. The bladder layer is a rubbery, airtight layer much like a balloon. The restraint layer goes outside the bladder, and provides a specific shape for the suit. Since the bladder layer is larger than the restraint layer, the restraint takes all of the stresses caused by the pressure inside the suit. Since the bladder is not under pressure, it will not "pop" like a balloon, even if punctured. The restraint layer is shaped in such a way that bending a joint causes pockets of fabric, called "gores", to open up on the outside of the joint, while folds called "convolutes" fold up on the inside of the joint. The gores make up for the volume lost on the inside of the joint, and keep the suit at a nearly constant volume. However, once the gores are opened all the way, the joint cannot be bent any further without a considerable amount of work.

In some Russian space suits, strips of cloth were wrapped tightly around the [[Astronaut#Cosmonaut|cosmonaut]]'s arms and legs outside the space suit to stop the space suit from ballooning when in space.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

The outermost layer of a space suit, the Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, provides thermal insulation, protection from micrometeoroids, and shielding from harmful [[Sunlight|solar radiation]].

There are four main conceptual approaches to suit design:
[[File:AX-5-spacesuit.jpg|thumb|NASA's experimental AX-5 hard-shell space suit (1988)]]

===Soft suits===
Soft suits typically are made mostly of fabrics. All soft suits have some hard parts; some even have hard joint bearings. Intra-vehicular activity and early EVA suits were soft suits.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

===Hard-shell suits===
Hard-shell suits are usually made of metal or composite materials and do not use fabric for joints. Hard suits joints use ball bearings and wedge-ring segments similar to an adjustable elbow of a stove pipe to allow a wide range of movement with the arms and legs. The joints maintain a constant volume of air internally and do not have any counter-force. Therefore, the astronaut does not need to exert to hold the suit in any position. Hard suits can also operate at higher pressures which would eliminate the need for an astronaut to pre-breathe oxygen to use a {{convert|34|kPa|psi|abbr=on}} space suit before an EVA from a {{convert|101|kPa|psi|abbr=on}} spacecraft cabin. The joints may get into a restricted or locked position requiring the astronaut to manipulate or program the joint.{{clarify|program the joint|date=September 2023}} The NASA [[Ames Research Center]] experimental [[AX-5 hard-shell space suit]] had a flexibility rating of 95%. The wearer could move into 95% of the positions they could without the suit on.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

===Hybrid suits===
Hybrid suits have hard-shell parts and fabric parts. NASA's Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) uses a fiberglass [[Hard Upper Torso]] (HUT) and fabric limbs.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} [[ILC Dover]]'s [[I-Suit]] replaces the HUT with a fabric soft upper torso to save weight, restricting the use of hard components to the joint bearings, helmet, waist seal, and rear entry hatch.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} Virtually all workable space suit designs incorporate hard components, particularly at interfaces such as the waist seal, bearings, and in the case of rear-entry suits, the back hatch, where all-soft alternatives are not viable.

===Skintight suits===
{{further|Mechanical counterpressure suit}}
Skintight suits, also known as mechanical counterpressure suits or space activity suits, are a proposed design which would use a heavy elastic body stocking to compress the body. The head is in a pressurized helmet, but the rest of the body is pressurized only by the elastic effect of the suit. This mitigates the constant volume problem,{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} reduces the possibility of a space suit depressurization and gives a very lightweight suit. When not worn, the elastic garments may appear to be that of clothing for a small child. These suits may be very difficult to put on and face problems with providing a uniform pressure. Most proposals use the body's natural [[perspiration]] to keep cool. Sweat evaporates readily in vacuum and may [[deposition (phase transition)|desublime]] or deposit on objects nearby: optics, sensors, the astronaut's visor, and other surfaces.  The icy film and sweat residue may contaminate sensitive surfaces and affect optical performance.

== Contributing technologies ==
{{Expand section|date=October 2010}}
Related preceding technologies include the [[stratonautical space suit]], the [[WWII gas mask|gas mask]] used in [[World War II]], the [[oxygen mask]] used by pilots of high-flying bombers in World War II, the high-altitude or vacuum suit required by pilots of the [[Lockheed U-2]] and [[Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird|SR-71 Blackbird]], the [[diving suit]], [[rebreather]], [[scuba diving]] gear, and many others.

Many space suit designs are taken from the U.S. Air Force suits, which are designed to work in "high-altitude aircraft pressure[s]",<ref name=thomas/> such as the [[Navy Mark IV|Mercury IVA]] suit or the Gemini G4C, or the [[Advanced Crew Escape Suit]]s.<ref name=nasa>{{cite web|title=NASA Spacesuits|url=http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/nasa_spacesuit/|website=NASA|access-date=17 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100520023431/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/nasa_spacesuit/|archive-date=May 20, 2010}}</ref>

===Glove technology===

The Mercury IVA, the first U.S. space suit design, included lights at the tips of the gloves in order to provide visual aid. As the need for extravehicular activity grew, suits such as the Apollo A7L included gloves made of a metal fabric called Chromel-r in order to prevent punctures. In order to retain a better sense of touch for the astronauts, the fingertips of the gloves were made of silicone. With the shuttle program, it became necessary to be able to operate spacecraft modules, so the ACES suits featured gripping on the gloves. EMU gloves, which are used for spacewalks, are heated to keep the astronaut's hands warm. The Phase VI gloves, meant for use with the [[Mark III (space suit)|Mark III suit]], are the first gloves to be designed with "laser scanning technology, 3D computer modeling, stereo lithography, laser cutting technology and CNC machining".<ref group="NASA, ILC Dover Inc.">{{cite report|last1=Graziosi|first1=David|last2=Stein|first2=James|last3=Ross|first3=Amy|last4=Kosmo|first4=Joseph|title=Phase VI Advanced EVA Glove Development and Certification for the International Space Station|date=21 January 2011}}</ref> This allows for cheaper, more accurate production, as well as increased detail in joint mobility and flexibility.

===Life support technology===

Prior to the [[Apollo program|Apollo missions]], life support in space suits was connected to the space capsule via an [[umbilical cable]]. However, with the Apollo missions, life support was configured into a removable capsule called the [[Primary Life Support System|Portable Life Support System]] that allowed the astronaut to explore the Moon without having to be attached to the space craft. The EMU space suit, used for spacewalks, allows the astronaut to manually control the internal environment of the suit. The Mark III suit has a backpack containing about 12 pounds of liquid air for breathing,  pressurization, and heat exchange.{{clarify|what is the internal working pressure of the MK III suit?|date=September 2023}}<ref name=nasa/>

===Helmet technology===

The development of the spheroidal dome helmet was key in balancing the need for field of view, pressure compensation, and low weight. One inconvenience with some space suits is the head being fixed facing forwards and being unable to turn to look sideways. Astronauts call this effect "alligator head".{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

===High-altitude suits===
[[File:Herreraspacesuit.jpg|thumb|Pressurised suit prototype designed by military engineer [[Emilio Herrera Linares|Emilio Herrera]] for a stratospheric balloon flight. {{Circa|1935}}]]
* [[Evgeniy Chertovsky]] created his full-pressure suit or high-altitude "''skafandr''" (''скафандр'') in 1931.<ref name="Kondyurin_2022">{{cite book |last= Kondyurin |first= Alexey  |date=2012 |title=Design and Fabrication of Large Polymer Constructions in Space |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |quote= "skafandr" was proposed (Yevgeny Chertovsky, an engineer of Aviation Medicine Institute, designed the first full-pressure spacesuit in 1931 for stratospheric flights)|publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=978-0128168035}}</ref> (скафандр also means "[[Underwater diving|diving]] suit").<ref name="Google Translate c105">{{cite web | title=Google Translate: скафандр to English | website=Google Translate | url=https://translate.google.com/?sl=ru&tl=en&text=%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%0A&op=translate | access-date=March 17, 2024}}</ref>
* [[Emilio Herrera Linares|Emilio Herrera]] designed and built a full-pressure "[[stratonautical space suit]]" in 1935, which was to have been used during an open-basket balloon stratospheric flight scheduled for early 1936.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Astronautica |title=Escafandra Estratonautica |url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/escutica.htm |access-date=June 19, 2013 |publisher=Mark Wade  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522143849/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/escutica.htm |archive-date=May 22, 2013 }}</ref>
* In 1938 the [[Regia Aeronautica|Italian Air Force]] developed an high-altitude, semi-rigid pressurized suit,  the first to be successfully used in operational conditions on October 22nd 1938 by Lt.Col. [[Mario Pezzi (aviator)|Mario Pezzi]] during his first high-altitude record flight.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRkkmvVr19w, minute 1.32 to 2.47 </ref>
* [[Wiley Post]] experimented with a number of pressure suits for record-breaking flights.<ref name="apps.dtic.mil n729">{{cite web | title=Wiley Post: First Test of High Altitude Pressure Suits in the United States | website=Defense Technical Information Center | url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD0616952 | access-date=March 17, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Jenkins_2012">{{cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Dennis R.  |date=2012 |title=Dressing for Altitude: U.S. Aviation Pressure Suits, Wiley Post to Space Shuttle: U.S. Aviation Pressure Suits, Wiley Post to Space Shuttle None |url= https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/dressing-for-altitude-ebook_tagged.pdf?emrc=76e285 |location=Washington, D. C., USA |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration  |isbn=978-0160901102}}</ref>
* [[Russell Colley]] created the space suits worn by the Project Mercury astronauts, including fitting [[Alan Shepard]] for his ride as America's first man in space on May 5, 1961.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

==List of space suit models==
<span class="anchor" id="Models of historical significance"></span>

===Soviet and Russian suit models===
* ''[[SK-1 spacesuit|SK series]] (CK)''{{Snd}}the spacesuit used for the [[Vostok program]] (1961–1963). Worn by [[Yuri Gagarin]] on the first crewed space flight.
* No pressure suits were worn aboard [[Voskhod 1]].
* ''[[Berkut spacesuit|Berkut]]'' (''Беркут'' meaning "[[golden eagle]]")''{{Snd}}''the spacesuit was a modified SK-1 used by the crew of [[Voskhod 2]] which included [[Alexei Leonov]] on the first [[spacewalk]] during (1965).
* From [[Soyuz 1]] to [[Soyuz 11]] (1967–1971) no pressure suits were worn during [[Rocket launch|launch]] and [[Atmospheric entry|reentry]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}
* ''[[Yastreb]]'' (''Ястреб'' meaning "[[hawk]]")''{{Snd}}''extravehicular activity spacesuit used during a crew exchange between [[Soyuz 4]] and [[Soyuz 5]] (1969).
* [[Krechet-94]] (''Кречет'' meaning "[[gyrfalcon]]")''{{Snd}}''designed for the canceled Soviet crewed Moon landing.
* [[Strizh]] (''Стриж'' meaning "[[swift (bird)]]")''{{Snd}}''developed for pilots of ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiters.
* [[Sokol space suit|Sokol]] (''Сокол'' meaning "[[falcon]]")''{{Snd}}''suits worn by [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] crew members during launch and reentry. They were first worn on [[Soyuz 12]]. They have been used from 1973 to present.
* [[Orlan space suit|Orlan]] (''Орлан'' meaning "[[sea-eagle]]" or "[[bald eagle]]")''{{Snd}}''suits for extravehicular activity, originally developed for the Soviet lunar program as a lunar orbit EVA suit. It is Russia's current EVA suit. Used from 1977 to present.
<gallery mode=packed heights="150px" style="text-align:left">
Sk-1 spacesuit taken at the Memorial Museum of Space Exploration.jpg | SK-1 space suit
Berkut spacesuit.JPG |Berkut space suit
Yastreb suit.jpg | Yastreb space suit
Krechet space suit - Air and Space.jpg | Krechet space suit
Strizh spacesuit 4148047368 c19cec3782 o.jpg | Strizh space suit
Sokol KV2.JPG | [[Sokol space suit#Sokol-KV2|Sokol-KV2]] space suit
Orlan-MK-MAKS2009.jpg | Orlan-MK space suit
</gallery>

===United States suit models===
*In the early 1950s, [[Siegfried Hansen]] and colleagues at [[Litton Industries]] designed and built a working hard-shell suit, which was used inside vacuum chambers and was the predecessor of space suits used in NASA missions.<ref>{{cite news |title=Siegfried Hansen, Space Suit Father; Inventor Was 90 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/24/us/siegfried-hansen-space-suit-father-inventor-was-90.html |date=July 24, 2002 |access-date=February 9, 2008}}</ref>
*[[Navy Mark IV]] high-altitude/vacuum suit{{Snd}}used for [[Project Mercury]] (1961–1963).
*[[Gemini space suit|Gemini]] space suits (1965–1966){{Snd}}there were three main variants developed: G3C designed for intra-vehicle use; G4C specially designed for EVA and intra-vehicle use; and a special G5C suit worn by the [[Gemini 7]] crew for 14 days inside the spacecraft.
*[[Manned Orbiting Laboratory]] MH-7 space suits for the canceled MOL program.
*[[Gemini space suit#Apollo program|Apollo Block I A1C]] suit (1966–1967){{Snd}}a derivative of the Gemini suit, worn by primary and backup crews in training for two early Apollo missions. The nylon pressure garment melted and burned through in the [[Apollo 1]] cabin fire. This suit became obsolete when crewed Block I Apollo flights were discontinued after the fire.
*[[Apollo/Skylab A7L]] EVA and Moon suits{{Snd}}The Block II Apollo suit was the primary pressure suit worn for eleven Apollo flights, three Skylab flights, and the US astronauts on the [[Apollo–Soyuz Test Project]] between 1968 and 1975. The pressure garment's nylon outer layer was replaced with fireproof [[Beta cloth]] after the Apollo 1 fire. This suit was the first to employ a liquid-cooled inner garment and outer micrometeoroid garment. Beginning with the [[Apollo 13]] mission, it also introduced "commander's stripes" so that a pair of space walkers will not appear identical on camera.<ref>{{cite web
 | url =https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-CDRStripes.html
 | title =Commander's Stripes
 | last =Jones
 | first =Eric
 | date =20 February 2006
 | website =Apollo Lunar Surface Journal
 | publisher =NASA
 | access-date =7 April 2019
 | archive-date =June 28, 2021
 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20210628114855/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-CDRStripes.html
 | url-status =dead
 }}</ref>
*[[Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit]]{{Snd}}used from [[STS-1]] (1981) to [[STS-4]] (1982) by a two-man crew used in conjunction with the then-installed [[ejection seat]]s. Derived from a [[United States Air Force|USAF]] model.<ref>[[#Thomas & McMann|Thomas & McMann 2006]], pp. 38, 368</ref> These were removed once the Shuttle became certified.
* From [[STS-5]] (1982) to [[STS-51-L]] (1986) no pressure suits were worn during launch and reentry. The crew would wear only a blue-[[flight suit]] with an oxygen helmet.
*[[Launch Entry Suit]] first used on [[STS-26]] (1988), the first flight after the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|''Challenger'' disaster]]. It was a partial pressure suit derived from a USAF model.<ref>[[#Thomas & McMann|Thomas & McMann 2006]]</ref> It was used from 1988 to 1998.
*[[Advanced Crew Escape Suit]] used on the Space Shuttle starting in 1994.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Astronautica |title=ACES |url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/aces.htm |access-date=June 19, 2013 |publisher=Mark Wade  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530174458/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/aces.htm |archive-date=May 30, 2013 }}</ref> The Advanced Crew Escape Suit or ACES suit, is a full-pressure suit worn by all Space Shuttle crews for the ascent and entry portions of flight. The suit is a direct descendant of the [[United States Air Force]] high-altitude pressure suits worn by SR-71 Blackbird and U-2 spy plane pilots, [[North American X-15]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] pilot-astronauts, and the Launch Entry Suits worn by NASA astronauts starting on the STS-26 flight. It is derived from a USAF model.
*[[Extravehicular Mobility Unit]] (EMU){{Snd}}used on both the Space Shuttle and [[International Space Station]] (ISS). The EMU is an independent anthropomorphic system that provides environmental protection, mobility, life support, and communications for a Space Shuttle or ISS crew member to perform an EVA in [[Geocentric orbit|Earth orbit]]. Used from 1982 to present, but only available in limited sizing as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Koren |first1=Marina |title=The Original Sin of NASA Space Suits |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/03/nasa-spacesuit-women-spacewalk/585805/ |website=TheAtlantic.com |date=March 27, 2019 |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |access-date=29 March 2019 |quote=In the 1990s, several years after the first American women flew to space, budget cuts forced NASA to trim its space-suit program...The limited sizing affected some astronaut duties.}}</ref>
*Aerospace company [[SpaceX]] developed [[#SpaceX suit ("Starman suit")|an IVA suit]] which is worn by astronauts involved in [[Commercial Crew Program]] missions operated by SpaceX since the [[Crew Dragon Demo-2|Demo-2]] mission. As a continuation of this suit design, SpaceX developed an EVA suit in 2024. The EVA version of the suit was used during the [[Polaris Dawn]] private space mission for the first ever commercial spacewalk.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SpaceX |url=http://www.spacex.com/ |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=SpaceX |language=en}}</ref>
*Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS){{Snd}}will be used during launch and re-entry on the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion MPCV]]. It is derived from the Advanced Crew Escape Suit but is able to operate at a higher pressure and has improved mobility in the shoulders.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Shane E. Jacobs |author2=Donald B. Tufts |author3=Dustin M. Gohmert |title=Space Suit Development for Orion |url=https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/74166/ICES_2018_199.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706135314/https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/74166/ICES_2018_199.pdf |archive-date=2019-07-06 |url-status=live |website=48th International Conference on Environmental Systems |access-date=6 July 2019 |location=Albuquerque, New Mexico |date=8-12 July 2018}}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights="150px" style="text-align:left">
Alan shepard.jpg | Mercury suit
G4C EVA 12 - cropped.jpg | Gemini G4C suit
MOL spacesuit.jpg | Manned Orbital Laboratory MH-7 space suit
Apollo 1 - Chaffee in Apollo Block I space suit.jpg | Apollo Block I A1C suit
Apollo 17 Cernan on moon cropped.jpg | Apollo/Skylab space suit
Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit John Young.jpg | Shuttle Ejection Escape Suit
STS 51-I emergency training - cropped.jpg | Shuttle Flight Suit
Launch entry suit.jpg | Launch Entry Suit
ACES STS-130.jpg | Advance Crew Escape Suit
STS-118 EVA EMU Suit.jpg| Extravehicular Mobility Unit
SpaceX Crew-3 Dry Dress Rehearsal (KSC-20211028-PH-SPX02 0013).jpg|SpaceX suit
</gallery>

==== SpaceX suit ("Starman suit") ====
In February 2015, [[SpaceX]] began developing a space suit for astronauts to wear within the [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon 2]] space capsule.<ref name=sx20150227>{{cite web |last1=Reisman |first1=Garrett |title=Statement of Garrett Reisman before the Subcommittee on Space Committee on Science, Space, and Technology U.S. House Of Representatives |url=http://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/HHRG-114-SY16-WState-GReisman-20150227.pdf |website=science.house.gov |publisher=US House of Representatives publication of a SpaceX document provided to the committee |access-date=28 February 2015 |date=27 February 2015 |quote=Crew Dragon carries sufficient breathable gas stores to allow for a safe return to Earth in the event of a leak of up to an equivalent orifice of 0.25 inches in diameter. As an extra level of protection, the crew will wear SpaceX-designed space suits to protect them from a rapid cabin depressurization emergency event of even greater severity. The suits and the vehicle itself will be rated for operation at vacuum. |archive-date=September 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923215310/https://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/HHRG-114-SY16-WState-GReisman-20150227.pdf  }}</ref> Its appearance was jointly designed by Jose Fernandez—a Hollywood [[costume designer]] known for his works for [[superhero film|superhero]] and [[science fiction film]]s—and SpaceX founder and CEO [[Elon Musk]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Martin|first=Guy|title=The Man Behind America's New Spacesuit: How Elon Musk Took Hollywood Costume Designer Jose Fernandez From Batman To NASA|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/guymartin/2020/05/29/the-man-behind-americas-spiffy-new-spacesuit-how-hollywood-costume-designer-jose-fernandez-got-from-batman-and-daft-punk-to-nasa/|access-date=2020-06-03|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bobb|first=Brooke|title=SpaceX's New Suits Were Built for Superheroes, But What Would Wonder Woman Wear into Orbit?|url=https://www.vogue.com/article/spacex-space-suits-women-astronauts|access-date=2020-06-03|website=Vogue|date=May 29, 2020|language=en}}</ref> The first images of the suit were revealed in September 2017.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Etherington|first1=Darrell|title=Elon Musk shares first full-body photo of SpaceX's spacesuit|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/09/08/elon-musk-shares-first-full-body-photo-of-spacexs-spacesuit/|access-date=6 February 2018|publisher=Tech Crunch|date=8 September 2017}}</ref> A mannequin, called "Starman" (after [[David Bowie]]'s [[Starman (song)|song of the same name]]), wore the SpaceX space suit during the [[Falcon Heavy test flight|maiden launch of the Falcon Heavy]] in February 2018.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Seemangal|first1=Robin|title=SPACEX SUCCESSFULLY LAUNCHES THE FALCON HEAVY—AND ELON MUSK'S ROADSTER|url=https://www.wired.com/story/spacex-successfully-launches-the-falcon-heavyand-elon-musks-roadster/|access-date=6 February 2018|magazine=Wired|date=6 February 2018}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Specktor |first=Brandon|title=Starman's SpaceX Spacesuit Would Leave You Dead in Minutes|url=https://www.livescience.com/61705-starman-spacex-spacesuit.html|access-date=2020-06-03|website=livescience.com|date=February 8, 2018|language=en}}</ref> For this exhibition launch, the suit was not pressurized and carried no sensors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SpaceX Just Launched a Tesla Into Space on the Most Powerful Rocket in the World|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/spacex-falcon-heavy-test-launch/|access-date=2023-02-08|website=vice.com
|series=Motherboard
|first=Daniel |last=Oberhaus
|date = 6 February 2018
|quote = Musk said at a press conference after the launch that there were no sensors in the suit.}}</ref>

The suit, which is suitable for vacuum, offers protection against cabin depressurization through a single tether at the astronaut's thigh that feeds air and electronic connections.  The helmets, which are 3D-printed, contain microphones and speakers. As the suits need the tether connection and do not offer protection against radiation, they are not used for extra-vehicular activities. The suits are custom-made for each astronaut.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Howell|first=Elizabeth
|title=How SpaceX's sleek spacesuit changes astronaut fashion from the space shuttle era|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-crew-dragon-spacesuits-explained.html|access-date=2020-06-03|website=Space.com|date=May 22, 2020|language=en}}</ref>

In 2018, NASA commercial crew astronauts [[Bob Behnken]], and [[Doug Hurley]] tested the spacesuit inside the Dragon 2 spacecraft in order to familiarize themselves with the suit.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kooser |first1=Amanda |title=NASA astronauts test SpaceX spacesuits in the Crew Dragon |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/nasa-astronauts-test-spacex-spacesuits-in-the-crew-dragon/ |website=cnet.com |access-date=November 9, 2018 |language=en |date=November 6, 2018}}</ref> They wore it in the [[Crew Dragon Demo-2]] flight launched on 30 May 2020.<ref name=":2" /> The suit is worn by astronauts involved in [[Commercial Crew Program]] missions involving SpaceX.

On 4 May 2024, SpaceX unveiled a spacesuit designed for extravehicular activity based on the IVA suit for [[Polaris Dawn]] mission in [[Polaris program]]. As with the IVA suit, the helmets are [[3D-printed]], though the [[Extravehicular activity|EVA]] helmet incorporates a [[Head-up display|heads-up display]] providing information and a [[camera]] on suit metrics during operation. It is more mobile, includes new [[thermal insulation]] [[Textile|fabrics]], and materials used [[Falcon]]’s [[interstage]] and [[Crew Dragon]]’s  external unpressurized trunk.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polaris Dawn |url=https://polarisprogram.com/dawn/ |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=Polaris Program |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Future NASA contracted suits====
On 1 June 2022, NASA announced it had selected competing [[Axiom Space]] and [[Collins Aerospace]] to develop and provide astronauts with next generation spacesuit and spacewalk systems to first test and later use outside the International Space Station, as well as on the lunar surface for the crewed [[Artemis program|Artemis missions]], and prepare for human missions to Mars.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partners-with-industry-for-new-spacewalking-moonwalking-services|date=June 1, 2021 |title=NASA Partners with Industry for New Spacewalking, Moonwalking Services |work=NASA |access-date=June 5, 2021}}</ref><ref name="SpaceNews 2022">{{cite web | title=NASA selects Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace for spacesuit contracts | website=SpaceNews | date=2022-06-01 | url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-axiom-space-and-collins-aerospace-for-spacesuit-contracts/ | access-date=2022-06-14}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Axiom Space, Prada Unveil Spacesuit Design for Moon Return |url=https://www.axiomspace.com/release/prada-axiom-suit |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=Axiom Space |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Chinese suit models===
* [[Shuguang (spacecraft)|Shuguang]] (曙光, meaning "Dawn") space suit : First generation EVA space suit developed by China for the 1967 canceled ''[[Shuguang (spacecraft)|Project 714]]'' crewed space program. It has a mass of about {{convert|10|kg|sigfig=1}}, has an orange colour, and is made of high-resistance multi-layer polyester fabric. The astronaut could use it inside the cabin and conduct an EVA as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.costind.gov.cn/n435777/n509091/n509092/24810.html|title=为中华航天史册再添辉煌|publisher=国防科工委新闻宣传中心|date=November 14, 2005|access-date=July 22, 2008}}{{Dead link |date=June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005919-251558.html |title=航天服充压实验 |publisher=雷霆万钧 |date=September 19, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051222024937/http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005919-251558.html |archive-date=December 22, 2005 |access-date=July 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250971.html |title=中国最早研制的航天服为桔黄色 重10千克 |publisher=雷霆万钧 |date=September 16, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051128053126/http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250971.html |archive-date=November 28, 2005 |access-date=July 24, 2008}}</ref>
* '''[[Project 863]]'' space suit: Cancelled project of second generation Chinese EVA space suit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lib.buaa.edu.cn/buaa/detail_degreethesis.jsp?channelid=75044&record=8443|title=舱外航天服液冷服散热特性研究|publisher= 北京航空航天大学图书馆|date=March 1, 2000|access-date=July 23, 2008}}{{Dead link |date=June 2013}}</ref>
* [[Shenzhou IVA]] (神舟, meaning "Divine Vessel") space suit: The suit was first worn by [[Yang Liwei]] on [[Shenzhou 5]], the first crewed Chinese space flight, it closely resembles a [[Sokol space suit#Sokol-KV2|Sokol-KV2]] suit, but it is believed to be a Chinese-made version rather than an actual Russian suit.<ref>{{cite news |title=Testimony of James Oberg: Senate Science, Technology, and Space Hearing: International Space Exploration Program |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=12687 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910032342/http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=12687 |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 10, 2012 |work=SpaceRef |publisher=SpaceRef Interactive Inc. |location=Reston, VA |date=April 27, 2004 |access-date=April 12, 2011 }}</ref><ref>[[#Seedhouse|Seedhouse 2010]], p. 180</ref> Pictures show that the suits on [[Shenzhou 6]] differ in detail from the earlier suit; they are also reported to be lighter.<ref>{{cite news |title=China Ramps Up Human Spaceflight Efforts |first=Tariq |last=Malik |url=http://www.space.com/488-china-ramps-human-spaceflight-efforts.html |work=[[Space.com]] |publisher=[[TechMediaNetwork, Inc.]] |date=November 8, 2004 |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Orlan spacesuit|Haiying]] (海鹰, meaning "Sea Hawk") EVA space suit: The imported Russian [[Orlan space suit#M model|Orlan-M]] EVA suit is called ''Haiying''. Used on [[Shenzhou 7]].
* [[Feitian space suit|Feitian]] (飞天, meaning "Sky Flyer") EVA space suit: Indigenously developed Chinese-made EVA space suit also used for the Shenzhou 7 mission.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sohu.com/20080722/n258298683.shtml|title=神七准备中俄产两套航天服 出舱者穿国产航天服|publisher= [[搜狐]]|date=July 22, 2008|access-date=July 22, 2008}}{{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The suit was designed for a spacewalk mission of up to seven hours.<ref>{{cite news |title=China's astronaut outfitters design material for spacewalk suits |editor-last=Xiao Jie |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-06/01/content_6182498.htm |work=English.news.cn |publisher=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |location=Beijing |date=June 1, 2007 |access-date=June 1, 2007  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080125005254/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-06/01/content_6182498.htm |archive-date=January 25, 2008 }}</ref> Chinese astronauts have been training in the out-of-capsule space suits since July 2007, and movements are seriously restricted in the suits, with a mass of more than {{convert|110|kg}} each.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90781/6218810.html |title=Chinese astronauts begin training for spacewalk |agency=Xinhua News Agency |work=[[People's Daily|People's Daily Online]] |publisher=[[Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party]] |location=Beijing |date=July 18, 2007|access-date=August 1, 2007}}</ref> A new generation of Feitian space suit has been used since 2021 as the construction of [[Tiangong Space Station]] began.

<gallery mode=packed heights="150px" style="text-align:left">
Yang Liwei space suit.JPG | Shenzhou Intra-Vehicular Activity space suit
Chinese EVA spacesuit (1).JPG | Feitian space suit
Feitian space suit at NMC 01.jpg|Second generation of Feitian space suit
</gallery>

==Emerging technologies==
{{update|section|inaccurate=y|date=April 2017}}
Several companies and universities are developing technologies and prototypes which represent improvements over current space suits.

=== Additive manufacturing ===
[[3D printing]] (additive manufacturing) can be used to reduce the mass of hard-shell space suits while retaining the high mobility they provide. This fabrication method also allows for the potential for in-suit fabrication and repair of suits, a capability which is not currently available, but will likely be necessary for Martian exploration.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/handle/2346/73066 |title=In-Situ Fabricated Space Suits for Extended Exploration and Settlement |last1=Bartlett |first1=Harrison |last2=Bowser |first2=Joseph |last3=Callejon Hierro |first3=Carlos |last4=Garner |first4=Sarah |last5=Guloy |first5=Lawrence |last6=Hnatov |first6=Christina |last7=Kalman |first7=Jonathan |last8=Sosis |first8=Baram |last9=Akin |first9=David |date=July 16, 2017 |conference=2017 International Conference on Environmental Systems |conference-url=https://www.ices.space/ |location=Charleston, SC |access-date=December 11, 2018 }}</ref> The [[University of Maryland, College Park|University of Maryland]] began development of a prototype 3D printed hard suit in 2016, based on the kinematics of the [[Powered exoskeleton#NASA AX-5 hard shell space suit|AX-5]]. The prototype arm segment is designed to be evaluated in the [[Space Systems Laboratory (Maryland)|Space Systems Laboratory]] glovebox to compare mobility to traditional soft suits. Initial research has focused on the feasibility of printing rigid suit elements, bearing races, ball bearings, seals, and sealing surfaces.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/handle/2346/74196 |title=Developing Technologies and Techniques for Additive Manufacturing of Spacesuit Bearings and Seals |last1=Garner |first1=Sarah |last2=Carpenter |first2=Lemuel |last3=Akin |first3=David |date=July 8, 2018 |conference=2018 International Conference on Environmental Systems |conference-url=https://www.ices.space/ |location=Albuquerque, NM |access-date=December 11, 2018 }}</ref>

=== Astronaut Glove Challenge ===
There are certain difficulties in designing a dexterous space suit glove and there are limitations to the current designs. For this reason, the [[Centennial Challenges#Astronaut glove challenge|Centennial Astronaut Glove Challenge]] was created to build a better glove. Competitions have been held in 2007 and 2009, and another is planned. The 2009 contest required the glove to be covered with a micro-meteorite layer.

===Aouda.X===
[[File:Aouda.X space suit simulator.jpg|thumb|upright|Aouda.X]]
Since 2009, the [[Austrian Space Forum]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oewf.org/cms/polares_suit.phtml |title=Spacesuit-simulator 'Aouda.X' |work=PolAres |publisher=[[Austrian Space Forum]] |access-date=June 19, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529104536/http://www.oewf.org/cms/polares_suit.phtml |archive-date=May 29, 2013  }}</ref> has been developing "Aouda.X", an experimental Mars [[Human analog missions|analogue]] space suit focusing on an advanced [[human–machine interface]] and on-board computing network to increase [[Situation awareness|situational awareness]]. The suit is designed to study contamination vectors in planetary exploration analogue environments and create limitations depending on the pressure regime chosen for a simulation.

Since 2012, for the [[Austrian Space Forum#Mars2013 - Morocco Mars Simulation 2013|Mars2013 analogue mission]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oewf.org/cms/mars2013.phtml |title=Morocco 2013 Mars Analogue Field Simulation |work=PolAres |publisher=Austrian Space Forum |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref> by the Austrian Space Forum to [[Erfoud]], [[Morocco]], the Aouda.X analogue space suit has a sister in the form of Aouda.S.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Mars 2013 - Morocco Mars Analog Field Simulation |publisher=Austrian Space Forum |url=http://www.oewf.org/cms/mars-2013-press-information.phtml |access-date=June 19, 2013  |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624190103/http://www.oewf.org/cms/mars-2013-press-information.phtml |archive-date=June 24, 2013 }}</ref> This is a slightly less sophisticated suit meant primarily to assist Aouda.X operations and be able to study the interactions between two (analogue) astronauts in similar suits.

The Aouda.X and Aouda.S space suits have been named after the [[Aouda|fictional princess]] from the [[Jules Verne]]'s 1873 novel ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]''. A public display mock-up of Aouda.X (called Aouda.D) is currently on display at the Dachstein Ice Cave in [[Obertraun]], [[Austria]], after the experiments done there in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blog.oewf.org/en/2012/08/aouda-d-ice-princess/ |title=Aouda.D, ice princess |work=PolAres |publisher=Austrian Space Forum |type=Blog |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref>

=== Axiom Space and Prada ===
In 2024, at the [[International Astronautical Congress]] in Milan, Italy, Axiom Space and Prada showed the results of an ongoing collaboration to develop a spacesuit for NASA's Artemis III mission.<ref name=":3" />

===Bio-Suit===
[[Bio-Suit]] is a [[space activity suit]] under development at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], which {{as of|2006|lc=on}} consisted of several lower leg prototypes. Bio-suit is custom fit to each wearer, using laser body scanning.{{update after|2015|2|28}}

=== Constellation Space Suit system ===
On August 2, 2006, NASA indicated plans to issue a Request for Proposal (RFP) for the design, development, certification, production, and sustaining engineering of the [[Constellation Space Suit]] to meet the needs of the [[Constellation program|Constellation Program]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://prod.nais.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/eps/synopsis.cgi?acqid=121486 |title=CONSTELLATION SPACE SUIT SYSTEM (CSSS), SOL NNJ06161022R |work=[[NASA Acquisition Internet Service]] |publisher=NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730021056/http://prod.nais.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/eps/synopsis.cgi?acqid=121486 |archive-date=July 30, 2009 |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref> NASA foresaw a single suit capable of supporting: survivability during launch, entry and abort; [[Weightlessness|zero-gravity]] EVA; lunar surface EVA; and Mars surface EVA.

On June 11, 2008, NASA awarded a US$745 million contract to [[Oceaneering International]] to create the new space suit.<ref>{{cite news |title=Get your first look at NASA's next spacesuit |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna25130313 |agency=Associated Press |work=[[NBCNews.com]] |date=June 12, 2008 |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref>

=== Final Frontier Design IVA Space Suit===

[[File:FFD IVA Space Suit.jpg|thumb|upright|Final Frontier Design IVA Space Suit]]
[[Final Frontier Design]] (FFD) is developing a commercial full IVA space suit, with their first suit completed in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/8774-inventors-unveil-private-spacesuit-york.html |title=Inventors to Unveil Private Spacesuit in New York |website=[[Space.com]] |date=July 16, 2010 |access-date=July 17, 2010 }}</ref> FFD's suits are intended as a light-weight, highly mobile, and inexpensive commercial space suits. Since 2011, FFD has upgraded IVA suit's designs, hardware, processes, and capabilities. FFD has built a total of 7 IVA space suit (2016) assemblies for various institutions and customers since founding, and has conducted high fidelity human testing in simulators, aircraft, microgravity, and hypobaric chambers. FFD has a Space Act Agreement with NASA's Commercial Space Capabilities Office to develop and execute a Human Rating Plan for FFD IVA suit.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/december/nasa-selects-commercial-space-partners-for-collaborative-partnerships/#.VJmkYBGdA |title=NASA Selects Commercial Space Partners for Collaborative Partnerships |date=December 23, 2014 |access-date=December 24, 2010 }}</ref> FFD categorizes their IVA suits according to their mission: Terra for Earth-based testing, Stratos for high altitude flights, and Exos for orbital space flights. Each suit category has different requirements for manufacturing controls, validations, and materials, but are of a similar architecture.

===I-Suit===
The [[I-Suit]] is a space suit prototype also constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates several design improvements over the EMU, including a weight-saving soft upper torso. Both the Mark III and the I-Suit have taken part in NASA's annual [[Desert Research and Technology Studies]] (D-RATS) field trials, during which suit occupants interact with one another, and with rovers and other equipment.

===Mark III===
The [[Mark III (space suit)|Mark III]] is a NASA prototype, constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates a hard lower torso section and a mix of soft and hard components. The Mark III is markedly more mobile than previous suits, despite its high operating pressure ({{convert|57|kPa|psi|abbr=on|disp=or}}), which makes it a "zero-prebreathe" suit, meaning that astronauts would be able to transition directly from a one-atmosphere, mixed-gas space station environment, such as that on the International Space Station, to the suit, without risking decompression sickness, which can occur with rapid depressurization from an atmosphere containing nitrogen or another inert gas.

=== MX-2 ===<!-- This section is linked from [[MX-2]] -->
The MX-2 is a space suit analogue constructed at the [[University of Maryland, College Park|University of Maryland]]'s Space Systems Laboratory. The MX-2 is used{{when|date=February 2015}} for crewed [[neutral buoyancy]] testing at the Space Systems Lab's Neutral Buoyancy Research Facility. By approximating the work envelope of a real EVA suit, without meeting the requirements of a flight-rated suit, the MX-2 provides an inexpensive platform for EVA research, compared to using EMU suits at facilities like NASA's [[Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory]].

The MX-2 has an operating pressure of 2.5–4 psi. It is a rear-entry suit, featuring a fiberglass [[Hard Upper Torso|HUT]]. Air, LCVG cooling water, and power are open loop systems, provided through an [[Umbilical cable|umbilical]]. The suit contains a [[Mac Mini]]{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} computer to capture sensor data, such as suit pressure, inlet and outlet air temperatures, and heart rate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ssl.umd.edu/projects/MARSsuit/index.shtml |title=MARS Suit: MX-2 |website=[[Space Systems Laboratory (Maryland)|Space Systems Laboratory]] |publisher=[[University of Maryland, College Park|University of Maryland]] |location=College Park, MD |access-date=June 19, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903111105/http://ssl.umd.edu/projects/MARSsuit/index.shtml |archive-date=September 3, 2012  }}</ref> Resizable suit elements and adjustable ballast allow the suit to accommodate subjects ranging in height from {{convert|68|to(-)|75|in|cm}}, and with a weight range of {{convert|120|lb|abbr=on}}.{{clarify|weight range from what to what?|date=September 2023}}<ref>{{cite conference |chapter-url=http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/2006-01-2287 |chapter=System Overview and Operations of the MX-2 Neutral Buoyancy Space Suit Analogue |first1=Shane E. |last1=Jacobs |first2=David L. |last2=Akin |first3=Jeffrey R. |last3=Braden |title=SAE Technical Paper Series |date=July 17, 2006 |volume=1 |conference=International Conference On Environmental Systems |publisher=[[SAE International]] |id=2006-01-2287 |doi=10.4271/2006-01-2287 |access-date=June 12, 2007}}</ref>

===North Dakota suit===
Beginning in May 2006, five [[North Dakota]] colleges collaborated on a new space suit prototype, funded by a US$100,000 grant from NASA, to demonstrate technologies which could be incorporated into a planetary suit. The suit was tested in the [[Theodore Roosevelt National Park]] [[badlands]] of western North Dakota. The suit has a mass of {{convert|47|lb}} without a life support backpack, and costs only a fraction of the standard US$12,000,000 cost for a flight-rated NASA space suit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.howstuffworks.com/space-suit4.htm |title=How Space Suits Work |last=Freudenrich |first=Craig |website=[[HowStuffWorks]] |date=December 14, 2000 |publisher=[[Discovery Communications]] |location=Atlanta, GA |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref>  The suit was developed in just over a year by students from the [[University of North Dakota]], [[North Dakota State University|North Dakota State]], [[Dickinson State University|Dickinson State]], the state [[North Dakota State College of Science|College of Science]] and [[Turtle Mountain Community College]].<ref>{{cite news |title=That's one small step toward Mars mission |first=James |last=MacPherson |url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060507/news_1n7suit.html |agency=[[Associated Press]] |work=[[U-T San Diego|The San Diego Union-Tribune]] |date=May 7, 2006 |access-date=June 19, 2013}}</ref> The mobility of the North Dakota suit can be attributed to its low operating pressure; while the North Dakota suit was field tested at a pressure of {{convert|1|psi|kPa Torr|abbr=on}} differential, NASA's EMU suit operates at a pressure of {{convert|4.7|psi|kPa Torr|abbr=on}}, a pressure designed to supply approximately sea-level oxygen partial pressure for [[Respiratory system|respiration]] (see discussion [[#Operating pressure|above]]).

===PXS===
NASA's Prototype eXploration Suit (PXS), like the Z-series, is a rear-entry suit compatible with suitports.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/30360-the-martian-movie-nasa-mars-technology.html |title='The Martian' Shows 9 Ways NASA Tech Is Headed to Mars |last=Howell |first=Elizabeth |work=space.com |date=August 25, 2015 |access-date=December 18, 2015 }}</ref> The suit has components which could be 3D printed during missions to a range of specifications, to fit different individuals or changing mobility requirements.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/the-next-generation-of-suit-technologies |title=The Next Generation of Suit Technologies |publisher=NASA |date=October 1, 2015 |access-date=December 18, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151215072049/http://www.nasa.gov/feature/the-next-generation-of-suit-technologies/ |archive-date=December 15, 2015  }}</ref>

=== Suitports ===
A [[suitport]] is a theoretical alternative to an [[airlock]], designed for use in hazardous environments and in [[human spaceflight]], especially [[planet]]ary surface exploration. In a suitport system, a rear-entry space suit is attached and sealed against the outside of a spacecraft, such that an astronaut can enter and seal up the suit, then go on EVA, without the need for an airlock or depressurizing the spacecraft cabin. Suitports require less mass and volume than airlocks, provide [[dust]] mitigation, and prevent cross-contamination of the inside and outside environments. Patents for suitport designs were filed in 1996 by Philip Culbertson Jr. of NASA's Ames Research Center and in 2003 by Joerg Boettcher, Stephen Ransom, and Frank Steinsiek.<ref name = culbertson>{{cite web
  | last = Culbertson
  | first = Philip Jr.
  | title = Suitlock docking mechanism – United States Patent 5697108
  | publisher = freepatentsonline.com
  | date = September 30, 1996
  | url = http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5697108.html
  | access-date =June 15, 2006 }}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
  | last1 = Boettcher
  | first1 = Joerg
  | last2 =  Ransom
  | first2 = Stephen
  | last3 = Steinsiek
  | first3 = Frank
  | title =  Apparatus and method for putting on a protective suit – United States Patent 6959456
  | publisher = freepatentsonline.com
  | date = July 17, 2003
  | url = http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6959456.html
  | access-date =June 15, 2006 }}</ref>

===Z-series===
{{Main|Z series space suits}}
[[File:Z-1 Spacesuit Prototype - standing Nov 2012.jpg|thumbnail|upright|right|Z-1 Series Suit]]
In 2012, NASA introduced the Z-1 space suit, the first in the Z-series of space suit prototypes designed by NASA specifically for planetary extravehicular activity. The Z-1 space suit includes an emphasis on mobility and protection for space missions. It features a soft torso versus the hard torsos seen in previous NASA EVA space suits, which reduces mass.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=TIME Staff|title=NASA's Z-1 Space Suit|url=https://techland.time.com/2012/11/01/best-inventions-of-the-year-2012/slide/nasas-z-1-space-suit/|magazine=TIME|publisher=TIME Magazine|access-date=17 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220013042/http://techland.time.com/2012/11/01/best-inventions-of-the-year-2012/slide/nasas-z-1-space-suit/|archive-date=February 20, 2015}}</ref> It has been labeled the "Buzz Lightyear suit" due to its green streaks for a design.

In 2014, NASA released the design for the Z-2 prototype, the next model in the Z-series. NASA conducted a poll asking the public to decide on a design for the Z-2 space suit. The designs, created by fashion students from Philadelphia University, were "Technology", "Trends in Society", and "Biomimicry".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kirkpatrick|first1=Nick|title=Intergalactic fashion: NASA's next space suit|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/04/15/intergalactic-fashion-nasas-next-space-suit/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref> The design "Technology" won, and the prototype is built with technologies like [[3D printing]]. The Z-2 suit will also differ from the Z-1 suit in that the torso reverts to the hard shell, as seen in NASA's EMU suit.<ref>{{cite news|last1=CBC News|title=New Mars space suit unveiled by NASA|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/new-mars-space-suit-unveiled-by-nasa-1.2628383|access-date=17 February 2015|agency=CBC/Radio-Canada|date=1 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The NASA Z-2 Suit|url=http://jscfeatures.jsc.nasa.gov/z2/|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329003404/http://jscfeatures.jsc.nasa.gov/z2/|archive-date=March 29, 2014}}</ref>

==In fiction==
[[File:Wonder_Story_Annual_1950.jpg|thumb|1950 issue of ''[[Wonder Story Annual]]'' with a woman wearing a spacesuit on the cover]]
Space suits are a common staple of science fiction.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Liptak |first=Andrew |date=2017-08-19 |title=18 space suits from science fiction, from worst to best |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/8/19/16104004/science-fiction-space-suit-worst-best-the-martian-alien-sunshine-gravity |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=The Verge |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Westfahl |first=Gary |title=SFE: Spacesuit Films |url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/spacesuit_films |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=sf-encyclopedia.com}}</ref> They appeared in sf works as early as 19th century ([[Jules Verne]]'s  ''[[From the Earth to the Moon]]'', 1865).<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Jordan |first=Nicole Catherine |title=Multidisciplinary spacesuit modeling and optimization : requirement changes and recommendations for the next-generation spacesuit design |date=2006 |degree=Master |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |hdl=1721.1/35296 |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/35296}}</ref>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Atmospheric diving suit}}
* {{annotated link|Breathing apparatus}}
* {{annotated link|High altitude breathing apparatus}}
* {{annotated link|Effect of spaceflight on the human body}}
* {{annotated link|Extravehicular activity}}
**By era:
*** {{annotated link|List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999}}
*** [[List of spacewalks 2000–2014]]
*** {{annotated link|List of spacewalks since 2015|wedge=Astronauts walking in space to date}}
**By station:
*** {{annotated link|List of Mir spacewalks}}
*** {{annotated link|List of International Space Station spacewalks}}
** {{annotated link|List of cumulative spacewalk records}}
* {{annotated link|Manned Maneuvering Unit}}
*[[Life support in aviation]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{reflist|group=NASA, ILC Dover Inc.}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}

*{{cite book |last1=Abramov |first1=Isaac P. |last2=Skoog |first2=Å. Ingemar |last3=Doodnik |first3=Mikhail N. |title=Russian Spacesuits |year=2003 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer-Verlag]] |location=London; New York |isbn= 1-85233-732-X |oclc=51922847 |lccn=2003045585 |ref=Abramov & Skoog |display-authors=2}}
*{{cite book|title=Spacesuit: Fashioning Apollo|first=Nicholas|last=de Monchaux|isbn=978-0-262-01520-2|publisher=MIT Press|year=2011}}
*{{cite book |last=Kozloski |first=Lillian D. |title=U.S. Space Gear: Outfitting The Astronaut |url=https://archive.org/details/usspacegearoutfi0000kozl |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-87474-459-8 |oclc=623508754 |lccn=92-34611 |ref=Kozloski}}
*{{cite book |last=Seedhouse |first=Erik |title=The New Space Race: China vs. the United States |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin; New York |isbn=978-1-4419-0879-7 |oclc=695700526 |lccn=2009936076 |ref=Seedhouse}}
*{{cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Kenneth S. |last2=McMann |first2=Harold J. |title=US Spacesuits |year=2006 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=Berlin; New York |isbn= 0-387-27919-9 |oclc=61477760 |lccn=2005929632 |ref=Thomas & McMann}}
*{{cite book |last=Young |first=Amanda |others=Photographs by Mark Avino; introduction by Allan Needell; foreword by [[Thomas P. Stafford]] |title=Spacesuits: The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Collection |year=2009 |publisher=[[powerHouse Books]] |edition=1st |location=Brooklyn, NY |isbn=978-1-576-87498-1 |oclc=276334393 |lccn=2009075080 |ref=Young}}

{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Space suits}}
* [http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/spacesuit/index.html "Space suits"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427202917/http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/spacesuit/index.html |date=April 27, 2018 }} at [http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/aaindex/home1.html A Field Guide to American Spacecraft] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325010339/http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/aaindex/home1.html |date=March 25, 2018 }}. A list compiled by Lee Sledge and James H. Gerard of American space suits and the museum locations where they are displayed.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100828083207/http://www.astronautix.com/fam/spasuits.htm "Space Suits"] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20020705003646/http://www.astronautix.com/index.html Encyclopedia Astronautica]. A complete listing of space suits.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131207171721/http://www.zvezda-npp.ru/engl/index.html Russian space suits] at [[NPP Zvezda]]
* [http://epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/n_i_j/1978/6/skaf.html "Space suit" {{in lang|ru}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329163815/http://epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/n_i_j/1978/6/skaf.html |date=March 29, 2018 }} [https://translate.google.com/translate?js=y&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=1&eotf=1&u=http://epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/n_i_j/1978/6/skaf.html&sl=ru&tl=en English] by G. Ilyin, Vladimir Ivanov, and Ivan Pavlov. Originally published by ''[[Nauka i Zhizn]]'', No. 6, 1978.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204193740/http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/hsf_history.htm "U.S. Human Spaceflight History"] at the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Johnson Space Center]] See link near page end to ''Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology'' (PDF).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010716093905/http://spaceboy.nasda.go.jp/note/yujin/e/yuj101_eva_e.html NASDA Online Space Notes] at the [[National Space Development Agency of Japan]] (NASDA) (2001)
* [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19900001621_1990001621.pdf "Analysis of the Space Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit – 1986"] (PDF)
* [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940017339_1994017339.pdf "NASA Space Shuttle EVA tools and equipment reference book – 1993"] (PDF)
* [https://history.nasa.gov/spacesuits.pdf "Space Suit Evolution From Custom Tailored to Off-the-Rack] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131003708/https://history.nasa.gov/spacesuits.pdf |date=January 31, 2017 }} (PDF)
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/apollo.engin.html "Engineering Aspects of Apollo"] at the [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/ Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231213556/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/ |date=December 31, 2020 }}. Section on the Apollo space suit and the Portable Life Support System.
* [http://historicspacecraft.com/spacesuits.html "Space Suit Photos"] at [http://historicspacecraft.com/ Historic Spacecraft]
* [http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/spacesuits/historygallery/ "Space suit and Spacewalk History Image Gallery"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025214507/http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/spacesuits/historygallery/ |date=October 25, 2012 }} at NASA
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727010606/http://www.zvezda-npp.ru/histor.html Zvezda history {{in lang|ru}}] [https://translate.google.com/translate?js=y&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=1&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zvezda-npp.ru%2Fhistor.html&sl=ru&tl=en English]
* [https://www.ilcdover.com/aerospace/spacesuits/ "Spacesuits"] at [[ILC Dover]]
* {{cite web |url=http://www.airspacemag.com/space-exploration/Space-Suits-Past-and-Future.html |title=Space Suits Past and Future |last=Klesius |first=Michael |date=June 10, 2009 |work=[[Air & Space/Smithsonian|AirSpaceMag.com]] |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=June 20, 2013}}
* In April 2011, the VOA [[Special English]] service of the [[Voice of America]] broadcast a 15-minute program on the evolution of space suits. A transcript and MP3 of the program, intended for English learners, can be found at [https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/a-history-of-space-suits-119283494/113058.html "The Evolution of Spacesuits"].

{{Spaceflight}}
{{space suits|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Space Suit}}
[[Category:Spacesuits| ]]
[[Category:Rebreathers]]
[[Category:Environmental suits]]
[[Category:Human spaceflight]]
[[Category:Spacecraft components]]
[[Category:Space technology]]
[[Category:Soviet inventions]]