Editing Sorbian languages

{{Short description|West Slavic language group spoken in Lusatia, Europe}}
{{For|the standardized variety of Shtokavian used in Serbia|Serbian language}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2011}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Sorbian
| altname       = {{native name|hsb|serbšćina, serbsce}}<br>{{native name|dsb|serbšćina, serbski}}
| ethnicity     = [[Sorbs]]
| region        = [[Lusatia]]
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| fam3          = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
| fam4          = [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]
| child1        = [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]
| child2        = [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]
| map           = Лужицкие сербы на карте Германии.svg
| mapcaption    = {{legend|#0B4D0B|The Sorbian-speaking area in [[Germany]]}}
| iso2          = wen
| iso5          = wen
| glotto        = sorb1249
| glottorefname = Sorbian
| speakers      = {{circa}} 20,000
| map2              = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption2       = {{center|{{small|Sorbian  is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]'' (2010)}}}}
}}

The '''Sorbian languages'''<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sorbian languages |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |location=[[Edinburgh]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sorbian-languages |access-date=5 December 2022 |date=21 November 2013 |orig-year=20 July 1998 |quote='''Sorbian languages''', also called '''Lusatian''', or '''Wendish''', closely related [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] languages or dialects; their small number of speakers in eastern Germany are the survivors of a more extensive [[Middle Ages|medieval]] language group. The centre of the [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] speech area is [[Bautzen]], near the border with the [[Czech Republic]], while [[Cottbus]], near [[Poland]], is the centre for [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]. The oldest written record of Sorbian dates from the 15th century, although the languages, differing mostly in their sound systems, are known to have begun to diverge around the 13th century. Upper Sorbian enjoyed a considerable amount of prestige in [[Saxony]], while the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] attempted to suppress Lower Sorbian. Although all Sorbs today also speak [[German language|German]], both Upper and Lower Sorbian have been taught in the schools of the Sorbian areas since 1948.}}</ref> ({{langx|hsb|serbska rěč}}, {{langx|dsb|serbska rěc}}) are the [[Upper Sorbian language]] and [[Lower Sorbian language]], two closely related and partially [[mutually intelligible]] languages spoken by the [[Sorbs]], a [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] ethno-cultural minority in the [[Lusatia]] region of Eastern [[Germany]].<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="Belgeo 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Yèche |first1=Hélène |date=2013 |title=Les Sorabes: Une minorité invisible? |journal=Belgeo: Revue Belge de Géographie |location=[[Bruxelles]] |publisher=[[National Fund for Scientific Research]] and the [[University Foundation|Fondation Universitaire/Universitaire Stichting]] |volume=3 |issue=Les minorités nationales et ethniques: Entre renouvellement et permanence |language=fr |doi=10.4000/belgeo.11570 |doi-access=free |issn=2294-9135}}</ref><ref name="Sanguin 1996">{{cite journal |author-last=Sanguin |author-first=André-Louis |date=1996 |title=Les Sorabes de l'ex-R.D.A. après la fin du communisme: La recomposition territoriale du plus petit des Peuples Slaves |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/slave_0080-2557_1996_num_68_1_6307 |journal=Revue des Études Slaves |location=[[Paris]] |publisher=Institut d'Études Slaves |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=55–68 |doi=10.3406/slave.1996.6307 |language=fr |issn=2117-718X |jstor=43270317}}</ref> They are classified under the [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages]] and are therefore closely related to the other two West Slavic subgroups: [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]] and [[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak]].<ref name=Faska>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120212191519/http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~sorb/seiten/eng/03/language.html About Sorbian Language], by Helmut Faska, [[University of Leipzig]]</ref> Historically, the languages have also been known as '''Wendish''' (named after the [[Wends]], the earliest Slavic people in modern Poland and Germany) or '''Lusatian'''.<ref name="Britannica"/> Their collective [[ISO 639]]-2 code is {{code|wen}}.

The two Sorbian languages, each having its own [[Literary language|literary standard]], are [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] ({{lang|hsb|hornjoserbsce}}), spoken by about 20,000–25,000<ref>"Seltenes Studienfach: Entschuldigung, sprechen Sie Sorbisch?" - https://www.zeit.de/zett/2016-01/leipziger-institut-wehrt-sich-gegen-das-aussterben-von-sprachen</ref> people in [[Saxony]], and [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]] ({{lang|dsb|dolnoserbski}}), spoken by about 7,000 people in [[Brandenburg]]. The area where the two languages are spoken is known as [[Lusatia]] ({{lang|hsb|Łužica}} in Upper Sorbian, {{lang|dsb|Łužyca}} in Lower Sorbian, or {{lang|de|Lausitz}} in [[German language|German]]).<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="Belgeo 2013"/><ref name="Sanguin 1996"/>

==History==
[[File:Germanische und slavische Volksstaemme zwischen Elbe und Weichsel.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''[[Sorbian March|Limes sorabicus]]'': the [[Sorbian settlement area]] bordering [[East Francia]] on a map of [[medieval Germany]] (''Germanische und slavische Volksstämme zwischen Elbe und Weichsel'', 1869)]]
After the settlement of the formerly [[Germanic peoples|Germanic territories]] (the part largely corresponding to the former [[East Germany]])<ref name="Sanguin 1996"/> by the [[Sorbs (tribe)|Slavic ancestors]] of the [[Sorbs]] in the 5th and 6th centuries CE,<ref name="Belgeo 2013"/> the Sorbian language (or its predecessors) had been in use in much of what was the southern half of Eastern Germany for several centuries. The language still had its stronghold in (Upper and Lower) Lusatia,<ref name="Belgeo 2013"/> where it enjoys national protection and fostering to the present day. For people living in the medieval Northern [[Holy Roman Empire]] and its precursors, especially for the [[Saxons]], the [[Wends]] (''Wende'') were heterogeneous groups and tribes of Slavic peoples living near Germanic settlement areas, in the area west of the River [[Oder]], an area later entitled ''[[Germania Slavica]]'', settled by the [[Polabian Slavs|Polabian Slav tribes]] in the north and by others, such as the Sorbs and the [[Milceni]], further south (see [[Sorbian March]]).

The exact origin of the Sorbian language is uncertain. While some [[Linguistics|linguists]] consider it to be a transitory language between [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]] and other non-Lechitic languages of [[West Slavic languages]], others like [[Heinz Schuster-Šewc]] consider it a separate dialectical group of [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]] which is a mixture of Proto-Lechitic and [[South Slavic languages]].<ref name="Schuster2013">{{cite journal |last1=Schuster-Šewc |first1=Heinz |date=2013 |title=Das Sorbische – Genese und sprachlicher Status |trans-title=The Sorbian Language – its Origins and Linguistic Status |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=31630 |language=de |journal=Lětopis |issue=2 |pages=86–94 |access-date=27 November 2024}}</ref> According to him, "Sorbian spoken today in Upper and Lower Lusatia is what remains of an earlier extensive Old Sorbian dialect area between the [[Elbe]]/[[Saale]] rivers in the west and the [[Bóbr |Bober]]/[[Kwisa |Queis]] rivers in the east".<ref name="Schuster2013"/>  

Furthermore, while some consider it a single language which later diverged to two major dialects, others consider these dialects two separate languages. There exist significant differences in [[phonology]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[lexicon]] between them. Several characteristics in [[Upper Sorbian language]] indicate a close proximity to [[Czech language]] which again are absent in [[Lower Sorbian language]].<ref name="Sedov"/> The Upper Sorbian is considered as representative of the old "Sorbian proper", while the Lower Sorbian would be a transitional hybrid language more akin to the [[Lechitic languages]].<ref name="Schuster2013"/> According to some researchers the archaeological data cannot confirm the thesis about a single linguistic group yet supports the claim about two separated ethno-cultural groups with different ancestry whose respective territories correspond to Tornow-type ceramics (Lower Sorbian language) and [[Leipzig group|Leipzig-type ceramics]] (Upper Sorbian language),<ref name="Sedov">{{cite book |author-last=Sedov |author-first=Valentin Vasilyevich |year=2013 |orig-year=1995 |title=Славяне в раннем Средневековье |trans-title=Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-026-1 |pages=191–205}}</ref> both derivations of [[Prague culture]].<ref>Paul M. Barford (2001). ''The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe''. Cornell University Press. pp. 64–65, 77–78, 104–105. ISBN 9780801439773</ref>

Outside Lusatia, the Sorbian language has been superseded by [[German language|German]]. From the 13th century on, the language suffered official discrimination.<ref name=Faska /> [[Bible translations into Sorbian]] provided the foundations for its writing system.

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Sorbische Dialekte.png|thumb|300px|right|Distribution and main speaking-centers of ''Obersorbische'' (Upper Sorbian) and ''Niedersorbishe'' (Lower Sorbian).]]
[[File:Pančicy Lěkarnja.jpg|thumb|Signage in Sorbian in [[Panschwitz-Kuckau]].]]
In Germany, Upper and Lower Sorbian are officially recognized and protected as minority languages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list|title=Full list|website=Treaty Office|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref> In the officially defined [[Sorbian settlement area]], both languages are recognized as second official languages next to German.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sparrow|first=Thomas|title=Sorbs: The ethnic minority inside Germany|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210615-sorbs-the-ethnic-minority-inside-germany|access-date=2022-01-14|website=www.bbc.com|language=en}}</ref>

The city of [[Bautzen]] in [[Upper Lusatia]] is the centre of Upper Sorbian culture. Bilingual signs can be seen around the city, including the name of the city, "Bautzen/{{lang|hsb|Budyšin}}".
To the north, the city of [[Cottbus|Cottbus/Chóśebuz]] is considered the cultural centre of Lower Sorbian; there, too, bilingual signs are found.

Sorbian was also spoken in the small Sorbian ("Wendish") settlement of [[Serbin, Texas|Serbin]] in [[Lee County, Texas]], however no speakers remain there. Until 1949, newspapers were published in Sorbian. The local dialect was heavily influenced by surrounding speakers of German and [[English language|English]].

The German terms "Wends" (''Wenden'') and "Wendish" (''wendisch/Wendisch'') once denoted "Slav(ic)" generally;{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} they are today mostly replaced by "Sorbs" (''Sorben'') and "Sorbian" (''sorbisch/Sorbisch'') with reference to Sorbian communities in Germany.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

===Endangered status===
The use of Sorbian languages has been contracting for a number of years. The loss of Sorbian language use in emigrant communities, such as in [[Serbin, Texas]], has not been surprising. But within the Sorbian homelands, there has also been a decrease in Sorbian identity and language use. In 2008, Sorbs protested three kinds of pressures against Sorbs: "(1.) the destruction of Sorbian and German-Sorbian villages as a result of lignite mining; (2.) the cuts in the network of Sorbian schools in Saxony; (3.) the reduction of financial resources for the Sorbian institutions by central government."<ref>p. 154. Mieczkowska, Małgorzata. "Protestdemonstrationen der Sorben–eine Form der politischen Kommunikation." ''LĚTOPIS. Zeitschrift für sorbische Sprache, Geschichte und Kultur. Časopis za rěč, stawizny a kulturu Łužiskich'' 2 (2009): 16-28.</ref>

A study of Upper Sorbian found a number of trends that go against language vitality. There are policies that have led to "unstable [[diglossia]]". There has been a loss of [[language domain]]s in which speakers have the option to use either language, and there is a disruption of the patterns by which the Sorbian language has traditionally been transmitted to the next generation. Also, there is no strong written tradition and there is not a broadly accepted formal standardized form of the language(s). There is a perception of the loss of language rights, and there are negative attitudes towards the languages and their speakers.<ref>De Meulder, Maartje, Eduard Werner, and Danny De Weerdt. "Comparing Minority Languages-a Case Study of Flemish Sign Language and Upper Sorbian." ''Europäisches Journal für Minderheitenfragen'' 10, no. 3-4 (2017): 285-321.</ref>

==Linguistic features==
Both Upper and Lower Sorbian have the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] for [[noun]]s, [[pronoun]]s, [[adjective]]s, and [[verb]]s; very few living Indo-European languages retain this as a productive feature of the grammar. For example, the word {{lang|dsb|ruka}} is used for one hand, {{lang|dsb|ruce}} for two hands, and {{lang|dsb|ruki}} for more than two hands. As with most [[Slavic languages]], Sorbian uses no [[article (grammar)|articles]].

===Grammar===
The Sorbian languages are [[Declension|declined]] in six or seven cases:
#[[Nominative case|Nominative]]
#[[Accusative case|Accusative]]
#[[Genitive case|Genitive]]
#[[Dative case|Dative]]
#[[Locative case|Locative]]
#[[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
#[[Vocative case|Vocative]] (Upper Sorbian only)

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case
! colspan="2" | nan<br />father
! štom<br />tree
! bom<br />tree
! colspan="2" | wokno<br />window
|-
| &nbsp;
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
|-
| Nom.
| nan
| nan
| rowspan="2" | štom
| rowspan="2" | bom
| rowspan="2" | wokno
| rowspan="2" | wokno
|-
| Acc.
| rowspan="2" | nana
| rowspan="2" | nana
|-
| Gen.
| štoma
| boma
| wokna
| wokna
|-
| Dat.
| nan'''ej'''
| nan'''oju'''
| štom'''ej'''
| bom'''oju'''
| woknu
| wokn'''oju''', woknu
|-
| Loc.
| wo nanje
| wó nanje
| na štomje
| na bomje
| na woknje
| na woknje
|-
| Instr.
| z nanom
| z nanom
| ze štomom
| z bomom
| z woknom
| z woknom
|-
| Voc.
| nano
| —
| štomo
| —
| —
| —
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case
! ramjo<br />shoulder
! ramje<br />shoulder, armpit
! žona<br />woman
! žeńska<br />woman, wife
! colspan="2" | ruka<br />hand
|-
| &nbsp;
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
|-
| Nom.
| rowspan="2" | ramjo
| rowspan="2" | ramje
| žona
| žeńska
| colspan="2" | ruka
|-
| Acc.
| žonu
| žeńsku
| colspan="2" | ruku
|-
| Gen.
| ramjenja
| ramjenja
| žony
| žeńskeje
| colspan="2" | ruki
|-
| Dat.
| ramjenju
| ramjenj'''eju''', ramjenju
| žonje
| žeńskej
| colspan="2" | ruce
|-
| Loc.
| wo ramjenju
| wó ramjenju
| wo žonje
| wó žeńskej
| colspan="2" | w ruce
|-
| Instr.
| z ramjen'''jom'''
| z ramjen'''im'''
| ze žonu
| ze žeńskeju
| colspan="2" | z ruku
|}

===Vocabulary comparison===
The following is selected vocabulary from the two Sorbian languages compared with other Slavic languages.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English
! Lower Sorbian
! Upper Sorbian
! [[Serbo-Croatian]]
! [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
! [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
! [[Czech language|Czech]]
! [[Polish language|Polish]]
! [[Polabian language|Polabian]]
! [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]
! [[Silesian language|Silesian]]
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
! [[Russian language|Russian]]
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
! [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
|-
| person
| clowek/luź
| čłowjek
| човек / човјек<br />(čovek / čovjek)
| човек (čovek)
|човек<br>(čovek)
| človek
| člověk
| człowiek
| clawak
| człowiek
| czowiek
| človek
| человек<br />(čelovek)
| людина (l'udyna)
| чалавек (čalavjek)
|-
| evening
| wjacor
| wječor
| вече / вечер<br />(veče / večer)
| вечер (večer)
|вечер<br>(večer)
| večer
| večer
| wieczór
| vicer
| wieczór
| wieczōr
| večer
| вечер<br />(večer)
| вечір<br />(večir)
| вечар<br />(vječar)
|-
| brother
| bratš
| bratr
| брат<br />(brat)
| брат (brat)
|брат<br>(brat)
| brat
| bratr
| brat
| brot
| brat
| brat
| brat
| брат<br />(brat)
| брат<br />(brat)
| брат<br />(brat)
|-
| day
| źeń
| dźeń
| дан<br />(dan)
| ден (den)
|ден<br>(den)
| dan
| den
| dzień
| dôn
| dzéń
| dziyń
| deň
| день<br />(den')
| dziyń | день<br />(den')
| дзень<br />(dzjen')
|-
| hand
| ruka
| ruka
| рука<br />(ruka)
| рака (raka)
|ръка<br>(rəka)
| roka
| ruka
| ręka
| ręka
| rãka
| rynka
| ruka
| рука<br />(ruka)
| рука<br />(ruka)
| рука<br />(ruka)
|-
| snow
| sněg
| sněh
| снег / снијег<br />(sneg / snijeg)
| снег (sneg)
|сняг<br>(snjag)
| sneg
| sníh
| śnieg
| sneg
| sniég
| śniyg
| sneh
| снег<br />(sneg)
| сніг<br />(snih)
| снег<br />(snjeh)
|-
| summer
| lěśe
| lěćo
| лето / љето<br />(leto / ljeto)
| лето (leto)
|лято / лето<br>(ljato / ljeto)
| poletje
| léto
| lato
| ljutü
| lato
| lato
| leto
| лето<br />(leto)
| літо<br />(lito)
| лета<br />(ljeta)
|-
| sister
| sotša
| sotra
| сестра<br />(sestra)
| сестра (sestra)
|сестра<br>(sestra)
| sestra
| sestra
| siostra
| sestra
| sostra
| szwestra
| sestra
| сестра<br />(sestra)
| сестра<br />(sestra)
| сястра<br />(sjastra)
|-
| fish
| ryba
| ryba
| риба<br />(riba)
| риба (riba)
|риба<br>(riba)
| riba
| ryba
| ryba
| raibo
| rëba
| ryba
| ryba
| рыба<br />(ryba)
| риба<br />(ryba)
| рыба<br />(ryba)
|-
| fire
| wogeń
| woheń
| огањ<br />(oganj)
| оган (ogan)
|огън<br>(ogən)
| ogenj
| oheň
| ogień
| widin
| òdżin
| ôgyń
| oheň
| огонь<br />(ogon')
| вогонь<br />(vohon')
| агонь<br />(ahon')
|-
| water
| wóda
| woda
| вода<br />(voda)
| вода (voda)
|вода<br>(voda)
| voda
| voda
| woda
| wôda
| wòda
| woda
| voda
| вода<br />(voda)
| вода<br />(voda)
| вада<br />(vada)
|-
| wind
| wětš
| wětr
| ветар / вјетар<br />(vetar / vjetar)
| ветер (veter)
|вятър / ветер<br>(vjatər / veter)
| veter
| vítr
| wiatr
| wjôter
| wiater
| wiater
| vietor
| ветер<br />(veter)
| вітер<br />(viter)
| вецер<br />(vjetsjer)
|-
| winter
| zyma
| zyma
| зима<br />(zima)
| зима (zima)
|зима<br>(zima)
| zima
| zima
| zima
| zaima
| zëma
| zima
| zima
| зима<br />(zima)
| зима<br />(zyma)
| зіма<br />(zima)
|}

==See also==
* [[Sorbian alphabet]]
* [[List of Sorbian-language writers]]
* [[Low Lusatian German]]
* [[White Serbia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Werner, Eduard. Evaluating linguistic variation in light of sparse data in the case of Sorbian. Matt Coler and Andrew Nevins, eds., ''Contemporary research in minoritized and diaspora languages of Europe'' (2022): 281–302. Online open access.

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last1=Howson |first1=Phil J. |date=2018 |title=Rhotics and Palatalization: An Acoustic Examination of Upper and Lower Sorbian |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323138289_Rhotics_and_Palatalization_An_Acoustic_Examination_of_Upper_and_Lower_Sorbian |doi=10.1159/000481783 |journal=Phonetica |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=132–150}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lewaszkiewicz |first1=Tadeusz |date=2015 |title=Polnisch-sorbische Sprachkontakte vom 10./11. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart |trans-title=Polish-Sorbian Linguistic Contacts from the 10th/11th Century to the Present |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=144095 |language=de |journal=Lětopis |issue=1 |pages=56–71}}

==External links==
* [https://sprachkurs.sorbischlernen.de/#/welcome Online course for Upper and Lower Sorbian] (English, Sorbian, German)
* [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/sorab/an/i1/i1.html Euromosaic information page]
* [http://enricu.wordpress.com/webova-kavarna/kurs-serbskeje-rece-kurz-luzicke-srbstiny/kurs-serskeje-rece-blun/ Kurs serskeje rěce / Bluń], introductory texts of the lessons included in the Sorbian language textbook ''Curs practic de limba sorabă'' {{in lang|ro}}
* [https://www.serbski-institut.de/en/publications/letopis/ website for ''Lětopis'', journal devoted to Sorbian topics]

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[[Category:Sorbian languages]]
[[Category:Sorbs]]
[[Category:West Slavic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:Sorbian culture|Languages]]
[[Category:Culture of Saxony]]