Editing Social psychology

{{Short description|Study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors}}
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'''Social psychology''' is the methodical study of how [[thought]]s, [[feeling]]s, and [[behavior]]s are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Allport|first=G. W|year=1985|title=The Historical Background of Social Psychology|editor1-last=G. Lindzey and E. Aronson|encyclopedia=The Handbook of Social Psychology|location=New York|publisher=[[McGraw Hill]]|page=5}}</ref> Although studying many of the same substantive topics as its [[Social psychology (sociology)|counterpart]] in the field of sociology, psychological social psychology places more emphasis on the individual, rather than society; the influence of [[social structure]] and [[culture]] on individual outcomes, such as [[personality]], [[behavior]], and one's position in [[Hierarchy|social hierarchies]]. Social psychologists typically explain [[human behavior]] as a result of the relationship between [[mind|mental states]] and social situations, studying the social conditions under which thoughts, feelings, and behaviors occur, and how these variables influence [[Social relation|social interactions]].<ref name="metafizika journal">{{cite journal |last1=Karimova|first1=Nazakat |date=2022-12-15 |title=Socio-Psychological mechanisms of the interactive relationship between ideology and public psychology |url=https://metafizikajurnali.az/storage/images/site/files/Metafizika-20/Metafizika.Vol.5%2CNo.4%2CSerial.20%2Cpp.38-53.pdf |journal=[[Metafizika Journal]] |language=az |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=38–53 |issn=2616-6879 |eissn=2617-751X |oclc=1117709579 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112173709/https://metafizikajurnali.az/storage/images/site/files/Metafizika-20/Metafizika.Vol.5,No.4,Serial.20,pp.38-53.pdf |archive-date=2022-11-12 |access-date=2022-10-14}}</ref>

== History ==
===19th century===

In the 19th century, social psychology began to emerge from the larger field of [[psychology]]. At the time, many psychologists were concerned with developing concrete explanations for the different aspects of [[human nature]]. They attempted to discover concrete [[Causality|cause-and-effect]] relationships that explained social interactions. In order to do so, they applied the scientific method to human behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Gergen | first1= K. J. | year= 1973 | title= Social Psychology as History | journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume= 26 | issue= 2 | pages= 309–320 | doi= 10.1037/h0034436 | url= http://www.swarthmore.edu/kenneth-gergen/available-manuscripts | access-date= 17 November 2019 | archive-date= 22 October 2019 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191022100757/https://www.swarthmore.edu/kenneth-gergen/available-manuscripts | url-status= live }}</ref> One of the first published studies in the field was [[Norman Triplett]]'s 1898 experiment on the phenomenon of [[social facilitation]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Triplett|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Triplett|year=1898|title=The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition|journal=[[American Journal of Psychology]]|volume=9|pages=507–533|doi=10.2307/1412188|issue=4|jstor=1412188|s2cid=54217799}}</ref> These psychological experiments later went on to form the foundation of much of 20th century social psychological findings.

===20th century ===
According to [[Wolfgang Stroebe]], modern social psychology began in 1924 with the publication of a classic textbook by [[Floyd Henry Allport|Floyd Allport]], which defined the field as the experimental study of social behavior.<ref>Stroebe, W. (2012). The truth about Triplett (1898), but nobody seems to care. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''7'', 54-57.</ref>
[[File:Sculpture of Kurt Lewin, 2011-2.jpg|thumb|Sculpture of Kurt Lewin]]
An early, influential research program in social psychology was established by [[Kurt Lewin]] and his students.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kurt Lewin: groups, experiential learning and action research – infed.org |url=https://infed.org/kurt-lewin-groups-experiential-learning-and-action-research/ |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=infed.org}}</ref> During [[World War II]], social psychologists were mostly concerned with studies of [[persuasion]] and [[propaganda]] for the U.S. military (see also [[Psychological warfare#World War II|psychological warfare]]). Following the war, researchers became interested in a variety of social problems, including issues of [[gender]] and [[Racism|racial prejudice]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Howard |first=Judith A. |date=August 2000 |title=Social Psychology of Identities |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.367 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=367–393 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.367 |issn=0360-0572}}</ref> [[Social stigma]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blodorn |first1=Alison |last2=O’Brien |first2=Laurie T. |last3=Kordys |first3=Justin |date=2011-11-29 |title=Responding to sex-based discrimination: Gender differences in perceived discrimination and implications for legal decision making |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1368430211427172 |journal=Group Processes & Intergroup Relations |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=409–424 |doi=10.1177/1368430211427172 |issn=1368-4302}}</ref> which refers to the disapproval or discrimination against individuals based on perceived differences, became increasingly prevalent as societies sought to redefine norms and group boundaries after the war. 

During the years immediately following [[World War II]], there were frequent collaborations between psychologists and [[sociologist]]s. The two disciplines, however, have become increasingly specialized and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists generally focusing on high-level, large-scale examinations of society, and psychologists generally focusing on more small-scale studies of individual human behaviors.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last=Sewell |first=W. H |year=1989 |title=Some reflections on the golden age of interdisciplinary social psychology |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=15 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1146/annurev.so.15.080189.000245 |s2cid=143901573|doi-access=free }}</ref>

During the 1960s, there was growing interest in topics such as [[cognitive dissonance]], [[Bystander effect|bystander intervention]], and [[aggression]]. These developments were part of a trend of increasingly sophisticated laboratory experiments using college students as participants and [[analysis of variance]] designs.<ref>Higbee, K. L., & Wells, M. G. (1972). Some research trends in social psychology during the 1960s. American Psychologist, 27(10), 963–966. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033453</ref>

In the 1970s, a number of conceptual challenges to social psychology emerged over issues such as ethical concerns about laboratory experimentation, whether attitudes could accurately predict behavior, and to what extent science could be done in a cultural context.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gergen|first=Kenneth J|author-link=Kenneth Gergen|year=1973|title=Social psychology as history|journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]]|volume=26|pages=309–320|doi=10.1037/h0034436|issue=2|url=http://www.swarthmore.edu/kenneth-gergen/available-manuscripts|access-date=17 November 2019|archive-date=22 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022100757/https://www.swarthmore.edu/kenneth-gergen/available-manuscripts|url-status=live}}</ref> It was also in this period where [[Situationism (psychology)|situationism]], the theory that human behavior changes based on situational factors, emerged and challenged the relevance of self and personality in psychology.<ref name="social-psychology">{{cite web|url=http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/|title=Social Psychology|date=2020|website=Psychology|publisher=iResearchNet|access-date=8 February 2017|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416075749/http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/|url-status=live}}</ref> 

By the 1980s and 1990s, social psychology had developed a number of solutions to these issues with regard to [[theory]] and [[methodology]].<ref name="social-psychology" />

=== 21st century ===
At present, [[Research#Research ethics|ethical standards]] regulate research, and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] and multicultural perspectives to the social sciences have emerged. Most modern researchers in the 21st century are interested in phenomena such as [[Attribution (psychology)|attribution]], [[social cognition]], and [[self-concept]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gecas|first=Viktor|date=1982|title=The Self-Concept|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume=8|pages=1–33|issn=0360-0572|jstor=2945986|doi=10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.000245}}</ref> During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], social psychologists examined the effects of social isolation, fear, and misinformation on collective behavior. Research also focused on how pandemic-related stress affected mental health and social cohesion.<ref>{{cite web |url=Major, B., & O'Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393-421.}}</ref> Social psychologists are, in addition, concerned with [[applied psychology]], contributing towards applications of social psychology in health, education, law, and [[Industrial and organizational psychology|the workplace]].<ref>Kassin, Saul, Steven Fein, and Hazel R. Markus, (2017). ''Social Psychology'' (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: [[Cengage|Cengage Learning]]. {{ISBN|978-1-305-58022-0}}. [https://www.nelsonbrain.com/shop/isbn/9781305580220 Lay summary]{{Dead link|date=December 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} via ''NELSONBrain''.</ref>

== Core theories and concepts ==
=== Attitudes ===
{{Main|Attitude (psychology)}}
In social psychology, an attitude is a learned, global evaluation that influences thought and action.<ref name="Sison">{{cite book|last=Sison|first=Erick Louie A.|title=The Dynamics of Persuasion|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum|year=2008|location=New York}}</ref> Attitudes are basic expressions of approval and disapproval or likes and dislikes. For example, enjoying chocolate ice cream or endorsing the values of a particular political party are examples of attitudes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bem|first=D.|url=https://archive.org/details/beliefsattitudes00bemd|title=Beliefs, Attitudes, and Human Affairs|publisher=Brooks/Cole|year=1970|location=Belmont, CA|url-access=registration}}</ref> Because people are influenced by multiple factors in any given situation, general attitudes are not always good predictors of specific behavior. For example, a person may generally value the environment but may not recycle a plastic bottle because of specific factors on a given day.

One of the most influential 20th century attitude theories was [[Cognitive dissonance theory]]. According to this theory, attitudes must be logically consistent with each other. Noticing incongruence among one’s attitudes leads to an uncomfortable state of tension, which may motivate a change in attitudes or behavior.<ref name="Festinger, L. 1957">Festinger, L. (1957). ''A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance''. California: Stanford University Press.</ref>

Research on attitudes has examined the distinction between traditional, [[Self-report study|self-reported]] attitudes and [[Implicit stereotype|implicit, unconscious attitudes]]. Experiments using the [[implicit-association test|Implicit Association Test (IAT)]], for instance, have found that people often demonstrate implicit bias against other races, even when their explicit responses profess impartiality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McConnell|first=Allen|date=September 2001|title=Relations among the Implicit Association Test, Discriminatory Behavior, and Explicit Measures of Racial Attitudes|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=37|issue=5|pages=435–442|doi=10.1006/jesp.2000.1470|s2cid=31010334}}</ref> Likewise, one study found that in interracial interactions, explicit attitudes correlate with verbal behavior, while implicit attitudes correlate with nonverbal behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heider|first1=J. D|last2=Skowronski|first2=J. J|year=2007|title=Improving the Predictive Validity of the Implicit Association Test|journal=[[North American Journal of Psychology]]|volume=9|pages=53–76}}</ref>

Attitudes are also involved in several other areas of the discipline, such as [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]], [[interpersonal attraction]], social perception, and [[prejudice]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Psychology|url=https://psynso.com/social-psychology/|access-date=21 November 2021|website=Psynso|language=en-US|archive-date=21 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121021024/https://psynso.com/social-psychology/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Persuasion ===
{{Main|Persuasion}}
Persuasion is an active method of influencing that attempts to guide people toward the adoption of an attitude, idea, or behavior by rational or emotive means. Persuasion relies on appeals rather than strong pressure or [[coercion]]. The process of persuasion has been found to be influenced by numerous variables that generally fall into one of five major categories:<ref>{{Cite book|last=Myers|first=David|title=Social Psychology|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2010|isbn=978-0-07-337066-8|edition=10th|location=New York|pages=234–253}}</ref>
#[[Orator|Communication]]: includes [[credibility]], [[expert]]ise, [[trustworthiness]], and [[Physical attractiveness|attractiveness]].
#[[Message]]: includes varying degrees of [[reason]], [[emotion]] (e.g., fear), one-sided or two-sided arguments, and other types of informational content.
#[[Audience]]: includes a variety of [[demographics]], [[personality trait]]s, and [[preference]]s.
# [[Media (communication)|Medium]]: includes printed word, radio, television, the internet, or face-to-face interactions.
#[[Social environment|Context]]: includes environment, group dynamics, and preliminary information.

[[File:Elm-diagram.jpg|thumb|469x480px|The Elaboration Likelihood Model is an influential model of persuasion.]]

[[Dual process theory|Dual-process theories]] of persuasion (such as the [[elaboration likelihood model]]) maintain that persuasion is mediated by two separate routes: central and peripheral. The central route of persuasion is influenced by facts and results in longer-lasting change, but requires [[motivation]] to process. The peripheral route is influenced by superficial factors (e.g. smiling, clothing) and results in shorter-lasting change, but does not require as much motivation to process.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Austen |first=Jane |author-link=Jane Austen |title=Northanger Abbey & Persuasion |date=1919 |publisher=J.M. Dent |isbn=0-665-83283-4 |oclc=1111908588}}</ref>

=== Social cognition ===
{{Main|Social cognition}}
Social cognition studies how people perceive, recognize, and remember information about others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeLamater |first=John D. |author-link=John DeLamater |display-authors=etal |title=Social Psychology |date=8 July 2014 |publisher=Avalon |isbn=978-0-8133-4951-0 |oclc=883566075}}</ref> Much research rests on the assertion that people think about other people differently than they do non-social, or non-human, targets.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moskowitz|first=Gordon B|title=Social Cognition: Understanding Self and Others|year=2005|publisher=Guilford|isbn=978-1-59385-085-2|series=Texts in Social Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_-NLW8Ynvp8C&q=%22Social+Cognition%22+Moskowitz}}</ref> This assertion is supported by the [[Social cognitive theory|social-cognitive]] deficits exhibited by people with [[Williams syndrome]] and [[autism]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dobbs|first1=Davis|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/08/magazine/08sociability-t.html|title=The Gregarious Brain|date=8 July 2007|newspaper=[[The New York Times Magazine]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-date=11 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211031201/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/08/magazine/08sociability-t.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Attribution====
{{Main|Attribution (psychology)}}
A major research topic in social cognition is [[Attribution (psychology)|attribution]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Reisenzein|first1=Rainer|last2=Rudolph|first2=Udo|title=50 Years of Attribution Research|journal= [[Social Psychology (journal)|Social Psychology]] |volume=39|issue=3|year=2008|pages=123–124|issn=1864-9335|doi=10.1027/1864-9335.39.3.123}}</ref> Attributions are explanations of behavior, either one's own behavior or the behavior of others.

One element of attribution ascribes the cause of behavior to internal and external factors. An internal, or dispositional, attribution reasons that a behavior is caused by inner traits such as personality, disposition, character, and ability. An external, or situational, attribution reasons that a behavior is caused by situational elements such as the weather.<ref name="Aaronson1">
{{cite book|last1=Aronson|first1=Elliot|url=https://archive.org/details/Social_Psychology_7th_edition_by_Elliot_Aronson_Timothy_D._Wilson_R_M._Akert|title=Social Psychology|last2=Wilson|first2=Timothy D.|last3=Akert|first3=Robin M.|publisher=[[Prentice Hall]]|year=2010|edition=7|author-link=Elliot Aronson}}</ref>{{rp|111}}A second element of attribution ascribes the cause of behavior to stable and unstable factors (i.e., whether the behavior will be repeated or changed under similar circumstances). Individuals also attribute causes of behavior to controllable and uncontrollable factors (i.e., how much control one has over the situation at hand).

Numerous biases in the attribution process have been discovered. For instance, the [[fundamental attribution error]] is the bias towards making dispositional attributions for other people's behavior.<ref name="Myers">
{{cite book|last=Myers|first=David G.|url=https://archive.org/details/psychology8thedit00myer|title=Psychology|publisher=Worth Publishers|year=2007|edition=8|location=New York|url-access=limited|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>{{rp|724}}The actor-observer bias is an extension of the theory, positing that tendency exists to make dispositional attributions for other people's behavior and situational attributions for one's own.<ref name="Aaronson1" />{{rp|107}} The [[self-serving bias]] is the tendency to attribute dispositional causes for successes, and situational causes for failure, particularly when self-esteem is threatened. This leads to assuming one's successes are from innate traits, and one's failures are due to situations.<ref name="Aaronson1" />{{rp|109}}

====Heuristics====
{{Main|Heuristics in judgment and decision making}}
[[Heuristics in judgment and decision making|Heuristic]]s are cognitive shortcuts which are used to make decisions in lieu of conscious reasoning. The [[availability heuristic]] occurs when people estimate the [[probability]] of an outcome based on how easy that outcome is to imagine. As such, vivid or highly memorable possibilities will be perceived as more likely than those that are harder to picture or difficult to understand. The representativeness heuristic is a shortcut people use to categorize something based on how similar it is to a prototype they know of.<ref name="Aaronson1" />{{rp|63}} Several other biases have been found by [[social cognition]] researchers. The [[hindsight bias]] is a [[Confabulation|false memory]] of having predicted events, or an exaggeration of actual predictions, after becoming aware of the outcome. The [[confirmation bias]] is a type of bias leading to the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.<ref>{{Citation|title=Availability Bias, Source Bias, and Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis|work=Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings|year=2015|pages=513–551|publisher=SAGE Publications, Ltd|doi=10.4135/9781483398105.n13|isbn=978-1-4522-8689-1}}</ref>

==== Schemas ====
{{Main|Schema (psychology)}}
[[Schema (psychology)|Schemas]] are generalized mental representations that organize knowledge and guide information processing. They organize social information and experiences. Schemas often operate [[automaticity|automatically]] and unconsciously. This leads to biases in perception and memory. Schemas may induce expectations that lead us to see something that is not there. One experiment found that people are more likely to misperceive a weapon in the hands of a black man than a white man.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Correll|first1=Joshua|last2=Park|first2=Bernadette|last3=Judd|first3=Charles M|last4=Wittenbrink|first4=Bernd|title=The police officer's dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals|journal= [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] |volume=83|issue=6|year=2002|pages=1,314–1,329|issn=0022-3514|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314|citeseerx=10.1.1.466.7243|pmid=12500813}}</ref> This type of schema is a [[stereotype]], a generalized set of beliefs about a particular group of people (when incorrect, an [[ultimate attribution error]]). Stereotypes are often related to negative or preferential attitudes and behavior. Schemas for behaviors (e.g., going to a restaurant, doing laundry) are known as ''scripts''.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sternberg|first1=Robert J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NISqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA368|title=The Psychology of Human Thought: An Introduction|last2=Funke|first2=Joachim|date=22 August 2019|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand|isbn=978-3-947732-35-7|language=en}}</ref>

=== Self-concept ===
{{Main|Self-concept}}
[[File:Daryl Bem.jpg|thumb|Daryl Bem]]
Self-concept is the whole sum of beliefs that people have about themselves. The self-concept is made up of cognitive aspects called [[self-schema]]s—beliefs that people have about themselves and that guide the processing of self-referential information.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last=Markus |first=Hazel |year=1977 |title=Self-Schemata and Processing Information |journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=63–78 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63 |s2cid=16756658}}</ref> For example, an athlete at a university would have multiple selves that would process different information pertinent to each self: the student would be oneself, who would process information pertinent to a student (taking notes in class, completing a homework assignment, etc.); the athlete would be the self who processes information about things related to being an athlete. These selves are part of one's identity and the self-referential information is that which relies on the appropriate self to process and react to it.

There are many theories on the perception of our own behavior. [[Leon Festinger]]'s 1954 ''[[social comparison theory]]'' posits that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others when they are uncertain of their own ability or opinions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Festinger|first=Leon|author-link=Leon Festinger|year=1954|title=A theory of social comparison process|journal=[[Human Relations (journal)|Human Relations]]|volume=7|issue=2|pages=117–40|doi=10.1177/001872675400700202|via=SAGE Journals|s2cid=18918768}}</ref> [[Daryl Bem]]'s 1972 ''self-perception theory'' claims that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bem|first=Daryl J.|title=Self Perception Theory|publisher=Academic Press|year=1972|isbn=978-0-12-015206-3|series=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology|volume=6|pages=1–62|chapter=Self-Perception Theory|doi=10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60024-6|author-link=Daryl Bem}}</ref>

=== Social influence ===
{{Main|Social influence}}
Social influence is an overarching term that denotes the persuasive effects people have on each other. It is seen as a fundamental concept in social psychology. The study of it overlaps considerably with research on attitudes and persuasion. The three main areas of social influence include [[conformity]], [[Compliance (psychology)|compliance]], and [[Obedience (human behavior)|obedience]]. Social influence is also closely related to the study of group dynamics, as most effects of influence are strongest when they take place in social groups.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|title=Mindsponge Theory|date=2023|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=9788367405140}}</ref>

The first major area of social influence is conformity. Conformity is defined as the tendency to act or think like other members of a group. The identity of members within a group (i.e., status), similarity, expertise, as well as cohesion, prior commitment, and accountability to the group help to determine the level of conformity of an individual. Conformity is often driven by two types of social influences: [[informational social influence]], which involves conforming to gain accurate information, and normative social influence, which involves conforming to be accepted or liked by the group.<ref>{{cite web |url=Lord, K. R., Lee, M. S., & Choong, P. (2001). Differences in Normative and Informational Social Influence. Advances in consumer research, 28(1).}}</ref> Individual variations among group members play a key role in the dynamic of how willing people will be to conform.<ref name="Aaronson2"/>{{rp|27}} Conformity is usually viewed as a negative tendency in American culture, but a certain amount of conformity is adaptive in some situations, as is nonconformity in other situations.<ref name="Aaronson2">
{{cite book|last=Aronson|first=Elliot|title=The Social Animal|title-link=The Social Animal (Aronson book)|publisher=Worth Publishers|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4292-0316-6|edition=10th|author-link=Elliot Aronson|orig-year=1972}}</ref>{{rp|15}}

The second major area of social influence research is [[Compliance (psychology)|compliance]], which refers to any change in behavior that is due to a request or suggestion from another person. Two common compliance strategies are 'foot-in-the-door,' which involves getting a person to agree to a small request to increase the likelihood of agreeing to a larger one, and 'door-in-the-face,' which involves making a large request that is likely to be refused to make a subsequent smaller request more likely to be accepted. The [[foot-in-the-door technique]] is a compliance method in which the persuader requests a small favor and then follows up with a larger favor (e.g., asking for the time and then asking for ten dollars). A related trick is the [[bait and switch]], which is a disingenuous sales strategy that involves enticing potential customers with advertisements of low-priced items which turn out to be unavailable in order to sell a more expensive item.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cialdini|first=R.B|year=2000|title=Influence: Science and Practice|publisher=[[Allyn and Bacon]]}}</ref>

The third major form of social influence is [[Obedience (human behavior)|obedience]]; this is a change in behavior that is the result of a direct order or command from another person. Obedience as a form of compliance was dramatically highlighted by the [[Milgram study]], wherein people were ready to administer shocks to a person in distress on a researcher's command.<ref name="Aaronson2" />{{rp|41}}

An unusual kind of social influence is the [[self-fulfilling prophecy]]. This is a prediction that, by being made, causes itself to become true. For example, in the financial field, if it is widely believed that a [[stock market crash|crash]] is imminent, investors may lose confidence, sell most of their stock, and thus cause a crash. Similarly, people may expect hostility in others and induce this hostility by their own behavior.<ref name="Aaronson1" />{{rp|18}}

Psychologists have spent decades studying the power of social influence, and the way in which it manipulates people's opinions and behavior. Specifically, social influence refers to the way in which individuals change their ideas and actions to meet the demands of a social group, received authority, social role, or a minority within a group wielding influence over the majority.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologistworld.com/influence/social-influence|title=Social Influence {{!}} Psychology of Influence|last=Waude|first=Adam|date=20 July 2017|website=Psychologist World|access-date=8 April 2019|archive-date=8 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408045245/https://www.psychologistworld.com/influence/social-influence|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

===Group dynamics===
{{Main|Group dynamics}}

[[File:Soc-psy diagram.jpg|thumb|right|Social psychologists study interactions within [[social group|groups]], and between both groups and individuals.]]

Social psychologists study group-related phenomena such as the behavior of [[crowd]]s. A [[Social group|group]] can be defined as two or more individuals who are connected to each other by [[interpersonal relationship|social relationships]].<ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Forsyth|first=Donelson R.|url=https://archive.org/details/groupdynamics00fors_0|title=Group Dynamics|publisher=Thomson-Wadworth|year=2006|edition=4th|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=9780495007296|oclc=1035146459|url-access=limited}}</ref> Groups tend to interact, influence each other, and share a common identity. They have a number of emergent qualities that distinguish them from coincidental, temporary gatherings, which are termed social aggregates:<ref name=":3" />

* [[Norm (sociology)|Norms]]: Implicit rules and expectations for group members to follow.
* [[Role]]s: Implicit rules and expectations for specific members within the group.
* [[Interpersonal relationship|Relations]]: Patterns of liking within the group, and also differences in prestige or status.

The shared social identity of individuals within a group influences [[Intergroup relations|intergroup behavior]], which denotes the way in which groups behave towards and perceive each other. These perceptions and behaviors in turn define the social identity of individuals within the interacting groups.

The tendency to define oneself by membership in a group may lead to intergroup [[discrimination]], which involves favorable perceptions and behaviors directed towards the in-group, but negative perceptions and behaviors directed towards the out-group.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|year=1986|title=The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior|editor1-last=S. Worchel and W.G. Austin|encyclopedia=Psychology of Intergroup Relations|location=Chicago|publisher=Nelson-Hall|author1=Tajfel, H. |author2=J. C. Turner}}</ref>

Groups often moderate and improve [[decision making]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Group Decision Making {{!}} Principles of Social Psychology|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-social-psychology/chapter/group-decision-making/|access-date=12 May 2021|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|language=en-US|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512084639/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-social-psychology/chapter/group-decision-making/|url-status=live}}</ref> and are frequently relied upon for these benefits, such as in committees and juries. Groups also affect performance and [[productivity]]. Social facilitation, for example, is a tendency to work harder and faster in the presence of others.

Another important concept in this area is [[deindividuation]], a reduced state of [[self-awareness]] that can be caused by feelings of anonymity. Deindividuation is associated with uninhibited and sometimes dangerous behavior. It is common in crowds and mobs, but it can also be caused by a disguise, a uniform, alcohol, dark environments, or online anonymity.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Baron, R. S. |author2=Norbert L. Kerr|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XubtAAAAMAAJ|title=Group Process, Group Decision, Group Action|publisher=Open University Press|year=2003|isbn=9780335206988|editor=N. L. Kerr|edition=2nd|series=Mapping Social Psychology|location=Buckingham|url-access=limited|s2cid=142783727}}</ref><ref>In the online domain, (e.g., see Rosen, Larry D., Nancy A. Cheever, and L. Mark Carrier. 2015. ''The Wiley Handbook of Psychology, Technology and Society''. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell.  {{ISBN|9781118771952}}. {{doi|10.1002/9781118771952}}.)</ref>

=== Interpersonal attraction ===
{{Main|Interpersonal attraction}}
[[File:Factors influencing Interpersonal attraction.svg|thumb|Factors influencing [[interpersonal attraction]]]]
A major area of study of people's relations to each other is interpersonal attraction, which refers to all factors that lead people to like each other, establish relationships, and in some cases fall in love. Several general principles of attraction have been discovered by social psychologists. One of the most important factors in interpersonal attraction is how similar two particular people are. The more similar two people are in general attitudes, backgrounds, environments, worldviews, and other traits, the more likely they will be attracted to each other.<ref>Byrne, Donn. (1961). "[https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1962-06365-001 Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214005653/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1962-06365-001 |date=14 February 2021 }} {{Access indicator|closed}}." ''[[Journal of Abnormal Psychology|Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology]]'' 62(3)'':''713–15. {{doi|10.1037/h0044721}}. {{PMID|13875334}} – via [[American Psychological Association|APA]] PsycArticles.</ref>

[[Physical attractiveness]] is an important element of romantic relationships, particularly in the early stages characterized by high levels of [[limerence|passion]]. Later on, similarity and other compatibility factors become more important, and the type of love people experience shifts from passionate to companionate. In 1986, [[Robert Sternberg]] suggested that there are actually three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sternberg|first=Robert J|author-link=Robert Sternberg|year=1986|title=A Triangular Theory of Love|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1484/6e479240d11894b714117a4031166b140829.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227101654/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1484/6e479240d11894b714117a4031166b140829.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 February 2021|journal=[[Psychological Review]]|publisher=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]|volume=93|issue=2|pages=119–35|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119|s2cid=7047234}}</ref> When two (or more) people experience all three, they are said to be in a state of consummate love.

According to [[social exchange theory]], relationships are based on rational choice and cost-benefit analysis. A person may leave a relationship if their partner's "costs" begin to outweigh their benefits, especially if there are good alternatives available. This theory is similar to the [[minimax principle]] proposed by mathematicians and [[Economist|economists]]. With time, long-term relationships tend to become communal rather than simply based on exchange.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Mills, Judson |author2=Margaret S. Clark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfpBz22oMVMC|title=Theoretical Frameworks for Personal Relationships|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0805805734|editor1=Erber, Ralph |editor2=Robin Gilmour|location=Hillsdale, NJ|at=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hfpBz22oMVMC&pg=PA33 p. 33]|chapter=Communal and Exchange Relationships: Controversies and Research|url-access=limited}}</ref>

== Research ==
=== Methods ===
Social psychology is an [[empirical]] science that attempts to answer questions about human behavior by testing hypotheses. Careful attention to research design, sampling, and [[statistics|statistical analysis]] is important in social psychology.

Whenever possible, social psychologists rely on [[Scientific control|controlled experimentation]], which requires the manipulation of one or more [[Dependent and independent variables|independent variables]] in order to examine the effect on a [[Dependent and independent variables|dependent variable]]. Experiments are useful in social psychology because they are high in [[internal validity]], meaning that they are free from the influence of [[confounding]] or extraneous variables, and so are more likely to accurately indicate a causal relationship. However, the small samples used in controlled experiments are typically low in [[external validity]], or the degree to which the results can be generalized to the larger population. There is usually a trade-off between experimental control (internal validity) and being able to generalize to the population (external validity).

Because it is usually impossible to test everyone, research tends to be conducted on a [[Sampling (statistics)|sample]] of persons from the wider [[population]]. Social psychologists frequently use [[Statistical survey|survey]] research when they are interested in results that are high in external validity. Surveys use various forms of [[Sampling (statistics)|random sampling]] to obtain a sample of respondents that is representative of a population. This type of research is usually descriptive or [[correlation]]al because there is no experimental control over variables. Some psychologists have raised concerns for social psychological research relying too heavily on studies conducted on university undergraduates in academic settings,<ref name="Henrich2010">{{cite journal|last1=Henrich|first1=Joseph|last2=Heine|first2=Steven J.|last3=Norenzayan|first3=Ara|date=15 June 2010|title=The weirdest people in the world?|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/BF84F7517D56AFF7B7EB58411A554C17/S0140525X0999152Xa.pdf/weirdest_people_in_the_world.pdf|journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|volume=33|issue=2–3|pages=61–83|doi=10.1017/S0140525X0999152X|pmid=20550733|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-26A1-6|doi-access=free|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=11 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211195039/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/BF84F7517D56AFF7B7EB58411A554C17/S0140525X0999152Xa.pdf/weirdest_people_in_the_world.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sears1986">{{Cite journal|last=Sears|first=David O.|author-link=David O. Sears|year=1986|title=College Sophomores in the Laboratory: Influences of a Narrow Data Base on Social Psychology's View of Human Nature|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab3a/efd4b9b5fb93ff91ed671f34c37e22717121.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225233401/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ab3a/efd4b9b5fb93ff91ed671f34c37e22717121.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 February 2021|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|publisher=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]|volume=51|issue=3|pages=515–530|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.515|s2cid=14408635}}</ref> or participants from crowdsourcing labor markets such as [[Amazon Mechanical Turk]].<ref name="Anderson2019">{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Craig A.|last2=Allen|first2=Johnie J.|last3=Plante|first3=Courtney|last4=Quigley-McBride|first4=Adele|last5=Lovett|first5=Alison|last6=Rokkum|first6=Jeffrey N.|date=2018|title=The MTurkification of Social and Personality Psychology|url=http://www.craiganderson.org/wp-content/uploads/caa/abstracts/2015-2019/19A-Mturk.pdf|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=45|issue=6|pages=842–50|doi=10.1177/0146167218798821|pmid=30317918|s2cid=52981138|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807083033/http://www.craiganderson.org/wp-content/uploads/caa/abstracts/2015-2019/19A-Mturk.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Anderson, Craig A., Johnie J. Allen, Courtney Plante, et al. 2019 [2018]. "[http://www.craiganderson.org/wp-content/uploads/caa/abstracts/2015-2019/19A-Mturk.pdf The MTurkification of Social and Personality Psychology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807083033/http://www.craiganderson.org/wp-content/uploads/caa/abstracts/2015-2019/19A-Mturk.pdf |date=7 August 2020 }}." ''[[Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin]]'' 45(6):842–50. {{doi|10.1177/0146167218798821}}. {{PMID|30317918}}. Retrieved 24 April 2020.</ref> In a 1986 study by [[David O. Sears]],<ref name="Sears1986" /> over 70% of experiments used North American undergraduates as subjects, a subset of the population that is unrepresentative of the population as a whole.<ref name="Henrich2010" />

Regardless of which method has been chosen, social psychologists statistically review the significance of their results before accepting them in evaluating an underlying hypothesis. Statistics and probability testing define what constitutes a [[Statistical significance|significant]] finding, which can be as low as 5% or less, and is unlikely due to chance.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/ | title=Social Psychology: Definition, History, Methods, Applications - IResearchNet | access-date=8 February 2017 | archive-date=16 April 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416075749/http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/ | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Reproducibility|Replication]] testing is also important in ensuring that the results are valid and not due to chance. [[False positive]] conclusions, often resulting from the [[Publish or perish|pressure to publish]] or the author's own [[confirmation bias]], are a hazard in the field.<ref name="Simmons et al. (2011)">{{cite journal|last1=Simmons|first1=Joseph|last2=Nelson|first2=Leif|last3=Simonsohn|first3=Uri|date=2011|title=False-Positive Psychology: Undisclosed Flexibility in Data Collection and Analysis Allows Presenting Anything as Significant|journal=[[Psychological Science]]|volume=22|issue=11|pages=1359–1366|doi=10.1177/0956797611417632|pmid=22006061|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Famous experiments ===
==== Asch conformity experiments ====
{{Main|Asch conformity experiments|Solomon Asch}}
[[File:Asch experiment.png|thumb|left|Which line matches the first line, A, B, or C? In the [[Asch conformity experiments]], people frequently followed the majority judgment, even when the majority was objectively wrong.]]

The [[Asch conformity experiments]] used a line-length estimation task to demonstrate the power of people's impulses to conform with other members in a small group. The task was designed to be easy to assess but wrong answers were deliberately given by at least some, oftentimes most, of the other participants.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last=Asch|first=Solomon E.|author-link=Solomon Asch|year=1955|title=Opinions and Social Pressure|url=https://www.lucs.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Asch-1955-Opinions-and-Social-Pressure.pdf|journal=[[Scientific American]]|volume=193|issue=5|pages=31–35|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31|bibcode=1955SciAm.193e..31A|s2cid=4172915|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202205135/https://www.lucs.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Asch-1955-Opinions-and-Social-Pressure.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In well over a third of the trials, participants conformed to the majority, even though the majority judgment was clearly wrong. Seventy-five percent of the participants conformed at least once during the experiment. Additional manipulations of the experiment showed that participant conformity decreased when at least one other individual failed to conform but increased when the individual began conforming or withdrew from the experiment.<ref name=":0" /> Also, participant conformity increased substantially as the number of "incorrect" individuals increased from one to three, and remained high as the incorrect majority grew. Participants with three other, incorrect participants made mistakes 31.8% of the time, while those with one or two incorrect participants made mistakes only 3.6% and 13.6% of the time, respectively.<ref name=":0" />

==== Festinger cognitive dissonance experiments ====
{{Main|Leon Festinger#Cognitive Dissonance}}
In [[Leon Festinger]]'s [[cognitive dissonance]] experiment, participants were divided into two groups and were asked to perform a boring task. Both groups were later asked to dishonestly give their opinion of the task, but were rewarded according to two different pay scales. At the end of the study, some participants were paid $1 to say that they enjoyed the task, while the group of participants were paid $20 to tell the same lie. The first group ($1) later reported liking the task better than the second group ($20). Festinger's explanation was that for people in the first group, being paid only $1 was not sufficient incentive. This led them to experience dissonance, or discomfort and internal conflict. They could only overcome that dissonance by justifying their lies. They did this by changing their previously unfavorable attitudes about the task. Being paid $20 provided a reason for doing the boring task, which resulted in no dissonance.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html|title=Cognitive Dissonance|last=McLeod|first=Saul|date=5 February 2018|website=Simply Psychology|access-date=7 October 2013|archive-date=17 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917075409/http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Festinger|first1=Leon|last2=Carlsmith|first2=James M.|year=1959|title=Cognitive consequences of forced compliance|journal=[[Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology]]|volume=58|issue=2|pages=203–11|citeseerx=10.1.1.497.2779|doi=10.1037/h0041593|pmid=13640824}}</ref>

[[File:Milgram experiment v2.svg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Milgram experiment]]: The experimenter (E) persuades the participant (T) to give what the participant believes are painful electric shocks to another participant (L), who is actually an actor. Many participants continued to give shocks despite pleas for mercy from the actor.]]

==== Milgram experiment ====
{{Main|Milgram experiment|Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View|Stanley Milgram|l2 = Obedience to Authority}}
The [[Milgram experiment]] was designed to study how far people would go in obeying an [[authority]] figure. The experiment showed that normal American citizens would follow orders even when they believed they were causing an innocent person to suffer or even apparently die.<ref>{{cite book|last=Milgram|first=Stanley|title=Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View|title-link=Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1975|isbn=9780060904753|location=New York|id={{Internet Archive|obediencetoautho00milg|Limited preview}}|author-link=Stanley Milgram}}</ref>

==== Stanford prison experiment ====
{{Main|Stanford prison experiment|Philip Zimbardo}}
[[Philip Zimbardo]]'s [[Stanford prison study]], a simulated exercise involving students playing at being prison guards and inmates, attempted to show how far people would go in role playing. In just a few days, the guards became brutal and cruel, and the prisoners became miserable and compliant. This was initially argued to be an important demonstration of the power of the immediate social situation and its capacity to overwhelm normal personality traits.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Haney|first1=Craig|author-link=Craig Haney|last2=Banks|first2=Curtis|last3=Zimbardo|first3=Philip G.|author-link3=Philip Zimbardo|year=1973|title=Interpersonal Dynamics in a Simulated Prison|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232496133|journal=[[International Journal of Criminology and Penology]]|volume=1|pages=69–97|via=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref><ref>[[Craig Haney|Haney, Craig]], Curtis Banks, and [[Philip Zimbardo]]. 1972 "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190218201058/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1279/94947f4576bab94edb344d2040ed45fef9e4.pdf Interpersonal Dynamics in a Simulated Prison]" [technical report]. Z-09. Springfield, VA: [[National Technical Information Service]]. {{doi|10.21236/ad0751041}}. {{S2CID|143041401}}.</ref> Subsequent research has contested the initial conclusions of the study. For example, it has been pointed out that participant self-selection may have affected the participants' behavior,<ref name="revisitingSFE">{{Cite journal|last1=Carnahan|first1=Thomas|last2=McFarland|first2=Sam|year=2007|title=Revisiting the Stanford prison experiment: Could participant self-selection have led to the cruelty?|url=http://www.pitt.edu/~bertsch/Carnahan.pdf|journal=[[Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin]]|volume=33|issue=5|pages=603–14|doi=10.1177/0146167206292689|pmid=17440210|s2cid=15946975|access-date=29 January 2012|archive-date=29 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329012324/http://www.pitt.edu/~bertsch/Carnahan.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and that the participants' personalities influenced their reactions in a variety of ways, including how long they chose to remain in the study. The 2002 [[The Experiment|BBC prison study]], designed to replicate the conditions in the Stanford study, produced conclusions that were drastically different from the initial findings.<ref name="Reicher & Haslam, (2006)">{{cite journal|last1=Reicher|first1=S|last2=Haslam|first2=S. A.|year=2006|title=Rethinking the Psychology of Tyranny: The BBC Prison Study|journal=[[British Journal of Social Psychology]]|volume=45|issue=1|pages=1–40|citeseerx=10.1.1.510.9231|doi=10.1348/014466605X48998|pmid=16573869}}</ref>

==== Bandura's Bobo doll ====
{{Main|Bobo doll experiment}}

[[Albert Bandura]]'s [[Bobo doll experiment]] attempted to demonstrate how aggression is learned by [[imitation]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bandura|first1=Albert|last2=Ross|first2=D|last3=Ross|first3=S.A|year=1961|title=Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3706/7acd33ad2ba2ed384baada06e7d74b800399.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306125118/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3706/7acd33ad2ba2ed384baada06e7d74b800399.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 March 2018|journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|volume=63|issue=3|pages=575–82|doi=10.1037/h0045925|pmid=13864605|s2cid=18361226}}</ref> In the experiment, 72 children, grouped based on similar levels of pre-tested aggressivity, either witnessed an aggressive or a non-aggressive actor interact with a "[[Bobo doll experiment|bobo doll]]." The children were then placed alone in the room with the doll and observed to see if they would imitate the same behavior of the actor they had observed. As hypothesized, the children who had witnessed the aggressive actor, imitated the behavior and proceeded to act aggressively towards the doll. Both male and female children who witnessed the non-aggressive actor behaved less aggressively towards the doll. However, boys were more likely to exhibit aggression, especially after observing the behavior from an actor of the same gender. In addition, boys were found to imitate more physical aggression, while girls displayed more verbal aggression.

=== Ethics ===
The goal of social psychology is to understand cognition and behavior as they naturally occur in a social context, but the very act of observing people can influence and alter their behavior. For this reason, many social psychology experiments utilize [[deception]] to conceal or distort certain aspects of the study. Deception may include false cover stories, false participants (known as confederates or stooges), false feedback given to the participants, and other techniques that help remove potential obstacles to participation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA PsycNet |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-11699-019 |access-date=2022-04-30 |website=psycnet.apa.org |language=en |archive-date=30 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430013156/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-11699-019 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{clarify|date=March 2012|reason=What about concealment of the existence or purpose of observation?}}

The practice of deception has been challenged by psychologists who maintain that deception under any circumstances is unethical and that other research strategies (e.g., [[role-playing]]) should be used instead. Research has shown that role-playing studies do not produce the same results as deception studies, and this has cast doubt on their validity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Role Playing: An Alternative to Deception? A Review of the Evidence|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232604288|journal=American Psychologist|year=1972|language=en|doi=10.1037/h0033257|last1=Miller|first1=Arthur G.|volume=27|issue=7|pages=623–636}}</ref> In addition to deception, experimenters have at times put people in potentially uncomfortable or embarrassing situations (e.g., the [[Milgram experiment]] and [[Stanford prison experiment]]), and this has also been criticized for ethical reasons.

Virtually all social psychology research in the modern day must pass an [[ethics|ethical]] review. At most colleges and universities, this is conducted by an ethics committee or [[institutional review board]], which examines the proposed research to make sure that no harm is likely to come to the participants, and that the study's benefits outweigh any possible risks or discomforts to people participating.

Furthermore, a process of [[informed consent]] is often used to make sure that volunteers know what will be asked of them in the experiment{{clarify|date=March 2012|reason=How, if there will be portions of the experiment that involve deception?}} and understand that they are allowed to quit the experiment at any time. A [[debriefing]] is typically done at the experiment's conclusion in order to reveal any deceptions used and generally make sure that the participants are unharmed by the procedures.{{clarify|date=March 2012|reason=And what would the response be if they weren't? I would assume offering of psychological counseling...}} Today, most research in social psychology involves minimal risk, or no greater risk of harm than can be expected from normal daily activities or routine psychological testing.<ref>Committee on Associate and Baccalaureate Education. 2016 [2009]. "[https://pdfslide.net/documents/the-institutional-review-board-irb-a-college-planning-guide.html The Institutional Review Board (IRB): A College Planning Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807111546/https://pdfslide.net/documents/the-institutional-review-board-irb-a-college-planning-guide.html |date=7 August 2020 }}" (revised ed.). [[American Psychological Association]] via ''PDF Slide''.</ref>

=== Replication crisis ===
{{main|Replication crisis}}
Many social psychological research findings have proven difficult to replicate, leading some to argue that social psychology is undergoing a [[replication crisis]].<ref name="OSC2015">{{cite journal|last1=Open Science Collaboration|date=2015|title=Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science|url=http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/230596/1/Content.pdf|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]|volume=349|issue=6251|pages=aac4716|doi=10.1126/science.aac4716|pmid=26315443|via=HKU Scholars Hub|hdl-access=free|hdl=10722/230596|s2cid=218065162|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=17 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417011013/http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/230596/1/Content.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A 2014 special edition of ''[[Social Psychology (journal)|Social Psychology]]'' focused on replication studies, finding that a number of previously held social psychological beliefs were difficult to replicate.<ref>[https://econtent.hogrefe.com/toc/zsp/45/3 ''Social Psychology'' 45(3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807070256/https://econtent.hogrefe.com/toc/zsp/45/3 |date=7 August 2020 }} {{Access indicator|open}}. [[Hogrefe Publishing Group|Hogrefe Publishing]] (2014). {{ISSN|1864-9335}}.</ref> Likewise, a 2012 special edition of ''[[Perspectives on Psychological Science]]'' focused on issues ranging from publication bias to null-aversion which have contributed to the replication crisis.<ref>[https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/pps/7/6 ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'' 7(6)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030220951/http://pps.sagepub.com/content/7/6.toc |date=30 October 2016 }}{{Access indicator|open}}. [[Association for Psychological Science]] (2012). {{ISSN|1745-6924}}. – via [[SAGE Journals]].</ref>

Some factors have been identified in social psychological research as contributing to the crisis. For one, questionable research practices have been identified as common. Such practices, while not necessarily intentionally fraudulent, often involve converting undesired statistical outcomes into desired outcomes via the manipulation of statistical analyses, sample sizes, or data management systems, typically to convert non-significant findings into significant ones.<ref name="Simmons et al. (2011)"/> Some studies have suggested that at least mild versions of these practices are prevalent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/questionable-research-practices-surprisingly-common.html|title=Questionable Research Practices Surprisingly Common {{!}} News|date=2012|website=[[Association for Psychological Science]]|access-date=30 May 2014|archive-date=31 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531105054/http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/questionable-research-practices-surprisingly-common.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some social psychologists have also published fraudulent research that has entered into mainstream academia, most notably the admitted data fabrication by [[Diederik Stapel]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shea|first=Christopher|url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/As-Dutch-Research-Scandal/129746/|title=Fraud Scandal Fuels Debate Over Practices of Social Psychology|date=13 November 2011|work=The Chronicle of Higher Education|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=5 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705054842/http://www.chronicle.com/article/As-Dutch-Research-Scandal/129746|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as allegations against others. Fraudulent research is not the main contributor to the replication crisis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lewandowsky |first1=Stephan |last2=Oberauer |first2=Klaus |date=2020-01-17 |title=Low replicability can support robust and efficient science |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=358 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-14203-0 |pmid=31953411 |pmc=6969070 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11..358L |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Many researchers attribute the failure to replicate as a result of the difficulty of being able to recreate the exact same conditions of a study conducted many years before, as the environment and people have changed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Bavel |first1=Jay J. |last2=Mende-Siedlecki |first2=Peter |last3=Brady |first3=William J. |last4=Reinero |first4=Diego A. |date=2016-06-07 |title=Contextual sensitivity in scientific reproducibility |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=113 |issue=23 |pages=6454–6459 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1521897113 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4988618 |pmid=27217556 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6454V |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Even before the current replication crisis, several effects in social psychology have also been found to be difficult to replicate. For example, the scientific journal ''[[Society for Judgment and Decision Making#Publications and journal|Judgment and Decision Making]]'' has published several studies over the years that fail to provide support for the [[unconscious thought theory]].

Replication failures are not unique to social psychology and are found in many fields of science.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baker |first=Monya |date=2016-05-01 |title=1,500 scientists lift the lid on reproducibility |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=533 |issue=7604 |pages=452–454 |bibcode=2016Natur.533..452B |doi=10.1038/533452a |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=27225100 |s2cid=4460617|doi-access=free }}</ref> One of the consequences of the current crisis is that some areas of social psychology once considered solid, such as social priming, have come under increased scrutiny due to failure to replicate findings.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://chronicle.com/article/Power-of-Suggestion/136907/|title=Power of Suggestion|journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education|first=Tom|last=Bartlett|date=30 January 2013|access-date=30 May 2014|archive-date=28 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528135322/http://chronicle.com/article/Power-of-Suggestion/136907/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== The "WEIRD" Problem ===
The "WEIRD problem" highlights the disproportionate representation of participants from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic ([[WEIRD bias|WEIRD]]) societies in psychological research. This issue has significant implications for how findings are generalized to all human populations. The heavy reliance on WEIRD samples may result in unrepresentative data, making it difficult to draw accurate conclusions about human behavior that apply to people from all cultural backgrounds.

Researchers have found that relying predominantly on WEIRD samples limits our ability to understand global human behaviors accurately. Cross-cultural variations are often ignored, leading to the misconception that findings from WEIRD populations can be universally applied. This is problematic because WEIRD populations are not representative of the broader diversity of human experiences, which affects our understanding of basic psychological processes such as perception, cognition, and well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rad |first1=Mostafa Salari |last2=Martingano |first2=Alison Jane |last3=Ginges |first3=Jeremy |date=2018-11-05 |title=Toward a psychology of <i>Homo sapiens</i> : Making psychological science more representative of the human population |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=115 |issue=45 |pages=11401–11405 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1721165115 |doi-access=free |pmid=30397114 |pmc=6233089 |bibcode=2018PNAS..11511401R |issn=0027-8424}}</ref>

Recognizing cultural diversity is essential not only for gaining multiple perspectives in problem-solving but also for ensuring that everyone feels included and represented in the study of psychology. Understanding different cultures enriches our knowledge of human nature and challenges existing biases, ultimately leading to a more comprehensive and inclusive body of psychological research. Thus, the WEIRD problem represents both a challenge and an opportunity: a need to broaden the scope of research to better reflect the true diversity of humanity.{{or?|date=November 2024}}

== See also ==
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* [[Crowd psychology]]
* [[Cultural psychology]]
* [[Intergroup relations]]
* [[List of cognitive biases]]
* [[List of social psychologists]]
* [[Social psychology (sociology)|Sociological approach to social psychology]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
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{{Commons category|Social psychology}}
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* [https://journals.plos.org/plosone/browse/social_psychology Social psychology] on ''[[PLOS]]'' — subject area page

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[[Category:Social psychology| ]]
[[Category:Behavioural sciences]]