Editing Sigismund I the Old

{{Short description|King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 to 1548}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Sigismund I the Old
| image        = Kulmbach Sigismund I the Old.jpg
| caption      = Portrait by [[Hans Süß von Kulmbach|Kulmbach]], 1511-1518
| succession   = [[King of Poland]]<br />[[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]
| reign        = 8 December 1506 – 1 April 1548
| coronation   = 24 January 1507 in [[Wawel Cathedral]], Kraków
| predecessor  = [[Alexander Jagiellon|Alexander I]]
| regent       = [[Sigismund II Augustus]] (1529-1548)
| reg-type     = Co-ruler
| successor    = [[Sigismund II Augustus]]
| spouse       = {{Plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Barbara Zápolya]]|1512|1515|end=d}}
* {{marriage|[[Bona Sforza]]|1517}}
}}
| birth_date   = 1 January 1467
| birth_place  = [[Kozienice]], Poland
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|1548|4|1|1467|1|1|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Kraków]], Poland
| burial_date  = 7 July 1548
| burial_place = [[Wawel Cathedral]], Kraków
| issue        = {{Plainlist|
* [[John of the Lithuanian Dukes|John, Bishop of Poznań]]
* [[Hedwig Jagiellon, Electress of Brandenburg|Hedwig, Electress of Bradenburg]]
* [[Isabella Jagiellon|Isabella, Queen of Hungary]]
* [[Sigismund II Augustus, King of Poland]]
* [[Sophia Jagiellon (1522–1575)|Sophia, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg]]
* [[Anna, Queen of Poland]]
* [[Catherine Jagellon of Poland|Catherine, Queen of Sweden]]
}}
| issue-link   = #Marriages and issue
| issue-pipe   = more...
| house        = [[Jagiellonian dynasty|Jagiellon]]
| house-type   = Dynasty
| father       = [[Casimir IV Jagiellon|Casimir IV of Poland]]
| mother       = [[Elisabeth of Austria (1436-1505)|Elisabeth of Austria]]
| religion     = [[Catholic Church]]
| signature    = Autograph-ZygmuntStary.png
}}

'''Sigismund I the Old''' ({{langx|pl|Zygmunt I Stary}}, {{langx|lt|Žygimantas I Senasis}}; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) was [[List of Polish monarchs|King]] of [[Poland]] and [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]] from 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I was a member of the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]], the son of [[Casimir IV of Poland|Casimir IV]] and younger brother of Kings [[John I Albert]] and [[Alexander I Jagiellon]]. He was nicknamed '''"the Old"''' in later [[historiography]] to distinguish him from his son and successor, [[Sigismund II Augustus]]. Before ascending to the Polish and Lithuanian thrones, he was [[Duke of Głogów]] from 1499, [[Duke of Opava]] from 1501, and governor of Silesia from 1504 on behalf of his brother, King [[Vladislaus II of Hungary|Vladislaus II]] of Bohemia and Hungary.

Sigismund was born in the town of [[Kozienice]] in 1467 as the fifth son of Casimir IV and his wife [[Elizabeth of Austria (1436–1505)|Elizabeth of Austria]]. He was one of thirteen children and was not expected to assume the throne after his father. Sigismund's eldest brother and rightful heir [[Vladislaus II of Hungary|Vladislaus II]] instead became the [[King of Bohemia]], [[King of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[King of Croatia|Croatia]] as the successor to [[George of Poděbrady]] in Bohemia and then to [[Matthias Corvinus]] in Hungary, thus temporarily uniting these kingdoms. When Casimir died, the Polish-Lithuanian realm was divided between the remaining two older sons, with John Albert being crowned King of Poland, and Alexander as Grand Duke of Lithuania. Alexander inherited Poland following John Albert's sudden death in 1501. Hence, Sigismund's reign only began when he succeeded Alexander to both titles in 1506 at the age of 39.

A capable monarch and a patron of arts, Sigismund established Polish rule over [[Ducal Prussia]] and annexed the [[Duchy of Mazovia]] with [[Warsaw]], while retaining the nation's wealth and prominence in the region. He made sure that his nephew [[Albert, Duke of Prussia]], and Albert's [[Protestant]] successors would pay [[Homage (feudal)|feudal homage]] or tribute to Polish monarchs as a sign of political and diplomatic dependence. This was observed until the [[Treaty of Bromberg]] in 1657 when [[Prussia]] gained its sovereignty. Sigismund and his commander [[Jan Amor Tarnowski]] also defeated [[Moldavia]] at [[Obertyn]] in 1531, and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] in 1535, thereby strengthening the country's eastern borders. His 42-year reign was further marked by decisive contributions to [[Polish architecture]], [[Polish cuisine|cuisine]], [[Polish language|language]], and customs, especially at the behest of his second wife, the Italian-born [[Bona Sforza]]. Italian styles and fashions dominated at the height of the [[Polish Renaissance]] and [[Polish Golden Age]], which developed the [[Catholic Church in Poland|Catholic identity of Poland]]. He was commemorated on a contemporary 200-[[Polish złoty|złoty]] banknote.

Sigismund was married twice, first to noblewoman [[Barbara Zápolya]] from Hungary and then to Bona Sforza, the daughter of [[Gian Galeazzo Sforza]], [[Duke of Milan]].{{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=xi}} Their only surviving son and the last Jagiellon king, Sigismund Augustus, was made his co-king''[[vivente rege]]'' in 1529 and formally assumed throne when Sigismund the Old died in 1548.{{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=x}}

==Early life and coronation==
[[File:Wiener Doppelhochzeit.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Sigismund (far right) with Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] and brother [[Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Vladislaus II]] in Vienna, 1515. Woodcut by [[Albrecht Dürer]]]]
Sigismund was the son of King [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] and [[Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505)|Elisabeth Habsburg of Austria]].{{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=xi}} He followed his brothers [[John I Albert of Poland|John Albert]] and [[Alexander I of Poland|Alexander]] to the Polish throne.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dzieje.pl/postacie/zygmunt-i-stary |language=pl |title=Zygmunt I Stary |website=dzieje.pl |date=23 April 2019 |access-date=19 January 2024}}</ref> Their eldest brother [[Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Vladislaus]] became king of [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and [[Croatia]]. Sigismund was christened as the namesake of his maternal great-grandfather, [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund]].

When Casimir died in 1492, Sigismund was his only son without any titles or land. From 1495 to 1496, he petitioned his brother Alexander to provide him with land, and Elisabeth of Austria attempted to install him on the Austrian throne. Both efforts failed. In 1497, King John I Albert, his older brother, led an [[Moldavian Campaign (1497–1499)|invasion of Moldavia]] that was intended to place Sigismund on its throne. This, too, was a disastrous failure. Finally, his eldest brother [[Vladislaus II of Hungary|Vladislaus II]], King of Bohemia and Hungary, granted him the duchies of [[Duchy of Głogów|Głogów]] (1499) and [[Duchy of Troppau|Opava]] (1501), and in 1504 Sigismund became governor of Silesia and [[Lower Lusatia]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tafiłowski|first=Piotr|date=14 January 2012|title=Bibliotheca Corviniana: Z dziejów kultury węgierskiej w późnym Średniowieczu|trans-title=Bibliotheca Corviniana: From the History of Hungarian Culture in the Late Middle Ages|url=http://www.umcs.lublin.pl/images/media/BIN/Corviniana.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114040638/http://www.umcs.lublin.pl/images/media/BIN/Corviniana.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|access-date=10 September 2021|website=UMCS|language=pl}}</ref>

John I Albert died suddenly in 1501, and was succeeded by Alexander I, who died in 1506. After his death, Sigismund arrived in [[Vilnius]], where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 as [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], contrary to the [[Union of Mielnik]] (1501), which proposed a joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506, during the session of the Polish Senate in [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]], Sigismund was elected King of Poland. He arrived in [[Kraków]] on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later in [[Wawel Cathedral]] by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski.<ref>[[Ludwik Finkel]], Elekcja Zygmunta I, Kraków 1910, s. 214.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Duczmal|first=Małgorzata|title=Jagiellonowie: leksykon biograficzny|publisher=Wydawnictwo Literackie|year=1996|isbn=83-08-02577-3|location=Kraków|page=548|trans-title=Jagiellons: biographical lexicon}}</ref>

==Internal politics==

===Crown of the Kingdom of Poland===
[[File:Zygmunt I nadaje szlachectwo profesorom Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.jpg|thumb|Sigismund grants a noble status to the professors of the [[Jagiellonian University]], 1535. Painting by [[Jan Matejko]]]]

The internal situation in Poland was characterised by broad authorisation of the Chamber of Deputies, confirmed and extended in the constitution of ''[[Nihil novi]]''. During Alexander's reign, the law of ''Nihil novi'' had been instituted, which forbade kings of Poland from enacting laws without the consent of the [[Sejm]]. Sigismund had little control over the act, unlike the senators, whom he personally appointed. Eventually, during his reign, Sigismund benefited from the advice of the local nobility, competent ministers in charge of the royal judiciary system, and the wealthy influential treasurers of Kraków. Although he was reluctant to the parliamentary system and political independence of the nobility, he recognised the authority of legal norms, supported legalism and summoned annual sessions of the Sejm, usually obtaining funds on state defence. However he was unsuccessful at attempting to create a permanent fund for defence from the annual income tax. Despite this, in 1527 he established a conscript army and the bureaucracy needed to finance it. He set up the legal codes that formalised [[serfdom]] in Poland, placing the peasants into the private estates of nobles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wielkahistoria.pl/to-nie-szlachta-upowszechnila-w-polsce-panszczyzne-ziemianie-wzieli-przyklad-z-najpotezniejszej-instytucji-w-kraju/ |language=pl |title=To nie szlachta upowszechniła w Polsce pańszczyznę. Ziemianie wzięli przykład z najpotężniejszej instytucji w kraju |website=wielkahistoria.pl |author=Kamil Janicki |date=2 September 2021 |access-date=19 January 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Giovanni Maria Mosca, medaglia di sigismondo I di polonia.JPG|thumb|left|175px|Medal featuring the profile of Sigismund I, by [[Giovanni Maria Mosca]]]]

Likely related to tax matters was an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the king, made on 5 May 1523. The identity of the would-be assassin - who shot the ruler while he was strolling in the evening around the cloisters of the [[Wawel castle]] - and his potential supporters was never established. Unclear motives remained after the assassination attempt. Three weeks before the event, Sigismund I introduced a new edict that was very unfavourable and somewhat hostile to the high-ranking nobles and their interests.

Sigismund I achieved several economic successes, including partial debt reduction, separation of accounts of public taxation from the royal treasury, strengthening of the activities of the mint operating in Kraków, and the attempt to organise the processing of income from operating salt mines.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://polishhistory.pl/sigismund-i-the-old-a-good-thrifty-king/ |title=SIGISMUND I THE OLD: A GOOD, THRIFTY KING |website=polishhistory.pl |author=Michał Rzeczycki |access-date=19 January 2024}}</ref> Furthermore, he issued a statute for the [[Armenians in Poland|Armenians]] (1519) and strongly intended to harmonise the judicial system across the country.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://muzhp.pl/kalendarium/statut-ormianski |language=pl |title=Statut ormiański |website=muzhp.pl |access-date=19 January 2024}}</ref>

Between 1530 and 1538 the king issued two statutes defining the rules for the selection of the monarch, which permanently established the election ''viritim''. The laws held that all social groups, regardless of their wealth, could watch the election process (''unusquisque qui vellet''), and the election was to be free (''electio Regis libera'').

Sigismund successfully organised the agricultural economy, looked after the development of the royal cities and recovered numerous goods of the treasury belonging to the crown that were under lien. During the financial activities, the King received full support of his wife, Queen Bona, who aimed to expand the royal estates by purchasing and improving economic efficiency. In 1514 he set up the [[Council of Four Lands]] and put [[Abraham of Bohemia]] in charge of it.<ref>{{Cite web|title=YIVO {{!}} Bohemus, Abraham Judeus|url=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Bohemus_Abraham_Judeus|access-date=2024-01-19|website=yivoencyclopedia.org}}</ref>

===Chicken War Rebellion===
[[File:Rodakowski Chicken War.png|thumb|250px|''Chicken War in 1537'' by [[Henryk Rodakowski]]. Seated Sigismund is accompanied by his wife Bona Sforza and royal court whilst being surrounded by an angry mob at [[Lviv High Castle|Lwów High Castle]]]]
At the start of his reign, King Sigismund I the Old inherited a Kingdom of Poland with a century-long tradition of liberties of the nobility, confirmed in numerous privileges. A rebellion in [[Lviv|Lwów]] widely known as the [[Chicken War]] ({{langx|pl|Wojna kokosza}}) was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutist [[rokosz]] (revolt) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów in eastern part of [[Lesser Poland]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Samsonowicz | first=Henryk |title=Historia Polski do roku 1795 |trans-title=History of Poland to 1795 | location=Warszawa | publisher=Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne |year=1976|page=157|language=pl}}</ref>

To strengthen his power, Sigismund initiated a set of reforms, establishing a permanent conscription army in 1527 and extending the bureaucratic apparatus necessary to govern the state and finance the army. Supported by his Italian consort Bona Sforza, he began buying up land and issue agriculture reformas to enlarge the royal treasury. He initiated a process of restitution of royal properties, previously pawned or rented to the nobles.

The nobility gathered near the city to meet to a ''[[levée en masse]]'' and called for a military campaign against [[Moldavia]]. However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility organised a revolt to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona, exemption of the nobility from the [[tithe]], confirmation and extension of privileges for nobles and adoption of a law concerning [[Incompatibilitas]] — an individual wouldn't be able to hold two or more official administrative positions in the country. The role of the Incompatibilitas was to prevent wealthy [[magnates]] from usurping too much power at the expense of lesser nobles.

However, the revolt soon transpired that the nobility's leaders were divided and that achieving a settlement was almost impossible. Too weak to start a civil war against the King, the protesters finally agreed to what was thought a compromise. Sigismund rejected most of their demands, while accepting the principle of Incompatibilitas the following year and agreeing not to force the election of the future king in ''[[vivente rege]]''. Thereupon, the nobility returned to their homes having achieved little.

==Foreign politics==

===War with Moscow===
{{more|Muscovite Wars}}
[[File:Autor nieznany (malarz z kręgu Lukasa Cranacha Starszego), Bitwa pod Orszą.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Polish-Lithuanian army during the [[Battle of Orsha]] in 1514, by [[Hans Krell]]]]
Sigismund was intermittently at war with [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]] of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] beginning in 1507, before the Polish army was fully under his command. Further tensions escalated when Vasili also discovered that Sigismund was bribing Khan [[Meñli I Giray]] to attack the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]].<ref name="sol54">Soloviev (1976), p. 54</ref> In December 1512, Muscovite forces marched into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania seeking to capture [[Smolensk]], a major trading center between Russia and Europe.<ref>Soloviev (1976), p. 55</ref> The initial six- and four-week sieges in 1513 were a failure,<ref>Stevens (2007), pp. 57–58</ref> but the [[Siege of Smolensk (1514)|city fell to the Muscovites in July 1514]].<ref name="sol54"/>

[[File:Armour with face shield (29601268792).jpg|thumb|150px|Sigismund's halfarmour, [[Polish Army Museum]]]]

Russia subsequently suffered a series of disastrous defeats in the field. In 1512, [[Grand Hetman of Lithuania]], [[Konstanty Ostrogski]], ransacked the region of [[Severia]] and vanquished a Russian force of approximately 6,000 men. On 8 September 1514, Muscovy suffered a major defeat at the [[Battle of Orsha]], which prevented the Russians to place all the former [[Kievan Rus]]' lands under their lordship.<ref>Soloviev (1976), p. 59</ref> Poland exploited the battle for [[propaganda]] purposes with strong anti-Russian sentiment. A letter sent to [[Rome]] stated that "Muscovites are not Christians; they are cruel and barbaric; they are Asians and not Europeans; they are in league with Turks and the Tatars to destroy Christendom".<ref name=poe>{{cite book |first=Marshall T. |last=Poe |title=A People Born to Slavery: Russia in Early Modern European Ethnography, 1478-1748 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bvLHqFOTLL4C&pg=PA21 |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2001 |isbn= 0-8014-3798-9 |page=21}}</ref>
Regardless of victory, the [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Polish–Lithuanian]] troops were incapable of moving quickly enough to retake Smolensk.<ref>Soloviev (1976), p. 60</ref> In 1518, Russian forces were again beaten during the [[siege of Polotsk]],<ref>Soloviev (1976), p. 78</ref> when according to legend the Lithuanian forces were inspired by the sight of their [[patron saint]], [[Saint Casimir]], the older brother of Sigismund. However, this was dubbed by historians as a folk tale. In 1522, a truce was signed between Lithuania and Muscovy which extended until 1534.

In 1534, when Grand Hetman [[Jerzy Radziwiłł]] and the [[Tatars]] pillaged western Russia, the Muscovites in retaliation invaded Lithuania once more. They were eventually stopped by Polish commander [[Jan Amor Tarnowski]] and allies at [[Starodub]] in 1535.<ref name="eb1911">{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Tarnowski, Jan|volume=26}}</ref> Their defeat strengthened the Polish-Lithuanian union's eastern flank until the beginning of the [[Livonian War]] in 1558.<ref name="eb1911" />

===Europe===
{{more|Franco-Polish alliance (1524)|Duchy of Masovia|Neapolitan sums}}
[[File:Lucas Cranach d.J. - Bildnis einer Frau, 1549 (MFA Boston).jpg|thumb|left|175px|Queen [[Bona Sforza]] was instrumental in establishing alliances for Poland. She was known for being a notorious conspirator.]]

In 1515 Sigismund entered into an alliance with the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]]. In return for Maximilian lending weight to the provisions of the [[Second Peace of Thorn (1466)]], Sigismund consented to the marriage of the children of [[Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary]], his brother, to the grandchildren of Maximilian. Through this double marriage contract, [[Bohemia]] and [[Hungary]] passed to the House of [[Habsburg]] in 1526, on the death of Sigismund's nephew, [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia|Louis II]], who led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the disastrous [[Battle of Mohács]].

Worried about the growing ties between the [[Habsburgs]] and Russia, in 1524 Sigismund signed a [[Franco-Polish alliance (1524)|Franco-Polish alliance]] with King [[Francis I of France]] to avoid a possible war on two fronts.<ref name="Halecki">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N883AAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA309|title=The Cambridge History of Poland|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=9781001288024|via=Google Books}}</ref> Francis I himself was looking for allies in [[Central Europe]] to curtail the increasing power of Habsburg Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], whose realms were labelled "[[the empire on which the sun never sets]]".<ref name="Setton312"/> Furthermore, Queen Bona was instrumental in establishing an alliance between Poland and France, with the objective of recovering [[Milan]].<ref name="Halecki"/> The official negotiations were conducted by [[Antonio Rincon]] in 1524, who was then followed by [[Jerome Laski]].<ref name="Setton312"/> Through the agreement, the son of Francis, [[Henry II of France|Henry, Duke of Orléans]], was to marry one of Sigismund's daughters, and Sigismund's eldest son was to marry a daughter of Francis I.<ref name="Setton312"/>

The negotiations came to an end and the alliance was disbanded when Francis' troops were defeated by Charles V at the [[Battle of Pavia]] in 1525.<ref name="Setton312">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgQNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA312|title=The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571|first=Kenneth Meyer|last=Setton|date=2 January 1976|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=9780871691613|via=Google Books}}</ref> Disturbed by the failure of his campaign, Francis turned to Hungary instead and formed a [[Franco-Hungarian alliance]] with King [[John Zápolya]] in 1528.<ref name="Setton312"/>

After the death of [[Janusz III of Masovia]] in 1526, Sigismund succeeded in uniting the [[Duchy of Masovia]] and [[Warsaw]] with the Kingdom of Poland. There was speculation whether Janusz and his younger brother [[Stanisław of Masovia|Stanisław]] were poisoned by a subject of Queen Bona.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://muzeumwarszawy.pl/en/obiekt/fragment-of-a-robe-of-the-dukes-of-masovia/|title=Fragment of a robe of the dukes of Masovia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://przekroj.pl/nauka/malo-czarujacy-koniec-piastow-mazowieckich-adam-weglowski|title=Mało czarujący koniec Piastów mazowieckich - Kwartalnik Przekrój|website=przekroj.pl|date=20 February 2018 }}</ref> The accusations were so pervasive and rampant that Sigismund ordered an investigation, as a result of which a special edict was declared on 9 February 1528 confirming that the Masovian princes died naturally or due to related illness. According to chronicler [[Jan Długosz]], the real cause of the death of both princes could have been inherited [[tuberculosis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wilanow-palac.pl/ostatni_ksiazeta_mazowieccy.html|title=Ostatni książęta mazowieccy|website=www.wilanow-palac.pl}}</ref>

In other matters of policy, Sigismund sought peaceful coexistence with the [[Khanate of Crimea]], but was unable to completely end [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|border skirmishes]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historia.org.pl/2014/06/14/stosunki-polsko-tureckie-w-czasach-zygmunta-iii-wazy-1587-1632/|title=Stosunki polsko-tureckie w czasach Zygmunta III Wazy &#124; HISTORIA.org.pl - historia, kultura, muzea, matura, rekonstrukcje i recenzje historyczne|date=14 June 2014}}</ref>

===Teutonic Knights===
[[File:Gallery of 19th-Century Polish Art in the Sukiennice, 2022, 07.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Prussian Homage (painting)|Prussian Homage]]'', by [[Jan Matejko]], 1882. [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albrecht Hohenzollern]] receives the Duchy of Prussia in fief from Poland's King Sigismund I the Old, 1525]]

Over two centuries of wars against the [[Teutonic Knights]] ended in 1525 with the [[Treaty of Kraków]] after the final [[Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521)]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/teutord14.html|title=WHKMLA: History of the Teutonic Order, 1409-1525|website=www.zum.de}}</ref> Previously, the [[Second Peace of Thorn (1466)]] placed the Teutonic Order under Polish suzerainty and interfered with German interests in [[Livonia]], [[Pomerania]], [[Warmia]] and [[Masuria]]. The Order attempted to avoid paying tribute to Polish monarchs which was a demonstration of weakness and dependence.

In accordance with the new Treaty of Kraków, the Order was abruptly [[secular]]ized and turned [[de facto]] into a puppet state of Poland which lasted until the [[Treaty of Bromberg]] in 1655. Sigismund's nephew [[Albert, Duke of Prussia]], converted to [[Lutheranism]] under the persuasion of [[Martin Luther]], and paid a feudal homage to Sigismund.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-duke-of-Prussia|title=Albert &#124; duke of Prussia|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=13 May 2023 }}</ref> In return he was granted the domains of the Order as the First Duke of [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]]. This became known in Polish and Lithuanian history as the "[[Prussian Homage]]", which was often featured in arts. The [[Prussian Landtag]] and parliament assembled in [[Königsberg]], where envoys embraced both the new Duke and the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Thereupon, the Teutonic Order lost its importance as a [[military order (religious society)|military order]] in Prussia and retreated to the Holy Roman Empire where it became secluded.<ref name="auto"/>

==Renaissance and legacy==
{{more|Renaissance in Poland|Sigismund's Chapel|Sigismund Bell|Wawel Castle}}
[[File:Cranach the Younger Sigismund I the Old.jpg|thumb|left|175px|A posthumous portrait by [[Lucas Cranach the Younger]] made in around 1553]]
Sigismund had a profound interest in [[Renaissance]] humanism and the revival of classical antiquity. His second consort Bona Sforza, daughter of [[Gian Galeazzo Sforza]] of Milan, was also instrumental in developing the [[Polish Renaissance]] and brought renowned Italian artists, architects and sculptors from her native country. It was under Sigismund's reign that Renaissance began to flourish in Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Sigismund II Augustus later continued his father's legacy.

Among the illustrious figures that guested or lived in Poland at the time were [[Bartholommeo Berecci]], [[Francesco Fiorentino]], [[Santi Gucci|Santi]] and [[Mateo Gucci]], [[Bernardo Morando]], [[Giovanni Battista di Quadro]] and [[Hans Dürer]]. Most of the decorators working for the court were foreigners, especially Italians and [[Germans]] who had a profound impact on Poland's architecture as a whole.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ostrowski|1992|p=47}}</ref> The centrepiece of their work is [[Wawel Castle]] in Kraków, the seat of Polish monarchs as well as one of the largest castles in Central Europe. Situated on a [[Wawel Hill|hill]] overlooking [[Kraków Old Town|Old Town]], the fortified residence was extensively reconstructed in the Renaissance style and to the personal needs of the royal family. The Italian [[cloister]]ed courtyard in the shape of a [[quadrangle (architecture)|quadrangle]], corridors, archways and portals were designed by Fiorentino with the help of [[Benedykt from Sandomierz]]. A similar design was undertaken in [[Niepołomice Castle]], the hunting retreat of the Jagiellons.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.muzeum.niepolomice.pl/|title=STRONA GŁÓWNA|website=www.muzeum.niepolomice.pl}}</ref>

[[File:Matejko Hanging of the Zygmunt bell.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta|Hanging of the Sigismund Bell in 1521]]'', by [[Jan Matejko]]]]

The most prominent example of Sigismund's architectural legacy is a [[Sigismund's Chapel|funerary monument in the form of a chapel]] at [[Wawel Cathedral]]. It was constructed between 1519 and 1533 according to plans by Bartolomeo Berrecci of [[Florence]], and serves as a [[mausoleum]] of the last Jagiellons.<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.krakow-info.com/Kaplic_Z.htm|title=Krakow info - Wawel Cathedral's Sigismund Chapel &#124; The Renaissance masterpiece of Krakow architecture|website=www.krakow-info.com}}</ref> The exterior [[dome]] is gold-plated and interior tombs made of marble were designed by Santi Gucci.<ref name="auto4"/> Historians, experts and architects unanimously voted the chapel as "the most beautiful example of the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] [[Renaissance]] north of the Alps".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nimmrichter |first1=Johann |last2=Kautek |first2=Wolfgang |last3=Schreiner |first3=Manfred |date=2007 |title=LACONA 6 proceedings |isbn=978-3-540-72129-1 |page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rouček |first=Joseph Slabey |date=1949 |title=Slavonic encyclopaedia |publisher=Philosophical Library |page=24 |quote=The much admired Sigismund Chapel, called 'the pearl of the Renaissance north of the Alps' by foreign scholars.}}</ref> The monarch also commissioned a 12.6-tonne bell which was named in his honour. The [[Sigismund Bell|Royal Sigismund Bell]] was installed 13 July 1521 on Wawel Cathedral's northernmost tower. Apart from religious and national holidays, the bell rung on some of the most significant moments in Polish history and is one of [[National symbols of Poland|Poland's national symbols]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.katedra-wawelska.pl/english/the_royal_sigismund_bell,54.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222024925/http://www.katedra-wawelska.pl/english/the_royal_sigismund_bell,54.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 December 2010|title=Królewska Katedra na Wawelu p.w. św. Stanisława BM i św. Wacława - The Royal Sigismund Bell|date=22 December 2010}}</ref>

==Death and succession==

Sigismund suffered from numerous illnesses and diseases, especially towards the end of his life. Most notably, he was tormented by constant fevers since youth as well as [[gout]] and acute [[rheumatism]] in the autumn of 1528.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.polityka.pl/pomocnikhistoryczny/1723354,1,na-co-chorowali-jagiellonowie-podagra-syfilis-alkoholizm-i-inne-choroby-dynastii.read|title = Na co chorowali Jagiellonowie? Podagra, syfilis, alkoholizm i inne choroby dynastii|date = 17 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wilanow-palac.pl/smierc_zygmunta_i_starego.html|title=Śmierć Zygmunta I Starego|website=www.wilanow-palac.pl}}</ref> The condition, which severely affected his joints and right leg, was repetitive and continued in 1529 and 1534. It is likely that Sigismund Augustus was co-crowned ''vivente rege'' in 1529 as a result of these pervasive pains and in case his father died unexpectedly.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=https://ciekawostkihistoryczne.pl/2014/08/29/jak-bardzo-stary-byl-zygmunt-stary/|title=Jak bardzo stary był… Zygmunt Stary?|website=CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl|date=29 August 2014 }}</ref> Furthermore, bad eating habits and a poor diet contributed to the king's ailing health, in particular large amounts of beer and [[mead]].<ref name="auto1"/> Eventually, the king's inability to walk forced him to be carried in a [[Litter (vehicle)|litter]]. However, despite his age, Sigismund was of sound mind throughout and remained active in politics until death.<ref name="auto2"/> In 1543, he recovered from an [[influenza]] which spread in Kraków and in 1545 he enjoyed a last hunting excursion to Niepołomice.<ref name="auto3"/>

Sigismund died on 1 April 1548, Easter day at the age of 81 and was buried on 7 July at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. He was succeeded by his only legitimate son, [[Sigismund II Augustus]], who became the last Jagiellon king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1587 Sigismund the Old's grandson, [[Sigismund III]] from the [[House of Vasa]], was elected King of Poland. He was the son of [[Catherine Jagiellon]] and her husband [[John III of Sweden|John III Vasa of Sweden]]. Hence, Sigismund III could not belong to the Jagiellonian dynasty by his mother, but the Jagiellon bloodline of Polish monarchs continued until the death of Sigismund Vasa's second son [[John II Casimir]].

==Portraits and art==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160" class="center" caption="Depictions of Sigismund I in art">
File:Sigismund I of Poland.PNG|18th-century depiction by [[Marcello Bacciarelli]]
File:Joos van cleve, trittico con adorazione dei magi, 1520 ca. 04.JPG|As one of the Magi by [[Joos van Cleve]], {{circa|1520}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Marcin Latka|title=Commissions from the territories of today's Poland in the workshop of Joos van Cleve|url=https://artinpoland.weebly.com/en/commissions-from-the-territories-of-todays-poland-in-the-workshop-of-joos-van-cleve|work=artinpoland.weebly.com|access-date=18 January 2016}}</ref>
File:Jungholz_Sigismund_I_the_Old.jpg|Portrait made by Andreas Jungholz, 1546
File:Monogrammist PF Sigismund the Old.jpg|Portrait of Sigismund I in an advanced age by Anonymous Painter, 1550
File:Nagrobek Zygmunta Augusta.jpg|Sigismund I the Old's tomb by [[Bartolommeo Berrecci]], [[Sigismund's Chapel]], [[Wawel Cathedral]]
File:Zygmunt I Stary (275217).jpg|''Sigismund I the Old'' by [[Jan Matejko]], c. 1880

</gallery>

==Marriages and issue==
[[File:Anonymous Medal of Sigismund the Old.jpg|thumb|Medal of Sigismund I the Old.]]
In 1512, Sigismund married [[Barbara Zápolya]] (d. 1515),{{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=xi}} a Hungarian noblewoman, with whom he had two daughters:

*[[Hedwig Jagiellon, Electress of Brandenburg|Electress Hedwig of Brandenburg]] (15 March 1513 – 7 February 1573), wed 1535 [[Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg]]{{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=x}}
*Anna (1 July 1515 – 8 May 1520).

In 1517, Sigismund married [[Bona Sforza]],{{sfn|Pastrnak|2018|p=174}} with whom he had two sons and four daughters:

*[[Isabella Jagiellon|Queen Isabella of Hungary]] (18 January 1519 – 15 September 1559), wed 1539 [[John Zápolya]] (d. 1540){{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=x}}
*[[Sigismund II of Poland|Sigismund II Augustus]] (1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572){{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=x}}
*[[Sophia Jagiellon (1522–1575)|Sophia, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (13 July 1522 – 28 May 1575), wed 22/25 February 1556 [[Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Henry V]], Duke of Brunswick-Lüneberg (d. 11 June 1568){{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=xi}}
*[[Anna the Jagiellonian|Queen Anna of Poland]] (18 October 1523 – 9 September 1596), wed 1 May 1576 [[Stephen Báthory]] (d. 12 December 1586){{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=xi}} 
*[[Catherine Jagiellon|Queen Catherine of Sweden]] (1 November 1526 – 16 September 1583), wed 4 October 1562 John, Duke of Finland (later [[John III of Sweden]]) (d. 17 November 1592){{sfn|Nowakowska|2019|p=xi}} 
*Albert (20 September 1527). Died at birth after his mother gave birth prematurely. 

By his [[mistress (lover)|mistress]], [[Katarzyna Telniczanka]] (d. 1528),{{sfn|Mickūnaitė|2006|p=209}} he also fathered three children prior to his first marriage:
*[[John of the Lithuanian Dukes|Jan]] (8 January 1499 – 18 February 1538),{{sfn|Mickūnaitė|2006|p=209}} [[Bishop of Wilno]] (1519–1536) and of [[List of Bishops of Poznań|Poznań]] (1536–1538);
*Regina (1500/1 – 20 May 1526), wed c. 20 October 1518 Hieronim Szafraniec, [[Starosta|Starost]] of [[Cieszyn]] (d. 1556/59);
*Katarzyna (1503 – before 9 September 1548), wed after 1522 George II [[Counts of Montfort (Swabia)|Count von Montfort in Pfannberg]] (d. 1544). 

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Sigismund I the Old '''
|2= 2. [[Casimir IV Jagiellon|Casimir IV Jagiellon, King of Poland]]
|3= 3. [[Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505)|Elizabeth of Austria]]
|4= 4. [[Jogaila|Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland]]
|5= 5. [[Sophia of Halshany]]
|6= 6. [[Albert II of Germany]]
|7= 7. [[Elizabeth of Luxembourg]]
|8= 8. [[Algirdas|Algirdas, King of Lithuania]]
|9= 9. [[Uliana Alexandrovna of Tver]]
|10= 10. [[Andrew of Halshany|Andrew Ivanovich, Prince of Halshany]]
|11= 11. [[Alexandra Drucka|Alexandra Dimitrijewna of Drutsk]]
|12= 12. [[Albert IV, Duke of Austria]]
|13= 13. [[Johanna Sophia of Bavaria]]
|14= 14. [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|15= 15. [[Barbara of Celje]]
}}

==See also==
* [[History of Poland (1385–1569)]]
* [[Zygmunt (bell)]]
* [[List of Polish monarchs#Jagiellon Dynasty|List of Polish monarchs]]

==Citations and references==
{{Reflist}}

===Cited sources===
* {{cite book |title=Making a Great Ruler: Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania |first=Giedrė |last=Mickūnaitė |publisher=Central European University Press |year=2006 }}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Nowakowska |editor-first=Natalia |title=Remembering the Jagiellonians |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-138-56239-4 }}
* {{cite journal |journal=Studia z Dziejów Średniowiecza |year=2018 |volume=22 |pages=174–193 |first=Patrik |last=Pastrnak |title=Adducimus gemmam et florem: Bona Sforza's bridal journey (1518) in the light of rituals and ceremonies |doi=10.4467/25442562SDS.18.012.9814 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last=Soloviev |first=Sergei M. |author-link=Sergey Solovyov (historian) |year=1976 |title=History of Russia. The Age of Vasily III |volume=9 |editor-last=Graham |editor-first=Hugh F. |location=Gulf Breeze |publisher=Academic International Press |isbn=978-0875690667 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0010solo }}
* {{cite book |last=Stevens |first=Carol B. |title=Russia's Wars of Emergence 1460–1730 | year=2007 | publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-582-21891-8}}
* {{citation|last = Ostrowski| first = Jan K.| title = Cracow| year = 1992| publisher = International Cultural Centre|isbn =83-221-0621-1|language=pl}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Sigismund I of Poland}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Sigismund I. |volume= 25 |last= Bain |first= Robert Nisbet |author-link= Robert Nisbet Bain | pages = 67-68 |short=1}}
* [https://www.academia.edu/9872052/_P%C3%A1t%C3%BD_princ_Kn%C3%AD%C5%BEe_Zikmund_mezi_periferi%C3%AD_a_centrem_jagellonsk%C3%A9ho_sv%C4%9Bta_The_fifth_prince_Duke_Sigismund_between_periphery_and_centre_of_the_jagiellonian_world  Petr Kozák, „Pátý princ“: Kníže Zikmund mezi periferií a centrem jagellonského světa]

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Jagiellonian dynasty|House of Jagiellon]]|1 January|1467|1 April|1548}}
{{s-reg}}
{{S-bef| rows=2 | before=[[Alexander Jagiellon|Alexander I Jagiellon]]}}
{{S-ttl| title=[[List of Lithuanian rulers|Grand Duke of Lithuania]] | years=1506–1548|regent1=[[Sigismund II Augustus]]|years1=1529–1548}}
{{S-aft| rows=2 | after=[[Sigismund II Augustus]]|as=sole ruler}}
|-
{{S-ttl| title=[[King of Poland]] | years=1506–1548|regent1=[[Sigismund II Augustus]]|years1=1530–1548}}
{{s-end}}

{{Monarchs of Lithuania}}
{{Monarchs of Poland}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sigismund 1 The Old}}
[[Category:1467 births]]
[[Category:1548 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Kozienice]]
[[Category:16th-century Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:Polish Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Kings of Poland]]
[[Category:Grand dukes of Lithuania]]
[[Category:Dukes of Głogów]]
[[Category:Dukes of Opava]]
[[Category:Jagiellonian dynasty]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Burials at Wawel Cathedral]]
[[Category:Sigismund I the Old| ]]