Editing Sigismund III Vasa

{{short description|Ruler of Poland-Lithuania from 1587 to 1632 and of Sweden from 1592 to 1599}}
{{redirect|Sigismund III|the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau|Sigismund III, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name            = Sigismund III
| image           = Soutman Sigismund III Vasa in coronation robes.jpg
| alt             = Sigismund III in robes. Painting by Pieter Soutman from around 1624.
| caption         = Portrait by [[Pieter Soutman]], {{circa|1624}}
| succession      = {{plainlist|
* [[King of Poland]]
* [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]
}}
| reign           = 19 August 1587 – 30 April 1632
| coronation      = 27 December 1587
| predecessor     = [[Anna Jagiellon]] and [[Stephen Báthory]]
| successor       = [[Władysław IV]]
| succession1     = {{plainlist|
* [[King of Sweden]]
}}
| reign1          = 17 November 1592<ref>{{cite book |title=Archeion |date=2003 |publisher=Naczelna Dyrekcja Archiwów Państwowych, Zakład Naukowo-Badawczy Archiwistyki |page=134 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUZmAAAAMAAJ |language=pl}}</ref> – 24 July 1599
| coronation1     = 19 February 1594
| predecessor1    = [[John III of Sweden|John III]]
| successor1      = [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles IX]]
| spouses = {{Plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland|Anne of Austria]]|31 May 1592|10 February 1598|end=d.}}
* {{marriage|[[Constance of Austria]]|11 December 1605|10 July 1631|end=d.}}
}}
| issue           = {{plainlist|
* [[Anna Maria Vasa|Anna Maria of Poland]]
* [[Władysław IV Vasa|Władysław IV of Poland]]
* [[John II Casimir Vasa|John II Casimir of Poland]]
* [[John Albert Vasa|John Albert, Bishop of Warmia and Kraków]]
* [[Karol Ferdynand Vasa|Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Opole]]
* [[Anna Catherine Constance Vasa|Anna Catherine Constance, Hereditary Countess Palatine of Neuburg]]
}}
| issue-link      = #Marriages and children
| issue-pipe      = among others...
| house           = [[House of Vasa|Vasa]]
| father          = [[John III of Sweden]]
| mother          = [[Catherine Jagiellon]]
| birth_date      = 20 June 1566
| birth_place     = [[Gripsholm Castle|Gripsholm]], Mariefred, Sweden
| death_date      = {{Death date and age|1632|4|30|1566|6|20|df=yes}}
| death_place     = [[Warsaw]], Poland
| date of burial  = 4 February 1633
| place of burial = [[Wawel Cathedral]], Kraków
| signature       = Sigismund III Vasa Signature.svg
| religion        = [[Catholicism]]
}}

'''Sigismund III Vasa''' ({{langx|pl|Zygmunt III Waza}}, {{langx|lt|Žygimantas Vaza}}; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632
<small>[[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar|N.S.]]</small>) was [[King of Poland]] and [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]] from 1587 to 1632 and, as '''Sigismund''', [[King of Sweden]] from 1592 to 1599. He was the first Polish sovereign from the [[House of Vasa]]. Religiously zealous, he imposed [[Catholicism]] across the vast realm, and his crusades against neighbouring states marked Poland's largest territorial expansion. As an enlightened despot, he presided over an era of [[prosperity]] and achievement, further distinguished by the transfer of the country's capital from [[Kraków]] to [[Warsaw]].

Sigismund was the son of King [[John III of Sweden]] and his first wife, [[Catherine Jagiellon]], daughter of King [[Sigismund I of Poland]]. Elected monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1587, he sought to unify Poland and Sweden under one Catholic kingdom, and when he succeeded his deceased father in 1592 the [[Polish–Swedish union]] was created. Opposition in [[Protestant]] Sweden caused a [[war against Sigismund]] headed by Sigismund's uncle [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles IX]], who deposed him in 1599.

Sigismund attempted to hold [[absolute monarchy|absolute power]] in all his dominions and frequently undermined parliament. He suppressed internal opposition, strengthened Catholic influence and granted privileges to the [[Jesuits]], whom he employed as advisors and spies during the [[Counter-Reformation]]. He actively interfered in the affairs of neighbouring countries; his successful [[Polish–Russian War (1609–1618)|invasion of Russia]] during the [[Time of Troubles]] resulted in the seizure of [[Smolensk]] and occupation of Moscow, resulting in Poland's historical greatest territorial extent. Sigismund's army also defeated the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces in southeastern Europe, which hastened the downfall of Sultan [[Osman II]]. However, the Polish–Swedish conflict had a less favourable outcome. After a series of skirmishes ending in a truce, King [[Gustavus Adolphus]] of Sweden launched a campaign against the Commonwealth and annexed parts of [[Duchy of Livonia|Polish Livonia]].

Sigismund remains a controversial figure in Poland. He is one of the country's most recognisable [[List of Polish monarchs|monarchs]]. His long reign partially coincided with the [[Polish Golden Age]], the apex in the prestige, power and economic influence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. On the other hand, it was also during his rule that the seeds of decline surfaced. Considerable contributions to the arts and architecture as well as military victories were tarnished by intrigues and religious persecutions. He was commemorated in Warsaw by [[Sigismund's Column]], one of the city's chief landmarks and the first secular monument in the form of a column in [[modern history]]. It was commissioned after Sigismund's death by his son and successor, [[Władysław IV Vasa|Władysław IV]].

==Early life==

[[File:Simmler Catherine Jagiellon.jpg|thumb|right|alt=John III, Catherine and young Sigismund in prison|[[John III of Sweden|John III]], his wife [[Catherine Jagiellon]] and young Sigismund imprisoned at [[Gripsholm]], as imagined in an 1859 painting by [[Józef Simmler]].]]

Born on 20 June 1566 at [[Gripsholm Castle]], Sigismund was the second child and only son of [[Catherine Jagiellon]] and Grand Duke [[John III of Sweden|John]],<ref name="Fabisz 1864 188">{{Harvnb|Fabisz|1864|p=188}}</ref><ref name="Rastawiecki 1857 95">{{Harvnb|Rastawiecki|1857|p=95}}</ref> who was a son of King [[Gustav I of Sweden]]. The couple was being held prisoner at Gripsholm since 1563 when John staged a failed rebellion against his deranged brother [[Eric XIV of Sweden]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyszkiewicz|1846|pp=85–86}}</ref> Although [[Protestantism|Protestant Christians]] were growing political wing in Poland at the time, Sigismund was raised as a [[Roman Catholic]].<ref name="Fabisz 1864 188"/> His mother Catherine was the daughter of Polish king [[Sigismund the Old]] and [[Bona Sforza]] of [[Milan]], all of whom where practicing Catholics.<ref name="Fabisz 1864 188"/> Sigismund's older sister Isabella died aged two in 1566.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saar|1995|p=10}}</ref> His younger sister [[Anna Vasa of Sweden|Anna]] was a [[Lutheran]], but the close relationship between the two siblings remained unchanged until her death in 1625.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kurkowska|1995|p=99}}</ref>

In October 1567, Sigismund and his parents were released from prison at the request of his uncle [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyszkiewicz|1846|p=87}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Cynarski|1988|p=176}}</ref> In January 1569, Eric XIV was deposed and Sigismund's father ascended the throne of Sweden as John III.<ref>{{Harvnb|Andersson|1979|pp=263, 265}}</ref> He maintained good relations with his father despite John's second marriage to [[Gunilla Bielke]], a Protestant noble lady of lower status and Catherine's former [[maid of honour]].<ref name="Encyklopedia powszechna 1868 875">{{Harvnb|Encyklopedia powszechna|1868|p=875}}</ref> In 1589, Sigismund's half-brother [[John, Duke of Östergötland|John]], the future Duke of [[Östergötland]], was born.<ref>{{Harvnb|Louda|Maclagan|1991|p=65}}</ref>

As a child, Sigismund was tutored in both Polish and Swedish, thus making him bilingual.<ref name="Encyklopedia powszechna 1868 875"/> He was also proficient in German, Italian, and [[Latin]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|1860|p=35}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Ochmann-Staniszewska|2006|p=118}}</ref> Catherine ensured that her son was educated in the spirit of Catholicism and Polish patriotism; the young prince was made aware of his blood connection to the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]] which ruled Poland in its [[Polish Golden Age|finest period]] for two hundred years.<ref name="Encyklopedia powszechna 1868 875"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Zarewicz|1876|p=21}}</ref> Although Sigismund in his youth enjoyed reading and learning, observers did not acknowledge his intelligence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|1985|pp=38}}</ref> He was handsome, rather tall, and of slim build,<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=137}}</ref> but timid and an introvert who became heavily influenced by the teachings of the church.<ref name="Spórna 2003 515">{{Harvnb|Spórna|Wierzbicki|Wygonik|2003|p=515}}</ref> Nevertheless, Sigismund was undoubtedly multitalented and artistically inclined.<ref name="Spórna 2003 515"/>

==Accession==

{{Main|War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588)}}

[[File:Žygimont Vaza. Жыгімонт Ваза (1585).jpg|thumb|left|140px|alt=Painting of young Sigismund from 1585 by an unknown painter|Sigismund in his youth, 1585.]]

In 1587, Sigismund stood for election to the Polish throne after the death of [[Stephen Báthory]].<ref name="Fabisz 1864 188"/> His candidacy was secured by [[Anna Jagiellon|Queen Dowager Anna]] and several elite magnates who considered him a native candidate as a descendant of the Jagiellons, though the election was openly questioned and opposed by the nobles politically associated with the [[Zborowski family]].<ref name="Fabisz 1864 189">{{Harvnb|Fabisz|1864|p=189}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Halecki|Reddaway|Penson|1950|pp=452–453}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twojahistoria.pl/2017/12/12/zygmunt-iii-waza-nie-mogl-liczyc-na-cieple-przyjecie-ze-strony-polskich-elit-podczas-koronacji-nazwano-go-niemota-i-diablem/|title=Zygmunt III Waza nie mógł liczyć na ciepłe przyjęcie ze strony polskich elit. Podczas koronacji nazwano go niemotą i diabłem|website=TwojaHistoria.pl|date=12 December 2017 |access-date=11 April 2019}}</ref> With the blessing of primate [[Stanisław Karnkowski]] and strong support from other people of influence he was duly elected ruler of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] on 19 August 1587.<ref name="Fabisz 1864 188"/> His official name and title became "[[by the grace of God]], [[king of Poland]], [[grand duke of Lithuania]], ruler of [[Ruthenia]], [[Prussia]], [[Masovia]], [[Samogitia]], [[Livonia]] and also hereditary [[king of the Swedes]], [[king of the Goths|Goths]] and [[king of the Wends|Wends]]"; the latter titles being a reference to the fact that he was already the [[Crown Prince]] of Sweden, and thus would lawfully succeed to the [[Monarchy of Sweden|throne of Sweden]] upon the death of his father.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bulgarin|1857|p=78}}</ref>

The outcome of the election was strongly contested by factions of the Polish nobility that backed the candidacy of Archduke [[Maximilian III, Archduke of Austria|Maximilian III of Austria]], who [[War of the Polish Succession (1587–88)|launched a military expedition]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=139}}</ref> When the news reached Sigismund in Sweden, he crossed the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and landed in Poland on 7 October, immediately agreeing to grant royal privileges to the [[Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Sejm]] (parliament) in the hope of calming the opposition and settling the disputed election.<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=140}}</ref> He was proclaimed king by Treasurer [[Jan Dulski]] on behalf of [[Andrzej Opaliński (1540–1593)|Crown Marshal Andrzej Opaliński]], and after arriving in the Royal Capital City of [[Kraków]] he was crowned on 27 December at [[Wawel Cathedral]].<ref name="Szujski 1894 144">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=144}}</ref>

Sigismund's position was solidified when [[Jan Zamoyski]] defeated Maximilian at the [[Battle of Byczyna]] and took him prisoner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://historia.org.pl/2013/07/03/bitwa-pod-byczyna-zamoyski-upokarza-habsburgow-i-gwarantuje-tron-zygmuntowi-iii/|title=Bitwa pod Byczyną. Zamoyski upokarza Habsburgów i gwarantuje tron Zygmuntowi III – HISTORIA.org.pl – historia, kultura, muzea, matura, rekonstrukcje i recenzje historyczne|first=Przemek|last=pisze|date=3 July 2013|access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref> At the request of [[Pope Sixtus V]], the Archduke was then released and in turn surrendered his claim to Poland in 1589.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naszahistoria.pl/artykuly/a/bitwa-pod-byczyna-byla-wazniejsza-od-slynnej-bitwy-pod-wiedniem,9411953|title=Bitwa pod Byczyną była ważniejsza od słynnej bitwy pod Wiedniem|date=19 February 2016|access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref> He was also successful in maintaining peace with his powerful southern neighbour by marrying Archduchess [[Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland|Anne of Habsburg]] in 1592.<ref name="Szujski 1894 155–157">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|pp=155–157}}</ref> Simultaneously, he secured an alliance with [[Austrian monarchy|Catholic Austria]] against Protestant foes.<ref name="Szujski 1894 155–157"/>

When his father died, Sigismund was granted permission by the Polish Diet to claim the [[Monarchy of Sweden|Swedish crown]], which he had inherited from his father.<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|pp=162–163}}</ref> The Swedes, who previously declared John III a Catholic conspirator and traitor, became lenient when the new monarch pledged to respect [[Lutheranism]] as the country's new state religion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Janiszewska-Mincer|1984|p=12}}</ref> Sigismund was crowned at [[Uppsala Cathedral|Uppsala]] on 19 February 1594,<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|pp=163}}</ref> but his promise to uphold the Protestant faith in Sweden began on shaky ground, as demonstrated by the presence of a papal [[nuncio]] in the royal procession.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://muzhp.pl/pl/e/174/koronacja-zygmunta-iii-wazy-na-krola-szwecji |title=Koronacja Zygmunta III Wazy na króla Szwecji – Muzeum Historii Polski |website=Muzeum Historii Polski |publisher=Ministerstwo Kultury |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-date=17 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917032147/http://muzhp.pl/pl/e/174/koronacja-zygmunta-iii-wazy-na-krola-szwecji |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tensions grew following his coronation. Sigismund remained a devout Roman Catholic and left the country abruptly, which made the Swedes sceptical of their new ruler.<ref>{{Harvnb|Muzeum Narodowe w Szczecinie|2004|p=386}}</ref> After returning to Poland, he appointed his uncle, [[Charles IX of Sweden|Duke Charles]], to rule as his [[regent]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Czermiński|1907|p=218}}</ref> Sigismund's ultimate intention was to reinstate Catholicism in Sweden, by force if necessary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Górski|2008|p=206}}</ref> The [[Jesuit]]s often acted as agents refuting Protestantism and promoting Catholicism in the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Piwarski|1961|p=92}}</ref>

==Opposition==

[[File:Jan Zamoyski 2.jpg|thumb|180px|alt=Jan Zamoyski by Johann Franck, 1688|Chancellor [[Jan Zamoyski]] staunchly opposed the pro-[[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] alliance.]]

The hostility between Chancellor [[Jan Zamoyski]] and Sigismund began as soon as he arrived in Poland from Sweden to claim the crown.<ref name="Szujski 1894 143">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=143}}</ref> Zamoyski, a patriotic brawler, along with other magnates were critical of the young king's liking for the Habsburg culture, certain habits and impassive cold character.<ref name="Szujski 1894 143"/> According to historian and writer [[Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz]], Zamoyski was said to have exclaimed "what a mute have you brought to us" upon meeting the king in October 1587.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|p=68}}</ref><ref name="Szujski 1894 143"/> The Chancellor was initially supportive of Sigismund's candidacy due to his maternal lineage.<ref name="Szujski 1894 150">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=150}}</ref> During the first parliament sitting, the so-called [[Pacification Sejm]], in March 1589, Zamoyski proposed extensive reforms of the electoral system; notably, he presented the idea that only a member of a local native dynasty should be eligible to the Polish throne in the future, entailing the permanent exclusion of any [[Habsburg]] candidates.<ref name="Szujski 1894 150"/>

Sigismund saw a potential ally in Austria; he sought to establish a Catholic league that would actively engage in the [[Counter-Reformation]].<ref name="Szujski 1894 151">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=151}}</ref> Zamoyski openly condemned Sigismund for associating with the Habsburgs, particularly [[Archduke Ernest of Austria|Archduke Ernest]], and speculated that Ernest was to be the potential successor if Sigismund abdicated and returned to Sweden.<ref name="Szujski 1894 151"/> The anti-Austrian sentiment was only explicable as a circuitous attempt to traverse the Habsburg hegemony and influence in Central Europe, which Zamoyski perceived as a major threat.<ref name="Szujski 1894 150"/> However, the parliament immediately rejected the proposal and ruled in favour of Austria, thus also accepting a marriage between Sigismund and [[Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland|Anne of Habsburg]].<ref name="Szujski 1894 150"/> Furthermore, the reestablishment of peaceful relations with Austria was dictated by the [[Treaty of Bytom and Będzin]] from March 1589 which was negotiated by Ippolito Aldobrandini, future Pope [[Clement VIII]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|pp=146–149}}</ref>

[[File:El archiduque Diego Ernesto de Austria.jpg|thumb|left|200px|alt=Archduke Ernest of Austria on an official portrait from 1580, by Alonso Sanchez Coello|[[Archduke Ernest of Austria]], whose correspondence with Sigismund caused a political crisis.]]

At the subsequent Sejm session, assembled in March 1590, Zamoyski persuaded the gathered deputies and representatives to exclude Archduke Maximilian from future candidacy to the throne, describing the possibility of  Austrian intrigues and the looming threat of the Turkish Empire.<ref name="Szujski 1894 154">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=154}}</ref> His opponents, headed by Primate Karnkowski, formed an informal [[confederation]] immediately after the Sejm rose to protest the decrees.<ref name="Szujski 1894 154"/> All of the decrees of the first Sejm were rescinded by a second Sejm which sat at the end of the same year: the [[Hetmanship]] was suspended, the party of Maximilian was amnestied, the Zborowskis were rehabilitated, and Zamoyski's counterparts were removed from the royal court.<ref name="Szujski 1894 155">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=155}}</ref> Tensions between Sweden and Poland grew further over the ownership of [[Estonia under Swedish rule|Estonia]] following the dissolution of the [[Livonian Order]];<ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|pp=56–57}}</ref> Zamoyski held Sigismund accountable for the dispute.<ref name="Szujski 1894 144"/>

Sigismund's leniency towards the Habsburgs also alienated some clerics; the Austrians wanted to prevent [[Andrew Báthory]] from seizing the [[Bishop of Kraków|bishopric of Kraków]] and succeeded in doing so by diplomatic coaxing or coercion.{{sfn|Horn|2002|p=139}} The new papal nuncio, Annibale di Capua, a staunch Habsburg supporter, eventually convinced Sigismund to nominate [[Jerzy Radziwiłł (1556–1600)|Jerzy Radziwiłł]] after [[Piotr Myszkowski (bishop)|Piotr Myszkowski]] died on 5 April 1591.{{sfn|Horn|2002|pp=148, 150–151}} Capua stressed that Andrew had not been an [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|ordained priest]] and was not legally capable to become bishop.{{sfn|Horn|2002|pp=150–151}} The decision strained the once friendly relations between Poland and [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvania]].{{sfn|Horn|2002|p=160}}

===Peace settlement===

[[File:Sigismund III of Poland-Lithuania and Sweden (Martin Kober).jpg|thumb|right|180px|alt=Sigismund in royal pose by court painter Martin (Marcin) Kober|Sigismund early in his reign, by court painter [[Martin Kober]].]]

As outlined by [[Oskar Halecki]], the king's friends were largely recruited from the higher [[clergy]] and the Jesuits, who violated the 1573 [[Warsaw Confederation]] guaranteeing religious freedoms in Poland and Lithuania.<ref name="Halecki 1950 456">{{Harvnb|Halecki|Reddaway|Penson|1950|p=456}}</ref> As persecution loomed, political dissidents grouped and formed factions which called for adherence to the laws of the Confederation.<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/> Zamoyski joined the dissidents, and, when Sigismund failed to prevent mob violence directed against non-Catholics in [[Vilnius]] and [[Kraków]] in 1591, he summoned several conventions that "demanded the guarantees of security".<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/> Sigismund yielded to their demands, however, he forbade any future conventions which could destabilize the state. The prohibition did not have a lasting effect, and gatherings of dissidents continued in the following year.<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/>

The opposition hoped to thwart the match with Archduchess Anne of Habsburg, whose state entry into Kraków at the end of May was greatly celebrated.<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/> Sigismund disregarded any protest in regards to the marriage.<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/> Consequently, on 1 June 1592 Zamoyski formed another confederation at [[Jędrzejów]] (Latin: Andreiow) attended by the most eminent and distinguished [[magnate]]s, among them [[Mikołaj Zebrzydowski]] and [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]].<ref name="Szujski 1894 157">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=157}}</ref> At Andreiow, he allegedly exposed proof concerning a plot that would place Archduke Ernest on the throne if Sigismund was to abdicate.<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/> Zamoyski's claim caused an uproar.<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/>

On 7 September, Sigismund summoned the "Warsaw Inquisition Sejm" (''sejm inkwizycyjny'')<ref name="Szujski 1894 157"/> to inquire into the so-called "Austrian cabals". Zamoyski's strong argument against that of the monarch was so persuasive that elderly Karnkowski sided with the Chancellor and his supporters,<ref name="Halecki 1950 456"/> who abstained from kissing the King's hand upon arrival as the custom required.<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=158}}</ref> Alleged letters and private correspondence between Sigismund and Ernest with the royal signature was presented as evidence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=159}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|p=130}}</ref> The King rebuked these accusations; his aides attributed the falsified signature to the court [[scribe]], who was subsequently imprisoned at [[Działdowo]] (Soldau), tortured, but pleaded not guilty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|pp=130–131}}</ref> The opposition extended their demands and asked for the immediate removal of all foreign dignitaries from the court, including [[Mercenary|mercenaries]], which was not fully enforced.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|p=131}}</ref>

The Sejm had no definite outcome; most of the gathered nobles and diplomats dispersed as further incrimination of the sovereign proved futile and detrimental to the stability of the state.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|pp=131–132}}</ref> There is little evidence or written works from the period concerning the terms under which the Sejm functioned or how it concluded.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 132">{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|p=132}}</ref> Niemcewicz largely attributed the victory to Sigismund – the measures of the Counter-Reformation strengthened<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=161}}</ref> and within a year many of the convention's attendees died; acquiescent nobles favourable to the king were appointed as their successors, thus making his position less vulnerable.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 132"/> The rivalry between Sigismund and Zamoyski continued until the latter's death in 1605.<ref>{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=189}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|pp=267–268}}</ref>

==War in Sweden==
{{main|War against Sigismund}}
{{see also|Cudgel War|Battle of Stångebro}}

===Tensions===
[[File:Karl IX, 1550-1611, duke and king of Sweden. Eskilstuna stadsmuseum, Eskilstuna, Sweden.jpg|thumb|right|180px|alt=Full body painting of Karl IX (Charles IX), King of Sweden|[[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles of Sweden, Sigismund's uncle]], who waged war against Sigismund and Poland for the Swedish crown.]]

The [[Uppsala Resolution of 1594]] dictated the rights and securities of Protestants in Sweden; it promised to uphold the Lutheran faith in the country, forbade non-Lutherans from being appointed to office or participating in the educational system and prevented Sigismund from freely raising taxes for war.<ref name="Peterson 2014 102">{{Harvnb|Peterson|2014|p=102}}</ref> However, the resolution was undermined whenever possible.<ref name="Peterson 2014 102"/> With military backing, Sigismund installed his own commanders in Swedish castles and made them responsible directly to him.<ref name="Peterson 2014 102"/> He established the office of regional governor (''ståthållare'') and appointed Charles' lifelong enemy, [[Klaus Fleming]], as the overlord of [[Finland under Swedish rule|Finland]].<ref name="Peterson 2014 102"/> The governors served notice that they would abstain from persecuting Catholicism in their administered territories.<ref name="Peterson 2014 102"/> [[Erik Brahe (1552–1614)|Erik Brahe]], a Roman Catholic, became the governor of Sweden's capital city, [[Stockholm]], in defiance of the 1594 charter which sparked widespread anger.<ref name="Peterson 2014 102"/>

On 4 August 1594, Sigismund decreed that the Swedish parliament (''[[Riksdag of the Estates|Riksdag]]'') had no right to function without royal consent.<ref name="Peterson 2014 103">{{Harvnb|Peterson|2014|p=103}}</ref> Despite this, Charles summoned a parliament at [[Söderköping]] in autumn of 1595,<ref>{{Harvnb|Koskinen|2016|p=72}}</ref> at which he declared himself [[regent]] and head of government, who would govern Sweden reciprocally with the [[Privy Council of Sweden|Privy Council]] during the King's absence from the realm.<ref name="Peterson 2014 103"/> The Finnish nobility led by Fleming rejected this resolution and so did Sigismund's emissary who ordered him, in the name of the king, to resign.<ref name="Peterson 2014 104">{{Harvnb|Peterson|2014|p=104}}</ref> Fleming sympathised with Sigismund and considered Charles a rebel.<ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/> In response, Charles instigated a brief revolt against Fleming among the peasants under [[Jaakko Ilkka]] in the province of [[Ostrobothnia (historical province)|Ostrobothnia]], known today as the [[Cudgel War]].<ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/>

As outlined by historian Gary Dean Peterson, Fleming might have quelled the rebellion but it was Charles who took advantage of the brutality of Fleming's men and started a successful propaganda war.<ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/> The prospects of Polish and Catholic domination over Sweden became uncertain when [[Klaus Fleming]] died on 13 April 1597.<ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/> He was succeeded by [[Arvid Stålarm the Younger]], who did not accede to Swedish demands and awaited Charles' intervention in Finland.<ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/> Meanwhile, the nobility dispersed; {{ill|Erik Gustafsson Stenbock|sv|Erik Gustafsson (Stenbock)|vertical-align=sup}}, {{ill|Arvid Gustafsson Stenbock|sv|Arvid Gustafsson (Stenbock)|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Erik Sparre]], [[Erik Brahe (1552–1614)|Erik Brahe]] and {{ill|Sten Banér|sv|vertical-align=sup}} fled to entreat Sigismund to return and counter Charles.<ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/>

===Civil war===

[[File:Sigismund at horse.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Equestrian portrait of King Sigismund by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]]

In 1597, a civil war erupted<ref>{{Harvnb|Larned|Reiley|1895|p=2821}}</ref> and Duke Charles was able to assume control over a large share of the powerful castles in Sweden, and in this manner achieved control over almost all the realm.<ref name="Geijer 1845 193">{{Harvnb|Geijer|1845|p=193}}</ref> However, Finland remained loyal to Sigismund and resisted. In September 1597, he sailed for the Finnish coast and seized [[Turku Castle|Åbo Castle]] from Fleming's widow, [[Ebba Stenbock]], by the end of the month.<ref name="Geijer 1845 193"/><ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/> Charles's troops were not prepared nor strong enough to conquer or hold Finland in its entirety – they sailed back to Stockholm in October and Stålarm retook Åbo the same year.<ref name="Peterson 2014 104"/>

As noted by envoys, several high-ranking noblemen fighting for Sigismund's cause were instantaneously sent to the [[Scaffold (execution site)|scaffold]].<ref name="Geijer 1845 193"/> Further tensions and escalation of violence as well as Charles's unpredictable stance persuaded Sigismund to intervene.<ref name="Geijer 1845 193"/> [[Christian IV of Denmark]] agreed to cooperate but would not join the armed conflict.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105">{{Harvnb|Peterson|2014|p=105}}</ref> The major seaports of [[Danzig]] (Gdańsk), [[Lübeck]] and [[Rostock]] were pressured to sever trade with Sweden.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/> Polish [[privateers]] began to violently attack Swedish vessels in the Baltic.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/> By February 1598 Sigismund assembled an army consisting of approximately 5,000 men.<ref name="Geijer 1845 194">{{Harvnb|Geijer|1845|p=194}}</ref> On 23 July 1598 the army left Danzig (Gdańsk) with eighty transports, several warships and exiled members of the Swedish parliament.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/> Eight days later they landed in [[Kalmar]], which surrendered without a fight.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/>

After the fall of Kalmar, Charles found himself with major trouble on his hands; the [[Military of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish Crown army]] attracted Swedish followers, and Stockholm, lacking military defence, was easily taken with the help of the nobility and officers of [[Götaland]].<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/> The cavalry of [[Uppland]] soon joined the royalists, and new forces were mobilised in Finland and Estonia.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/> Charles' troops were greater in numbers, but mostly comprised poorly-trained militias and peasants from the friendly provinces.<ref name="Geijer 1845 193"/>

[[File:Linköpings slott - KMB - 16001000025408.jpg|thumb|right|180px|alt=Courtyard of Linköping Castle|[[Linköping Castle]] where Sigismund met with Charles to discuss the future of the Swedish monarchy.]]

Sigismund advanced his troops towards Stångebro in [[Linköping]] where his sister [[Anna Vasa of Sweden|Anna Vasa]] resided.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/> On 8 September Charles executed a premature attack on Stångebro which was quickly repelled; his force was surrounded in the night and massacred by the Poles.<ref name="Peterson 2014 105"/><ref name="Geijer 1845 194"/> Severed heads on lances and spikes startled Sigismund who ordered an end to the violence.<ref name="Geijer 1845 194"/> The supposed truce did not come into effect, and, on the morning of 25 September, the armies clashed once more in a major engagement at the [[Battle of Stångebro]]. The prevailing [[fog]] was instrumental at hiding troop movement; the Swedish rebels used the opportunity to take the bridges on the river [[Stångån]] when Sigismund's men were falsely led into a truce and retreated to their camp.<ref name="Peterson 2014 106">{{Harvnb|Peterson|2014|p=106}}</ref> Their attempt to regroup and form a second defensive line proved futile and Charles emerged victorious as the Polish army was also cut off from supplies by superior [[Military of the Swedish Empire#Navy|Swedish warships]].<ref name="Peterson 2014 106"/>

===Aftermath and deposition===

The peace agreement was sealed with a dinner at [[Linköping Castle]] on 28 September.<ref name="Geijer 1845 195">{{Harvnb|Geijer|1845|p=195}}</ref> Both sides agreed to lay down arms and send the troops back to their home provinces, except for the King's personal guard.<ref name="Geijer 1845 195"/> Charles' appointments were to be recognized and a parliament was to be called to settle any disputes.<ref name="Geijer 1845 195"/> The King, who was under pressure, fearing for his life without his army and having realised that he had lost the political battle, fled with his sister during the coming days to Poland.<ref name="Geijer 1845 195"/> At the same time as the peace treaty was being signed in Linköping, conflicts were taking place in [[Dalarna]].<ref name="Roberts 1953 121">{{Harvnb|Roberts|1953|p=121}}</ref> There, a pro-Sigismund bailiff, {{ill|Jacob Näf|sv|vertical-align=sup}}, had tried to raise up the [[Dalecarlian]]s against Duke Charles.<ref name="Roberts 1953 121"/> Chaos ensued, Näf was executed, and the Dalecarlians set out on a campaign in 1598, burning and killing down to Brunnbäck ferry. In [[Västergötland]], [[Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm]], illegitimate son of Duke Charles, defeated the rebellion.<ref name="Roberts 1953 121"/> A number of Swedes who had sided with Sigismund, including his council supporters, were handed over to Charles as part of the peace settlement.<ref name="Geijer 1845 195"/> They were later killed in the [[Linköping Bloodbath]] of 1600.<ref name="Peterson 2014 106"/>

Sigismund was officially deposed from the throne of Sweden by a Riksdag held in Stockholm on 24 July 1599.<ref name="Peterson 2014 107">{{Harvnb|Peterson|2014|p=107}}</ref> He was given six<ref name="Geijer 1845 195"/> (or twelve depending on source)<ref name="Peterson 2014 107"/> months to send his son, Prince [[Władysław IV Vasa|Ladislaus (Władysław) Vasa]], to Sweden as his successor, under the condition that the boy would be brought up in the Protestant faith.<ref name="Geijer 1845 195"/> In February 1600, Duke Charles summoned the [[Estates of the Realm]] to [[Linköping]].<ref name="Peterson 2014 107"/> Since Sigismund had not provided a reply, the Estates elected Duke Charles as King apparent, however he would not become Charles IX until his coronation four years later.<ref name="Peterson 2014 107"/> During the winter and spring of 1600, Charles also occupied the Swedish part of Estonia, as the castle commanders had shown sympathies towards Sigismund.<ref name="Peterson 2014 107"/>

==Polish affairs==

===Clash with England (1597)===

[[File:Portret Zygmunta III Wazy.jpg|thumb|right|180px|alt=A profile portrait of Sigismund by Polish painter Jan Szwankowski from around 1590|Portrait of Sigismund as a young adult by Jan Szwankowski, {{Circa|1590}}.]]

In the 1590s, the interests of the [[Kingdom of England|English]] and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] coincided in opposing the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]]; on the other hand, Sigismund had clashed with the Turks in Poland's southeast.<ref>{{Harvnb|Orgelbrand|1861|p=852}}</ref> In the [[Low Countries]] of northwestern Europe, Protestant forces sent by [[Elizabeth I]] fought the Catholic armies of Spain's [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II Habsburg]], preventing Spain from capturing territory on the south side of the [[English Channel]]. England's naval power also prevented Spain from completely dominating the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], to the benefit of the Turks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pears|1893|pp=439–466}}</ref> During this time, England purchased a great deal of grain and timber from Poland to supply its navy, necessitating good relations with Poland.<ref name="Starźa 1851 129–130">{{Harvnb|Starźa|1851|pp=129–130}}</ref> [[Edward Barton (diplomat)|Edward Barton]], Elizabeth's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, had warned them that England would have to respond if the Ottomans invaded Poland.<ref name="Starźa 1851 129–130"/>

In July 1597, the [[Privy Council of England|Queen's Privy Council]] instructed [[Henry Billingsley]], [[Lord Mayor of London]], to arrange housing for a Polish diplomat and report back to the council.<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 23">{{Harvnb|Folger Shakespeare Library|2004|p=23}}</ref> On 23 July, [[Paweł Działyński]]{{efn|Recorded as Paul Dzialynski or Paul De Jaline in English [[historiography]]<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 23" />}} arrived in [[London]] and was accommodated at the house of [[John Spencer (Lord Mayor of London)|Sir John Spencer]].<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 23"/> On 25 July, Działyński was granted an audience with Elizabeth and her court at the [[Greenwich Palace|palace]] in [[Greenwich]].<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 24">{{Harvnb|Folger Shakespeare Library|2004|p=24}}</ref> As described by [[Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury]], the ambassador out of Poland at first seemed to be "a gentleman of excellent fashion, wit, discourse, language, and person."<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 24"/> He presented his credentials, kissed the Queen's hand, then walked to the centre of the chamber and, as outlined by Cecil, "began his oration aloud in [[Latin]], with such a gallant countenance as in my life I never beheld."<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 24"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Finn|Schutte|2018|pp=187}}</ref>

Działyński informed Elizabeth that Sigismund was outraged that her vessels were capturing the ships of Polish and [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] merchants trading with the Spanish, and indicated that Sigismund was prepared to commence hostilities over the matter unless Elizabeth immediately rescinded this policy and returned captured ships and cargo.<ref name="Morawski 1877 172">{{Harvnb|Morawski|1877|p=172}}</ref>

Elizabeth rose "lionlike" and rebuked Działyński, comparing his speech to a declaration of war and manners to that of "a herald than an ambassador."<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 24" /><ref name="Morawski 1877 172" /> She reminded him that England was instrumental in halting the Turkish advances and added "I can hardly believe that if the King [Sigismund] himself were present he would have used such language."<ref name="Folger Shakespeare Library 2004 24" /><ref name="Morawski 1877 172" /> Sigismund emerged successful in securing (non-military, non-food) trade with the Spanish Crown,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borowy |first=Z |date=1939 |title=Z Historii Dyplomacji Polsko - Angielskiej W Koncu XVI Wieku |url=http://old.mbc.malopolska.pl/dlibra/publication?id=61174&tab=3 |journal=Przegląd Współczesny |language=Polish |volume=18 |pages=35 |trans-quote=He not only confirmed to the merchants of Gdansk the old freedoms in England, but also assured the Prussian cities freedom of trade, even with Spain, on condition that only arms and ammunition were excluded.}}</ref> though the relations between the two nations became strained.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|Turowski|1860|pp=194–195}}</ref>

===Zebrzydowski rebellion (1606)===

{{Main|Zebrzydowski rebellion}}

[[File:Rokosz sandomierski 1607.PNG|thumb|160px|alt=Act by which Sigismund was to be dethroned, 1067|Dethronisation act issued on 24 June 1607.]]

Sigismund's attempt to grasp unlimited authority resulted in the [[Zebrzydowski rebellion]], an armed insurrection formed in 1606 by [[Hetman]] [[Mikołaj Zebrzydowski]], [[Jan Szczęsny Herburt]], [[Stanisław Stadnicki]], [[Aleksander Józef Lisowski]] and Prince [[Janusz Radziwiłł (1579–1620)|Janusz Radziwiłł]] in [[Stężyca, Lublin Voivodeship|Stężyca]] and [[Lublin]].<ref name="Lerski 1996 684">{{Harvnb|Lerski|1996|p=684}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Pawłowska-Kubik|2019|p=13}}</ref> It was primarily caused by the growing dissatisfaction with the monarch among the Polish [[szlachta]] and wealthy [[magnates]]. The rebels disapproved of Sigismund's efforts to weaken the diplomatic and political capabilities of the nobility and to introduce an absolute monarchy.<ref name="Lerski 1996 684"/>

The participants of the rebellion formed a war council and outlined their demands in 67 articles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pałucki|1974|p=67}}</ref> They demanded the dethronement of Sigismund for breaching the [[Henrician Articles]] and stipulated the expulsion of [[Jesuits]] from the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wisner|1989|p=28}}</ref> The Sejm was to be granted the authority of appointing state officials instead of the King, local officials were to be elected and the rights of Protestants expanded.<ref name="Schmitt 1858 331">{{Harvnb|Schmitt|1858|p=331}}</ref> The 1607 Parliament rejected these conditions. Meanwhile, the nobles mobilised in the village of [[Guzów, Szydłowiec County|Guzów]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Jaques|2019}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Wisner|1989|p=70}}</ref> In 1607 the Polish Royal Army, led by [[Hetman]] [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]], was sent to pacify the rebels. A [[Battle of Guzów|full-scale battle ensued]] on 5 July, with 200 casualties, which resulted in the victory of the Royalist forces.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jędruch|1982|p=89}}</ref>

The rebellious nobles formally surrendered to the King at the 1609 meeting of the parliament, which became known as the [[Pacification Sejm]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Pawłowska-Kubik|2019|p=9}}</ref> In return for their surrender the rebels were granted leniency.<ref name="Wisner 1989 75">{{Harvnb|Wisner|1989|p=75}}</ref> Many royal supporters, including Hetman Chodkiewicz, had exacted amnesty for the rebels.<ref name="Wisner 1989 75"/> Despite the failure to overthrow Sigismund, the rebellion firmly established the rights and privileges of nobles in the Polish political system, confirmed the inviolability of the royal elections and religious tolerance.<ref name="Lerski 1996 684"/><ref name="Schmitt 1858 331"/>

===Sigismund's invasion of Russia (1609–1618)===

{{main|Polish–Russian War (1609–1618)}}

[[File:Sigismund of Poland.JPG|thumb|175px|left|alt=Sigismund depicted in a victorious pose in military attire and hose|Sigismund as supreme commander of Poland–Lithuania, dressed in [[Hose (clothing)|hose]].]]

Sigismund's major goals were achieving stability of government, combating Protestantism, and expanding Poland's territory.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sokół|1966|p=124}}</ref> While the Russians were embroiled in a civil war known as the [[Time of Troubles]], stoked by some Polish nobles through the [[Dimitriads]], Sigismund saw an opportunity to invade Russia and take power. Sweden also became involved, but never made a firm alliance with any one side.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stone|2019|p=19}}</ref>

====Background====

The death of [[Feodor I of Russia]] in 1598 caused internal instability and a succession crisis upon the extinction of the [[Rurik dynasty]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillespie|2017|pp=194–195}}</ref> Further setbacks that contributed to the escalation of violence was the [[Russian famine of 1601–03|famine of 1601–1603]] which killed two million Russians, around a third of the population.<ref>{{Harvnb|Krzyzkowski|2017|loc=chpt. 23}}</ref> The new [[Tsar]], [[Boris Godunov]], proved to be an ineffective ruler and died after suffering a brain haemorrhage in April 1605.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pushkin|2018|p=294}}</ref> He left one son, [[Feodor II of Russia|Feodor II]], who succeeded him and ruled for only a few months, until he and Godunov's widow were murdered under mysterious circumstances in June 1605, possibly on Sigismund's orders.<ref name="Reading 2019 207–229">{{Harvnb|Reading|2019|pp=207–229}}</ref> Simultaneously, various impostors and pretenders to the Russian throne appeared claiming to be [[Dmitry of Uglich|Dmitry Ivanovich]], the youngest son of [[Ivan the Terrible]] who in fact died in 1591.<ref>{{Harvnb|Millar|2004|p=1549}}</ref> After the fall of Sigismund's candidates – [[False Dmitry I]] and his Polish wife [[Marina Mniszech]] (nicknamed "Marinka the Witch" by the Russians) – [[Vasili IV of Russia|Vasili Ivanovich]] [[Shuysky]] was crowned as Vasili IV.<ref name="Reading 2019 207–229"/>

The death of False Dmitry and widespread chaos proved reason for Poland to prepare an invasion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kishlansky|Geary|O'Brien|2002|p=323}}</ref> Prior raids between 1605 and 1609 were conducted by Polish nobles or adventurers along with hired [[cossacks]] and foreign [[mercenaries]].<ref name="Reading 2019 207–229"/> Sigismund's primary intention was to destroy the Russian state and impose [[Catholic]]ism with the use of force or terror if necessary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dunning|2010|pp=135, 217–233}}</ref> [[Lew Sapieha]], Grand Chancellor of Lithuania, sought neutrality by proposing to [[Boris Godunov]] an "eternal" peace treaty between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, but the idea did not gain support and was declined.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nowak|2019|p=55}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|2017|p=517}}</ref>

====Campaign====

[[File:Žygimont Vaza, Smalensk. Жыгімонт Ваза, Смаленск (T. Dolabella, 1611).jpg|thumb|right|260px|alt=Sigismund at the gates of Smolensk by Italian painter Tommaso Dolabella, 1611|''Victorious Sigismund at [[Smolensk]]'', by Italian-born artist [[Tommaso Dolabella]], 1611.]]

The [[Army of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth army]] under the command of Hetman [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]] crossed the border and on 29 September 1609 [[Siege of Smolensk (1609–11)|laid siege to Smolensk]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dunning|2010|pp=403–405}}</ref> On 4 July 1610, at the [[Battle of Klushino]], the outnumbered Polish force achieved a decisive victory over the combined Russian and Swedish force, mostly due to the tactical competence of the [[Polish hussars|Polish winged hussars]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dabrowski|2014|p=168}}</ref> The battle was a major blow to the Russians; Tsar [[Vasili IV]] was subsequently ousted by the [[Seven Boyars]] and Żółkiewski entered Moscow beginning the two-year tyrannical occupation of the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dabrowski|2014|pp=168–170}}</ref> The Seven Boyars proclaimed Polish prince [[Władysław IV|Ladislaus]], Sigismund's son, as the new Tsar of Russia.<ref name="Dabrowski 2014 170–171">{{Harvnb|Dabrowski|2014|pp=170–171}}</ref> In June 1611 Smolensk fell to the [[Polish people|Poles]];<ref name="Dabrowski 2014 170–171"/> the deposed Vasili Shuysky was transported in a caged wagon<ref>{{Harvnb|Shubin|2009|p=201}}</ref> to Warsaw, where he paid [[Shuysky Tribute|tribute]] to Sigismund and the [[Senate of Poland|Senate]] at the [[Royal Castle, Warsaw|Royal Castle]] on 29 October 1611. He eventually died in captivity at [[Gostynin]]; he was most likely poisoned as his brother died soon after.<ref>{{Harvnb|Andrusiewicz|1999|p=345}}</ref> The Polish army also committed countless atrocities while stationing in Moscow.<ref>{{Harvnb|Andrusiewicz|1999|p=329}}</ref>

In 1611, [[Kuzma Minin]] and [[Dmitry Pozharsky]] formed a new army to launch an uprising against the Polish occupiers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Treadgold|1973|p=51}}</ref> The Poles eventually [[Battle of Moscow (1612)|withdrew from Moscow]] in September 1612 after pillaging and burning the city.<ref name="Rotteck 1843 358–359">{{Harvnb|Rotteck|1843|pp=358–359}}</ref> When news reached Sigismund he hurried with a relief force, but was unable to commence an attack.<ref name="Rotteck 1843 358–359"/> The war continued with little military action until 1618 when the [[Truce of Deulino]] was signed, which granted Poland new territories, including the city of Smolensk.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stebelski|1867|p=169}}</ref> The agreement marked the greatest geographical expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the loss of Livonia in 1629.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cooper|1979}}</ref> However, Russia was able to retain independence and [[Michael of Russia|Michael Romanov]] was crowned Tsar in 1613.<ref name="Rotteck 1843 358–359"/> This established the [[Romanov dynasty]] which ruled Russia until the [[February Revolution]] in 1917. Sigismund's personal ambition of ruling the vast lands in the east as well as converting its populace to Catholicism ended in a fiasco. According to [[Alexander Gillespie]], approximately five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, civil war, instigated famine and Sigismund's politics.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillespie|2017|p=194}}</ref>

===Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)===
{{main|Thirty Years' War}}

Sigismund sought to join the Catholic side of the [[Thirty Years' War]], but was denied by the Polish parliament.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillespie|2017|p=141}}</ref> British historian [[Robert Nisbet Bain]] wrote that his plan was to invade and possibly occupy [[Transylvania]], then an Ottoman ally and therefore considered dangerous to the [[Habsburg monarchy]] and Poland.<ref name="Bain 2013 156">{{Harvnb|Bain|2013|p=156}}</ref> The [[Rákóczi]]s and [[Gabriel Bethlen]] were sympathetic with the Sultan and would counterattack if the opportunity arose.<ref name="Bain 2013 156" />

Bain further highlighted that the chief pillars of military strength in Poland, including [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]], warmly approved of the King's policy in this respect, but it proved to be impracticable.<ref name="Bain 2013 156"/> The parliament's non-interventionist stance went so far that it refused to grant any subsidies for the [[Polish–Swedish wars|Swedish Wars]].<ref name="Bain 2013 156"/> The indecision and political opposition weakened the alliance between the Habsburg states and the Commonwealth. Polish mercenaries did, however, join the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in combat at the [[Battle of Humenné]] against Transylvania.<ref>{{Harvnb|Showalter|2013}}</ref>

===Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621)===

{{main|Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621)}}

[[File:Apoteoza Zygmunta III Wazy (65208861).jpg|thumb|right|260px|alt=Sigismund on horseback striking Turks and Muslims with a lance|[[Apotheosis]] of Sigismund following his victory over the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[etching]] from 1629. The King's spear striking a [[Turkic peoples|Turk]] symbolizes the triumph of Catholicism and Christianity over [[Islam]].]]

The [[Principality of Moldavia]] was a Polish [[fief]] since the [[Middle Ages]] and Sigismund aimed at securing that despite the growing threat from the south. With the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] influence on the rise, the Sultan aimed at expanding the Ottoman Empire westward.<ref name="Itzkowitz 2008 67–79">{{Harvnb|Itzkowitz|2008|pp=67–79}}</ref> The [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars]], which lasted almost two centuries, were also a sign of the Sultan's desire to rule mainland Europe.<ref name="Itzkowitz 2008 67–79"/> Voivode [[Gaspar Graziani]], ruler of Moldavia, decided to switch sides in favour of Poland and rebelled against the Turks.<ref name="Kolodziejczyk 2011 128">{{Harvnb|Kolodziejczyk|2011|p=128}}</ref> In turn, Sigismund sent an army to aid Graziani, a move which sparked the [[Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)|Polish–Ottoman War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Jaques|2007|p=487}}</ref>

In 1620 the Polish forces were defeated at [[Battle of Cecora (1620)|Cecora]] and Hetman Żółkiewski perished during the battle.<ref name="Kolodziejczyk 2011 128"/> In 1621 a strong army of Ottomans, led by [[Osman II]], advanced from [[Edirne]] towards the Polish frontier.<ref>{{Harvnb|A ́goston|Masters|2010|p=196}}</ref> Approximately 160,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Polska Akademia Umiejętności|1923|p=226}}</ref> men besieged the [[Khotyn Fortress]] in September 1621, but were defeated at the [[Battle of Khotyn (1621)|Battle of Khotyn]] by a Polish garrison counting no more than 50,000 soldiers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dzięgielewski|1994|p=101}}</ref> During the siege Hetman [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]] died of exhaustion and illness in the camp.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konopczyński|1937|p=366}}</ref>

The [[Treaty of Khotyn]] was signed on 9 October 1621 which resulted in no territorial gain or loss, but Sigismund was to relinquish his claims on Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire was prevented from marching into Poland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tatomir|1868|p=140}}</ref> Sultan Osman himself was not fully satisfied with the war's outcome and blamed the defiant [[Janissary|janissaries]].<ref name="Dyer 1861 504">{{Harvnb|Dyer|1861|p=504}}</ref> His wish and plans to modernize the army, which was blamed for the defeat, were however opposed by the traditionalist janissary units.<ref name="Dyer 1861 504"/> That opposition resulted in the [[Janissary#Revolts and disbandment|1622 rebellion]] in which Osman II was deposed and [[strangling|strangled]].<ref name="Dyer 1861 504"/>

===Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)===

{{main|Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)}}

[[File:Matthaeus Merian the Elder - Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594-1632) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|180px|alt=Gustavus Adolphus in a red coat called delia, from 1631 or 1632|[[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] in a Polish costume, 1631–1632. A cousin and lifelong enemy of Sigismund, he attempted to take Ducal Prussia and Livonia.]]

Following a series of conflicts between Poland and Sweden in [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611)|1600–1611]], [[Polish–Swedish War (1617–1618)|1617–1618]], and [[Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)|1621–1625]], all of which ended in a [[stalemate]], [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] invaded in 1626 to gain control over [[Livonia]] and relinquish Sigismund's claim to the Swedish crown.<ref name="Korzon 1889 475">{{Harvnb|Korzon|1889|p=475}}</ref> Sigismund, already in advanced age, continued his long-term ambition to seize Sweden, which gave Gustavus Adolphus a reasonable [[casus belli]] and justification for war.<ref name="Korzon 1889 475"/> Though the Polish army achieved major victories in the previous battles against Sweden, particularly at [[Battle of Kircholm|Kircholm]] in 1605, the very end proved to be catastrophic.<ref name="Korzon 1889 475"/><ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 142–144">{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|1985|pp=142–144}}</ref>

The first skirmish took place in January 1626 near [[Battle of Wallhof|Wallhof]], in present-day [[Latvia]], where the Swedish army of 4,900 men ambushed a Polish force of 2,000 men commanded by [[Jan Stanisław Sapieha]], son of Lew Sapieha.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 142–144"/> Polish casualties were estimated at between 500 and 1,000 dead, wounded and captured. According to historians{{Which|date=January 2025}}, the Polish-Lithuanian commander later suffered a [[nervous breakdown]].<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 142–144"/>

In May 1626 the Swedes entered [[Polish Prussia|Polish Ducal Prussia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Clark|2009|p=49}}</ref> Escorted by a fleet, a second Swedish army disembarked in July near the town of [[Pillau|Piława (Pillau)]].<ref name="Korytkowski 1889 698">{{Harvnb|Korytkowski|1889|p=698}}</ref> The landings were a complete surprise to the Commonwealth's defences, and despite a relatively small Swedish force, Gustavus Adolphus quickly captured the coastal towns and cities, almost without a fight.<ref name="Korytkowski 1889 698"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Morawski|1877|p=324}}</ref> Many of these were inhabited by [[Protestants]] who resisted the staunchly Catholic Sigismund and Polish domination of their lands; some towns opened their gates to the Protestant Swedish forces whom they portrayed as liberators.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prothero|Ward|Leathes|1906|p=186}}</ref> However, fortified [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), which maintained its own standing army and a sizeable fleet, refused to surrender.<ref name="Korytkowski 1889 698"/> Simultaneously, Sigismund received little to no support from his vassal [[George William, Elector of Brandenburg|George William of Brandenburg-Prussia]], who, as a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]], pledged neutrality in the conflict.<ref>{{Harvnb|Piwarski|1947|p=55}}</ref> [[Jędrzej Moraczewski]] described George's neutral stance to salvage his dukedom as "comical".<ref>{{Harvnb|Moraczewski|1865|p=392}}</ref>

[[File:Rubens Sigismund III Vasa.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], {{circa|1620s}}]]

The Poles attempted to divert the Swedes from Gdańsk by deploying an army to fight at [[Battle of Gniew|Gniew]].<ref name="Korytkowski 1889 698"/> The fighting continued for several days until 1 October, when Sigismund ordered the withdrawal of his troops, and called on reinforcements from around the country.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 154–160">{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|1985|pp=154–160}}</ref> The battle, despite a tactical victory for Sweden, was a strategic blow to Gustavus, who was subsequently unable to besiege Gdańsk.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 154–160"/> At [[Battle of Dirschau|Dirschau]], in the summer of 1627, Gustavus Adolphus was seriously wounded and the Prussian campaign came to a halt.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1978 222">{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|1978|pp=222}}</ref> The wound forced the king to stay in bed until autumn, and his right arm was weakened with some fingers partially paralyzed.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1978 222"/> As the major trade ports on the coast of the [[Baltic Sea]] were blocked by Swedish vessels, Sigismund sent a small squadron of ten ships under [[Arend Dickmann]] to engage the Swedes at the [[Battle of Oliva]]. It was the largest naval battle fought by the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy|Polish royal navy]], which successfully defeated the enemy fleet and broke the Swedish blockade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Frost|2000|p=110}}</ref>

Although Poland emerged victorious in the final [[Battle of Trzciana|battle at Trzciana]], Sigismund's exhausted camp accepted a peace offer.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 193–200">{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|1985|pp=193–200}}</ref> The [[Truce of Altmark]] signed on 26 September 1629 (16 September O.S.) granted Sweden the control of [[Livonia]], though Prussia, [[Latgale]] and [[Dyneburg]] remained under Polish governance.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 193–200"/>

==Assassination attempt==

{{see also|Michał Piekarski}}

[[File:Zamach na Zygmunta III.JPG|thumb|left|alt=An imaged depiction of the attempted assassination by Piekarski on Sigismund in Warsaw. Piekarski holds a war hammer|Assassination attempt on Sigismund by [[Michał Piekarski]] in 1620.]]

An unsuccessful attempt on the life of the King was made on 15 November 1620.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morawski|1877|p=294}}</ref> It occurred on Sunday morning when the monarch and his entourage was to attend [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]] at [[St. John's Archcathedral (Warsaw)|St. John's Archcathedral]] in Warsaw.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163">{{Harvnb|Niemcewicz|1860|p=163}}</ref>

Sigismund was to arrive by crossing the alley or passage that linked the [[Royal Castle, Warsaw|Royal Castle]] with the temple. As the royal procession drew closer to the churchdoor, hidden in a nearby portal was petty nobleman [[Michał Piekarski]], armed with a [[war axe]].<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> When the monarch reached the final steps, Piekarski leaped out and threw himself on the King, stabbing him twice, firstly in the back and then in the cheek, and striking him in the arm.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> However, he was not able to deliver a fatal blow due to the intervention of royal guardsmen as well as Court Marshal [[Łukasz Opaliński (1581–1654)|Łukasz Opaliński]], who shielded the King.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> Concurrently, Prince Ladislaus wounded the assassin on the head with a [[sabre]].<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> Other accounts state that no guards were present; the [[cortege]] had a casual character and the assassin was most likely overpowered by the attendees.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kuriergalicyjski.com/historia/upamietnienia/1553-piekarski?showall=1|title=Piekarski|website=kuriergalicyjski.com|access-date=30 April 2019|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430045114/https://kuriergalicyjski.com/historia/upamietnienia/1553-piekarski?showall=1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Ulica Kanonia w Warszawie.jpg|thumb|alt=Warsaw Old Town with St John's Cathedral|The gateway between the [[Royal Castle, Warsaw|Warsaw Castle]] and St. John's Cathedral was constructed as a precaution after the assassination attempt.]]

Parishioners gathered around the pale and lifeless King, who collapsed to the ground after the incident.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> The guards and other attendants, among them [[Marcin Szyszkowski]], were able to revive him and after a medical examination the wounds were found to be non-life-threatening.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> Chaos erupted when false rumours spread that the King had been murdered as his clothes were stained in blood.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> Initially, the townsfolk believed that the city was being attacked; the confusion arose when an Italian priest's cry ''traditore!'' (traitor) was misinterpreted as "[[Tatars|Tatar]]".<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/>

The assassin was widely regarded as a mentally unstable [[Depression (mood)|melancholic]], unrestrained in deeds.<ref name="Niemcewicz 1860 163"/> Piekarski's most probable cause for the assassination was fame and recognition; the successful assassination of [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] in [[Paris]] (1610) by [[François Ravaillac]] served as motivation for his actions.<ref name="Tretiak 1889 40">{{Harvnb|Tretiak|1889|p=40}}</ref> For the appropriate moment Piekarski waited patiently ten years.<ref name="Tretiak 1889 40"/> At his trial, he did not deny the crime he committed and heavily insulted the monarch, whilst blaming himself for the failed [[regicide]].<ref name="Kiliński 1872 117">{{Harvnb|Kiliński|1872|p=117}}</ref> Piekarski was executed in a similar manner as Ravaillac on 27 November 1620 in Warsaw;<ref>{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|2008|p=46}}</ref> he was publicly humiliated, tortured, and his body [[dismemberment|torn apart]] by horses.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haska|2018}}</ref><ref name="Kiliński 1872 117"/> The dismembered remains were subsequently burned and their ashes scattered by a cannon.<ref name="Kiliński 1872 117"/>

==Religion==

[[File:Dolabella John Albert Vasa.jpg|thumb|left|180px|alt=Portrait of young John Albert Vasa in a red cardinal mozzetta|[[John Albert Vasa|John Albert]] was appointed bishop at the age of nine and [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]] at the age of twenty thanks to his father's reputation.]]

The reign of Sigismund marked the beginning of religious persecution during the [[Counter-Reformation]] and the downfall of [[Protestantism]] in Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{Harvnb|Koszarski|Haase|1864|p=XI}}</ref> His hate towards [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] coupled with the advice of Jesuit priests led to repressions and the eventual demise of the [[Polish Brethren]] decades later; their expulsion from Poland in 1658 contributed to the spread of [[Unitarianism]] across the globe.<ref name="Dowley 2018 344">{{Harvnb|Dowley|2018|p=344}}</ref> The [[Polish Reformed Church]], once a thriving institution and community, began to fall.<ref name="Dowley 2018 344"/> Akin actions were undertaken against other minorities in the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Franz|2006|p=216}}</ref> Sigismund's contempt for [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] was equally strong; it was his initiative that the native Ruthenian peoples inhabiting the eastern lands of the Commonwealth be forcibly converted to Catholicism, which laid the foundation for the modern [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Jacobsen|2011}}</ref> However, in Sweden the policies had an adverse effect; the [[Reformation]] in Northern Europe continued and [[Anti-Catholicism|anti-Catholic]] sentiment strengthened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Conroy|1917|p=123}}</ref>

The discrimination further extended to [[History of Jews in Poland|Jews]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] (Tatars), whose rights were already restricted.<ref name="Wójcicki 1848 121–123">{{Harvnb|Wójcicki|1848|pp=121–123}}</ref> The [[Warsaw Confederation]] of 1573 granted religious freedoms unlike elsewhere in Europe, but the degree to which those freedoms were guaranteed often varied. In 1588, Sigismund decreed that the "Israelites" and Tatars are forbidden by law to hold public office or assume political roles.<ref name="Wójcicki 1848 121–123"/> Daily contact with Christians was to be limited and any attempts made at converting Christians to [[Judaism]] or Islam was punishable by death.<ref name="Wójcicki 1848 121–123"/> Insubordinates were [[Death by burning|burned at the stake]], or, in the case of Muslim men who married Christian women, [[decapitation|beheaded]].<ref name="Wójcicki 1848 121–123"/> [[Circumcision]] of Christian children by Jews was made a [[capital offence]].<ref name="Wójcicki 1848 121–123"/> However, trade practices continued to thrive and Poland remained a safe haven for refugees fleeing oppression in other parts of the continent, chiefly during the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref name="Wójcicki 1848 121–123"/>

Religious [[nepotism]] under Sigismund and in the years following his death was undoubtedly apparent – three of his sons, [[John II Casimir Vasa|John Casimir]], [[John Albert Vasa|John Albert]] and [[Karol Ferdynand Vasa|Charles Ferdinand]], were ordained as priests and held notable posts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sitkowa|1998|p=58}}</ref> Charles was appointed the [[bishop of Wrocław]] in 1625 and [[bishop of Płock]] in 1640. John Albert became [[bishop of Warmia]] at the age of nine in 1621 and [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]]-[[bishop of Kraków]] at the age of twenty in 1632.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prokop|1999|p=163}}</ref> John Casimir, prior to his election to the throne, was made a cardinal at the behest of [[Pope Innocent X]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fabisz|1864|p=255}}</ref>

==Death==

[[File:Melich Sigismund III Vasa on catafalque.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Sigismund's body placed on top of a funeral bier, surrounded by candelabra and royal regalia|Sigismund III on [[catafalque]] following his death.]]

Towards the end of his reign, Sigismund withdrew altogether from politics and devoted himself exclusively to family matters and his interests in performing arts. Little is known about the King's wellbeing at the time suggesting that he was in good health. However, in his last days he became bedridden due to [[gout]] and joint pain, an affliction which was likely inherited from his grandfather [[Sigismund the Old]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Instytut Historii|2000|p=70}}</ref> His uncle, [[Sigismund II Augustus]], also suffered from long-term [[arthritis]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bogucka|1994|p=65}}</ref>

Shortly after the unexpected death of his second wife, [[Constance of Austria|Constance]], Sigismund fell dangerously ill and experienced mental problems, notably he was struck with severe [[Depression (mood)|depression]].<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=https://ciekawostkihistoryczne.pl/2018/11/03/zygmunt-iii-waza-najbardziej-schorowany-i-zniedoleznialy-krol-polski/|title=Zygmunt III Waza. Najbardziej schorowany i zniedołężniały król Polski?|website=CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl|date=3 November 2018 }}</ref> In November 1631, bishop [[Achacy Grochowski]] travelled to [[Warsaw]] and wrote "the monarch is of sound mind, his heart and stomach [abdomen] are healthy".<ref name="Besala 2009 205">{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=205}}</ref> Already in advanced age for the period, on [[Saint Catherine's Day]] (25 November) he appeared "cheerful, with a ruddy face, and in good spirit hoped to leave bed".<ref name="Besala 2009 205"/> Nevertheless, the gouty arthritis progressed and medics applied red-hot iron to the painful swelling with no effect.<ref name="Besala 2009 205"/> The king sensed that death was near and ordered an immediate assembly of nobles, which convened on 1 April.<ref name="Zieliński 1878 94">{{Harvnb|Zieliński|1878|p=94}}</ref> The so-called 'extraordinary parliament' (''[[sejm ekstraordynaryjny]]'') secured the candidacy and election of his son, Ladislaus, to the throne.<ref name="Zieliński 1878 94"/> On [[Easter Sunday]] he participated in final prayers, whilst being supported by his sons to prevent him from collapsing.<ref name="Besala 2009 206">{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=206}}</ref>

At eight in the morning on 25 April, [[Kasper Doenhoff]], a courtier in charge of opening curtains in the royal bedchamber and greeting the monarch, did not hear a response.<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/> Unable to see at a distance he approached Sigismund whose face was paralyzed from a [[stroke]].<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/> Hours later he briefly recovered his speech and murmured "there is no cure against the will [power] of death".<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/> The paralysis worsened and on 27 April [[Urszula Meyerin]] acted as spokeswoman, speaking on behalf of the mumbling king.<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/> Prince Ladislaus arrived on the same day.<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/> On 28 April, Sigismund's bed was surrounded by his courtiers and the Jesuit priests, who performed [[exorcism]]-like prayers.<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/> It was his wish that the court be witness to his demise, as interpreted in the words "vanitas vanitatis", [[Latin]] for 'all is vanity'.<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/>

After days of suffering, Sigismund passed away at Warsaw's [[Royal Castle, Warsaw|Royal Castle]] at approximately 2:45 am (02:45) on 30 April 1632.<ref name="Rastawiecki 1857 95"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Ochmann-Staniszewska|2006|p=214}}</ref> His close aide [[Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł|Albrycht S. Radziwill]] wrote "the [[autopsy]] on the same day in the afternoon determined that the king's internal organs were healthy. He could have lived another twenty years".<ref name="Besala 2009 206"/> His embalmed body was placed in an elaborate [[tin]] coffin decorated with soldiers, battle scenes and musical motifs, a masterpiece of 17th-century tin-making.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grabowski|1868|p=30}}</ref> The coffin was interred inside the royal crypt at [[Wawel Cathedral]] in [[Kraków]] on 4 February 1633.<ref>{{Harvnb|Burek|2000|p=776}}</ref>

==Legacy==

[[File:Kolumna Zygmunta III Wazy 2020.jpg|thumb|right|180px|alt=Sigismund's Column at castle Square in Warsaw|[[Sigismund's Column]] (1644) in [[Warsaw]] is a reminder of the King's decision to transfer the capital of Poland.]]

Sigismund's death came at a time of great divisions and constant quarrels. His rule of nearly 45 years is perceived by some as controversial – it was distinguished by considerable developments in [[Architecture of Poland|architecture]], the arts and [[Culture of Poland|culture]] coupled with conspiracies, religious antipathy and the endless conflict with Sweden.<ref name="Maternicki 2004 114">{{Harvnb|Maternicki|2004|p=114}}</ref><ref name="Czwojdrak 2007">{{Harvnb|Czwojdrak|2007}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bojarska|2004|p=43}}</ref> [[Szymon Starowolski]] positioned Sigismund's legacy above that of his predecessors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Czerenkiewicz|2019|p=137}}</ref> Others were less flattering. The decision to appoint Jesuit priests as ministers on matters which did not necessarily concern religion caused ubiquitous disapproval.<ref>{{Harvnb|Piasecki|1870|p=LX}}</ref><ref name="Piasecki 1870 LXIII">{{Harvnb|Piasecki|1870|p=LXIII}}</ref> Spiteful foes convinced of the damage he inflicted on the nation wrote with contempt "this man, whose knowledge exceeded in goldsmithing but not politics, lived far too long".<ref>{{Harvnb|Watra-Przewłocki|1918|p=358}}</ref> Members of opposing camps were relieved and enthusiastic to see his progressive son, Ladislaus, take the throne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Król|1988|p=28}}</ref> Nonetheless, the nobility and [[magnates of Poland|magnates]] from all political spheres obeyed tradition by wearing black outfits for the duration of the [[interregnum]] as a sign of mourning.<ref name="Siarczyński 1843 103">{{Harvnb|Siarczyński|1843|p=103}}</ref> The strict compliance to the practice is said to have stunned foreign dignitaries.<ref name="Siarczyński 1843 103"/> There is no doubt that Sigismund was one of Poland's most capable and recognisable sovereigns.<ref name="Czwojdrak 2007"/>

Sigismund's reign arguably marked an end to the [[Polish Golden Age]] and the dawn of the Silver Age.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kizwalter|1987|p=21}}</ref> He presided over the transition from cultural [[Renaissance]] to the [[Baroque]], and witnessed the first stages of a nationwide literary reform.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 215">{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|1985|p=215}}</ref> Notably, it was under his rule that [[Polish language|Polish]] began to supersede [[Latin]] in academic thought and artistic expression.<ref name="Podhorodecki 1985 215"/> Some ground-breaking achievements were made, for example, the publication of [[Jakub Wujek]]'s Polish translation of the [[Holy Bible]] in 1599,<ref name="Gajda 2001 381">{{Harvnb|Gajda|2001|p=381}}</ref> which remained in use until the mid-20th century.<ref name="Gajda 2001 381"/> The period also saw the rise of societal [[satire]], [[parody]] and extensive political commentaries which reflected the country's faults in hope of improvement, such as the ''[[Eight sermons before the Sejm]]'' by [[Piotr Skarga]].<ref name="Szujski 1894 282">{{Harvnb|Szujski|1894|p=282}}</ref> However, these works were considered controversial and dangerous to publish, particularly after the failed [[Zebrzydowski Rebellion|1606 rebellion]].<ref name="Szujski 1894 282"/> [[Józef Szujski]] notes that the literature became "infested with [[pleonasm]]s, [[pasquinade]]s and moral [[sermon]]".<ref name="Szujski 1894 282"/> Consequently, regional councils imposed [[censorship]] and suppression of speech.<ref name="Czarnowski 1895 56">{{Harvnb|Czarnowski|1895|p=56}}</ref> Renowned academician [[Joannes Broscius]] (Jan Brożek) wrote a satirical [[parody|lampoon]] ''Gratis'' directed against the Jesuit priests, which was confiscated and burnt publicly in 1625.<ref name="Czarnowski 1895 56"/> Exposed printers and distributors were tied to a [[pillory]] and flogged or beaten mercilessly.<ref name="Czarnowski 1895 56"/>

[[File:Choir balcony with arms of Sigismund III Vasa, featuring Polish Eagle and Lithuanian Vytis (Waykimas), in the St. John's Archcathedral in Warsaw.jpg|thumb|left|Elaborate [[Choir (architecture)|choir stalls]] at Warsaw's [[St. John's Archcathedral, Warsaw|St. John's Archcathedral]], with Sigismund's personal coat of arms.]]

[[Franciszek Siarczyński]] spoke of a cultural revolution that took place at the time and shaped Poland's society for the centuries to come.<ref>{{Harvnb|Siarczyński|1843}}</ref> The simplicity and austerity of older Polish customs faded and were replaced in favour of those from Italy or Germany.<ref>{{Harvnb|Siarczyński|1843|p=65}}</ref> [[Fabrics]] and garments diversified, thus becoming more striking; Siarczyński writes "clothing, once wool, adorned our sides, now [[silk]], [[velvet]], [[Moire (fabric)|moire]], gold and silver lining. Even a commoner frowns on sheepskin coats. Our [[Coach (carriage)|coaches]] and carriages turned ostentatious. We no more venture to our neighbours and camp without the splendour".<ref>{{Harvnb|Siarczyński|1843|pp=80–81}}</ref> Jerzy Maternicki outlined that Sigismund was instrumental in developing [[mining]] in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref name="Maternicki 2004 114"/>

The memory of Sigismund III is still vivid in Warsaw, which he expanded and made the capital of Poland in 1596.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mykowski|Klat|2001|p=178}}</ref> [[Władysław IV Vasa]] ordered the construction of a monument dedicated to his father in the heart of the city as a reminder of the 'Sigismundian' legacy.<ref name="Ochmann-Staniszewska 2006 302">{{Harvnb|Ochmann-Staniszewska|2006|p=302}}</ref> The engineers drew inspiration from the memorials of [[Ancient Rome]], notably the [[Column of Phocas]].<ref name="Ochmann-Staniszewska 2006 302"/> The new 22-meter [[Corinthian column]] was crowned with a bronze statue of the king wearing armour, holding a cross and a sword.<ref name="Ochmann-Staniszewska 2006 302"/> Władysław personally unveiled [[Sigismund's Column]] on 24 November 1644 as the first [[Secularity|secular]] column in Europe's modern history.<ref name="Ochmann-Staniszewska 2006 302"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Ciechanowicz|1994|p=309}}</ref>

Sigismund and his sons left a collection of tangible memorabilia, including commemorative coins ([[numismatics]]), [[reliquaries]], silverware, [[tableware]], jewellery and precious personal belongings marked with royal [[monogram]]s or [[Crest (heraldry)|crests]].

==Personal life==

[[File:Schorer Reliquary of St. Stanislaus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A silver coffin with the remains of Saint Stanislaus at Wawel Cathedral|[[Silver]] [[sarcophagus]] of [[Stanislaus of Szczepanów|Saint Stanislaus]] at [[Wawel Cathedral]] is one of several exquisite items commissioned by Sigismund III.<ref name=artinpl/>]]

Scholars frequently noted Sigismund's extreme piety, with some calling him a fanatic even during his lifetime.<ref name="Piasecki 1870 LXIII"/> Adherents, however, subtly described it as absolute devotion to religion and [[Roman Catholic]] observance, which especially drew praise from [[papal legates]] and foreign clerics who visited the court.<ref name="Fabisz 1864 189"/> According to Giovanni Paolo Mucante and cardinal [[Enrico Caetani]] who were sent by [[Pope Clement VIII]], "Sigismund's behaviour was comparable to that of a priest. He fervently attends mass daily, then hears [[Choir|choral music]], [[sermon]]s and orations. He [[Fasting|fasts]], and practices [[sexual abstinence]] on Wednesdays and Fridays, two days before and after [[Confession (religion)|confession]]. This large kingdom would have no schismatics, [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] or [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] if it depended on him".<ref name="Fabisz 1864 189"/> Historian Paweł Fabisz writes that when [[James VI and I|James of England and Scotland]] sent a book with [[Anti-Catholicism|anti-papal]] connotations, Sigismund deemed the gift "vile" and threw it into the fireplace.<ref name="Fabisz 1864 189"/>

Throughout the entire reign Sigismund maintained high etiquette and courtliness.<ref name="Fabisz 1864 189"/> Mucante emphasized his [[frugal]]ity and calm nature.<ref name="Fabisz 1864 189"/> Nevertheless, he hosted balls and held [[Masquerade ball|masquerade]]s during which he would entertain guests and play the [[harpsichord]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Morawska|2014|p=67}}</ref> The king was a skilled dancer and performed [[Polish folk dances]] as well as Italian dances like the [[saltarello]] and [[passamezzo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Rocznik krakowski|1987|p=34}}</ref> Upon the marriage to his first wife, [[Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland|Anne of Austria]], on 25 November 1592 he ordered a themed masquerade on Kraków's [[Main Market Square, Kraków|Main Market Square]] and, to the disbelief of his subjects, danced for the public.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rocznik krakowski|1987|p=33}}</ref> Sigismund was also known to be physically active in his youth<ref name="Piasecki 1870 LXIV">{{Harvnb|Piasecki|1870|p=LXIV}}</ref> and enjoyed occasional hunting, ice skating and frequently played [[Association football|football]]; he is widely credited for introducing and popularising the sport in Poland.<ref name="Piasecki 1870 LXIV"/> Members of the royal court disapproved of such activities which were perceived as improper and not worthy of a monarch, particularly the sports.<ref name="Piasecki 1870 LXIV"/>

[[File:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|280px|alt=Jan Matejko's representation of Sendivogius and Sigismund practicing alchemy near a fireplace|''Alchemist [[Sendivogius]] and Sigismund III'', by [[Jan Matejko]].]]

Sigismund's personal approach to internal affairs was unpredictable; he was said to have been somewhat temperamental and impetuous at times.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lechicki|1932|p=29}}</ref> [[Joachim Lelewel]] compared his character to that of the despotic [[Philip II of Spain]], but unlike Philip who overtly ordered persecution of non-Catholics, Sigismund was more discreet.<ref name="Lelewel 1845 16">{{Harvnb|Lelewel|1845|p=16}}</ref> A determined and stubborn<ref name="Lelewel 1845 16"/> man who sought to strengthen his authority, he was reluctant to participate in pointless conferences. As recalled by his close aide [[Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł|Albrycht Radziwiłł]], at one meeting the king decided to sketch an owl in his notepad rather than note important advice.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rastawiecki|1857|p=97}}</ref>

Sigismund held high regard for the arts and early [[Baroque architecture]]; he willingly sponsored foreign masters and engineers who came to Poland at his invitation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miłobędzki|1980|p=115}}</ref> He actively took part in the designing of [[façade]]s and structural elements as well as Eucharistic objects<ref>{{Harvnb|Lechicki|1932|p=179}}</ref> such as [[chalice]]s, crucifixes, [[candelabra]] and even book covers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Komasara|1994|p=215}}</ref> During a visit to the [[Bernardine Church, Lviv|Lwów Bernardine Church]] in 1621 he reprimanded the chief planners for making the temple seem disproportionate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Karpowicz|1994|p=37}}</ref> Sigismund was a gifted painter and craftsman; only a few of his works survive,<ref>{{Harvnb|Rastawiecki|1857|p=96}}</ref> among them parts of [[St. Adalbert of Prague|Saint Adalbert's]] silver reliquary at the [[Gniezno Cathedral|Cathedral]] in [[Gniezno]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Talbierska|2011|p=32}}</ref> He was also fascinated by [[alchemy]] and ancient methods of turning metals into [[gold]]; it is said he experimented with the alchemist and philosopher [[Michael Sendivogius]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Varvounis|2016}}</ref>

===Marriages and children===

[[File:Kober, Martin - Portrait of Anna of Austria, Queen of Poland.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=Anne of Austria in royal attire and Spanish dress|[[Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland|Anne of Habsburg]] was Sigismund's first consort. An introvert, she was known for her hostile attitude towards Sweden and [[Protestantism]].]]

On 31 May 1592 Sigismund married his first wife [[Anna of Austria (1573–1598)|Anne of Austria]] (1573–1598), daughter of Archduke [[Charles II of Austria]] and his wife [[Maria Anna of Bavaria (1551–1608)|Maria Anna of Bavaria]]. She was well received in Poland, despite being a Habsburg. Certain leading magnates were initially opposed to the marriage,<ref>{{Harvnb|Podhorodecki|1988|p=306}}</ref> however the opinion shifted in her favour due to personal characteristics; she was known to be attentive, sharp-minded, humble, pious and kind, though of poor health.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|pp=145–146}}</ref> The couple led a happy but introverted life. Anne was particularly hostile towards the Swedes; her attitude was shaped by an unsuccessful visit to Sweden in 1593 where she was said to have been mistreated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|pp=151–154}}</ref> She complained of the cold and general misery in Sweden, and fell ill there in October 1593.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=152}}</ref> The continuous stress arising from the unpredictable behaviour of [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles Vasa]] (future King Charles IX and adversary of Sigismund) also contributed to her distaste. According to an account, she gave birth in [[Stockholm]] to a baby girl named Catherine who died soon after and was secretly buried upon their return to Poland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=154}}</ref> Her health rapidly deteriorated with successive pregnancies over the next four years. She died from a [[puerperal fever]] at childbirth along with the baby boy on 10 February 1598 in Warsaw.<ref name="Besala 2009 160">{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Ochmann-Staniszewska|2006|p=128}}</ref> Following her death, Sigismund was in deep mourning; he expressed sorrow in private letters to his mother-in-law [[Maria Anna of Bavaria (1551–1608)|Maria Anna of Bavaria]],<ref name="Besala 2009 160"/> and isolated himself from subjects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=161}}</ref> Anne and Sigismund had five<ref>{{Harvnb|Spórna|Wierzbicki|Wygonik|2003|p=519}}</ref> known children during their marriage:

# [[Anna Maria Vasa|Anne Marie]] ({{langx|pl|Anna Maria}}; 23 May 1593{{spaced ndash}} 9 February 1600)
# Catherine ({{langx|pl|Katarzyna}}; May 1594{{spaced ndash}} June 1594)
# [[Władysław IV Vasa|Ladislaus]] ({{langx|pl|Władysław}}; 9 June 1595{{spaced ndash}} 20 May 1648), reigned 1632–1648 as Władysław IV
# Catherine ({{langx|pl|Katarzyna}}; 27 September 1596{{spaced ndash}} June 1597)
# Christopher ({{langx|pl|Krzysztof}}; 10 February 1598)

[[File:Portret Konstancji Austriaczki (fragment).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Constance of Austria in a ruff, wearing an ornate diadem|[[Constance of Austria|Constance of Habsburg]], Anne's sister and Sigismund's second consort. A devout Catholic, she supported Sigismund in political endeavours.]]

Sigismund was expected to marry [[Anna of Tyrol]] in 1603, however [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Rudolf II]] did not give his consent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=168}}</ref> Instead, on 11 December 1605 he wedded [[Constance of Austria]] (1588–1631), Anne's younger sister.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|pp=173}}</ref> The match was condemned by nobles and clerics who previously opposed Anne and the Habsburg alliance; the match was savagely described as "[[incest]]uous".<ref name="Besala 2009 171">{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=171}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Piasecki|1870|p=LXV}}</ref> The death of [[Jan Zamoyski]], leader of the opposition, in June 1605 allowed for the marriage to take place without incidents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|pp=171–172}}</ref> Some threatened to abandon the royal court, notably [[Piotr Skarga]].<ref name="Besala 2009 171"/> The marriage further fuelled the anger of Sigismund's most vocal adversaries, [[Mikołaj Zebrzydowski|Nicholas Zebrzydowski]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=174}}</ref> The wedding ceremony and Constance's entrance into Kraków was so ostentatious it was recorded in the form of a large [[gouache]] roll painting known as ''rolka sztokholmska'', now housed in Sweden.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=173}}</ref> Like her sister, Constance was well-educated and religious; she attended mass two to four times a day.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=179}}</ref> She was also a good mother, who particularly cared for her stepson, Ladislaus, even in his twenties.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=180}}</ref> On the other hand, Constance approved of her husband's struggle for absolute power; she maintained considerable influence over Sigismund and the senators. To the general public she appeared cold, strait-laced, intolerant and even [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]]; in 1626, she forbade the Jews to settle in the town of [[Żywiec]] which she privately owned and administered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Buchen|2020|p=50}}</ref> Under her patronage, Austro-German culture as well as Spanish fashion flourished at the court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|pp=182–183}}</ref> Constance died on 10 July 1631 from a [[heat stroke]] she suffered after attending mass on the [[Feast of Corpus Christi]] weeks earlier.<ref>{{Harvnb|Besala|2009|p=204}}</ref> They had seven<ref>{{Harvnb|Wisner|1984|p=99}}</ref> children:

# John Casimir ({{langx|pl|Jan Kazimierz}}; 25 December 1607{{spaced ndash}} 14 January 1608)
# [[John II Casimir Vasa|John Casimir]] ({{langx|pl|Jan Kazimierz}}; 22 March 1609{{spaced ndash}} 16 December 1672), reigned 1648–1668 as John II Casimir
# [[John Albert Vasa|John Albert]] ({{langx|pl|Jan Albert/Olbracht}}; 25 May 1612{{spaced ndash}} 22 December 1634)
# [[Karol Ferdynand Vasa|Charles Ferdinand]] ({{langx|pl|Karol Ferdynand}}; 13 October 1613{{spaced ndash}} 9 May 1655)
# [[Alexander Charles Vasa|Alexander Charles]] ({{langx|pl|Aleksander Karol}}; 4 November 1614{{spaced ndash}} 19 November 1634)
# Anna Constance ({{langx|pl|Anna Konstancja}}; 26 January 1616{{spaced ndash}} 24 May 1616)
# [[Anna Catherine Constance Vasa|Anna Catherine Constance]] ({{langx|pl|Anna Katarzyna Konstancja}}; 7 August 1619{{spaced ndash}} 8 October 1651), the first wife of [[Philip William, Elector Palatine]].

===Urszula Meyerin===

The nature of the relationship between Sigismund and one of his trusted courtiers, [[Urszula Meyerin]], has been continually questioned by Polish historians. Born in [[Munich]] as Ursula Gienger,<ref name="Rudzki 1987">{{Harvnb|Rudzki|1987}}</ref> she came to Poland with the cortège of future queen Anne in 1592.<ref name="Lileyko 1984 169">{{Harvnb|Lileyko|1984|p=169}}</ref> The king was said to have been infatuated with Urszula, who was known to be attractive and pious.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tańska-Hoffman|1851|p=169}}</ref> Upon her arrival, she became involved in the affairs of state and was appointed [[Chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]] (''ochmistrzyni'' in Polish) at the Queen's court.<ref name="Lileyko 1984 169"/> To emphasize her political role and importance, she adopted the Old German equivalent to the title of chamberlain, "Meyerin", as her [[sobriquet]] and official name.<ref name="Lileyko 1984 169"/> She devotedly assisted in raising the children and, with time, acted as their tutor.<ref name="Lileyko 1984 169"/>

Meyerin's position as [[grey eminence]]<ref name="Lileyko 1984 169"/> and influence on the royal couple made her immensely unpopular among the nobility. Consequently, she was compared to the Spanish [[Francisco Gómez de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma|Duke of Lerma]], who ruled in the king's stead, and contemptuously described as "the king's mistress", "ravenous gold-digger", "minister in a skirt" or "Jesuit's bigotry".<ref name="Rudzki 1987"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Chmielowski|1887|p=43}}</ref> Sigismund's secretary [[Jan Szczęsny Herburt]] in his memoirs called her "an obscene [[favourite]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Jankowski|1995}}</ref> However, it is unknown whether the relations between the two were physical.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wisner|2002|p=313}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Podraza|2006|p=207}}</ref>

==Gallery==

<gallery>
File:Newrew - False Dimitry I swearing Sigismund III introduction of catholicism in Russia.jpg|[[False Dmitriy I]] takes an oath of allegiance to Sigismund III, by [[Nikolai Nevrev]] (1874)
File:Kolumna Zygmunta (zbliżenie) 02.JPG|Statue of King Sigismund III on top of [[Sigismund's Column]] in Warsaw
File:40 ducats of Sigismund III Vasa from 1621.PNG|A 40-ducat coin depicting King Sigismund III Vasa, 1621
File:MAJNERT jednostronna cynowa odbitka Talara rewalskiego Zygmunta III Wazy.jpg|One of King Sigismund's coins
File:Monogramma R., sigismondo III di polonia e anna, oro, 1598.JPG|Gold coin featuring King Sigismund and Queen Anne, 1598
File:Mater Dolorosa.JPG|''[[Our Lady of Sorrows|Mater Dolorosa]]'' painted by Sigismund in the 1620s, based on works by [[Gortzius Geldorp]]
File:Gdansk tourist pictures 2009 0077.JPG|Facade relief on the [[Long Market|Golden House]] in [[Gdańsk]]
File:Chorągiew_królewska_króla_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg|Banner used during Sigismund III Vasa's reign
</gallery>

==Ancestry==

{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|ref=<ref>{{Harvnb|Wdowiszewski|2005}}</ref>
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Sigismund III Vasa '''
|2= 2. [[John III of Sweden]]
|3= 3. [[Catherine Jagiellon|Catherine of Poland]]
|4= 4. [[Gustav I of Sweden]]
|5= 5. [[Margaret Leijonhufvud]]
|6= 6. [[Sigismund I the Old|Sigismund I of Poland]]
|7= 7. [[Bona Sforza]]
|8= 8. [[Erik Johansson Vasa]]
|9= 9. [[Cecilia Månsdotter]]
|10= 10. Erik Abrahamsson Leijonhufvud
|11= 11. [[Ebba Eriksdotter Vasa]]
|12= 12. [[Casimir IV Jagiellon|Casimir IV of Poland]]
|13= 13. [[Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505)|Elisabeth of Austria]]
|14= 14. [[Gian Galeazzo Sforza]]
|15= 15. [[Isabella of Naples]]
}}

== See also ==

{{Portal|Biography|Poland|Sweden|Monarchy}}
* [[History of Poland (1569–1795)]]
* [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)]]
* [[Unions of Sweden]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==

===Inline citations===

{{reflist|colwidth=25em|refs=
<ref name=artinpl>{{cite web|author=Marcin Latka |title= Design for the silver reliquary of Saint Stanislaus in the Wawel Cathedral  |url=https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/418905202840589754 |work=artinpl |access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref>
}}

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* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YpKAAAAcAAJ|title=Obraz wieku panowania Zygmunta III. Króla Polskiego i Szwedzkiego: zawieraiący opis osób żyiących pod jego panowaniem, znamienitych przez swe czyny pokoiu i woyny, cnoty lub występki dzieła piśmienne, zasługi użyteczne i cele sztuki |first=Franciszek |last=Siarczyński |date=1843 |access-date=16 November 2016 |via=Google Books |language=Polish |location=Poznań |publisher=Nowa Księgarnia |oclc=643150186}}
* {{cite book |last=Sitkowa |first=Anna |date=1998 |title=Na połów dusz ludzkich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ct0ZAQAAIAAJ&q=zygmunt%20iii%20waza%20nepotyzm |location=Polska |publisher=Energeia |isbn=9788385118947 |access-date=27 March 2021 |language=Polish}}
* {{cite book |last1=Spórna |first1=Marcin |last2=Wierzbicki |first2=Piotr |last3=Wygonik |first3=Edyta |date=2003 |title=Słownik władców Polski i pretendentów do tronu polskiego |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P70jAQAAIAAJ&q=zygmunt+iii+waza+dzieci+krzysztof+1598 |location=Polska |publisher=Zielona Sowa |language=Polish |isbn=9788372205605 |access-date=26 March 2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Sokół |first=Krystyna |date=1966 |title=Dzieje Polski a współczesność |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UllpAAAAMAAJ&q=zygmunt%20iii%20ekspansja%20na%20wsch%C3%B3d |location=Polska |publisher=Książka i Wiedza |language=Polish |access-date=31 March 2021 |oclc=1090948544}}
* {{cite book |last=Starźa |first=Józef Aleksander |date=1851 |title=Stanisław Żółkiewski; obraz historyczny z czasów Stefana i Zygmunta III |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d9ZbAAAAcAAJ |location=Berlin |publisher=Behr |language=Polish |access-date=3 February 2021 |oclc=995364246}}
* {{cite book |last=Stebelski |first=Ignacy |date=1867 |title=Chronologia |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLuhV8Cir9UC |location=Lwów |publisher=Zelman Igel |language=Polish |access-date=1 February 2021 |oclc=749155509}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ok7iVsgiNmAC&q=time+of+troubles+sweden&pg=PA19|title=A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya|author1-link=David R. Stone |first=David R.|last=Stone |date=2019 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=9780275985028 |access-date=11 April 2019 }}
* {{cite book |last=Szujski |first=Józef |date=1894 |title=Dzieła Józefa Szujskiego. Dzieje Polski |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlAFSS-12xwC |location=Kraków |publisher=Szujski-Kluczycki |language=Polish |access-date=9 January 2021 |oclc=717123162}}
* {{cite book |last=Talbierska |first=Jolanta |date=2011 |title=Grafika XVII wieku w Polsce. Funkcje, ośrodki, artyści, dzieła |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8LBuLwEACAAJ |location=Warszawa |publisher=Neriton |isbn=9788375431964 |language=Polish |access-date=1 February 2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Tańska-Hoffman |first=Klementyna |date=1851 |title=Encyklopedya doręczna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wrII9vK5FeQC |location=Warszawa (Warsaw) |publisher=Orgelbrand |language=pl |access-date=17 April 2021 |oclc=297528908}}
* {{cite book |last=Tatomir |first=Lucjan |date=1868 |title=Geografia ogólna i statystyka ziem dawnej Polski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnBcAAAAcAAJ |location=Kraków |publisher="Czas", Kirchmayer |language=Polish |access-date=20 February 2021 |oclc=869416558}}
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* {{cite book |last=Tretiak |first=Józef |date=1889 |title=Historya wojny chocimskiej, 1621 r |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjYjAQAAMAAJ |location=Lwów |publisher=Seyfarth i Czajkowski |language=Polish |access-date=21 March 2021 |oclc=80314989}}
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* {{cite book |last=Watra-Przewłocki |first=J. |date=1918 |title=Historya Polski ilustrowana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCRJAQAAIAAJ&q=zygmunt%20iii%20waza%20za%20d%C5%82ugo%20%C5%BCy%C5%82 |location=Polska |publisher=Worzałła Publishing |language=Polish |access-date=3 May 2021 |oclc=728066803}}
* {{cite book |last=Wdowiszewski |first=Zygmunt |date=2005 |title=Genealogia Jagiellonów i Domu Wazów w Polsce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8WAQAAIAAJ&q=drzew%20genealogiczne%20waz%C3%B3w  |publisher=Avalon |language=Polish |access-date=6 January 2021 |isbn=9788391849729}}
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* {{cite book |last=Zarewicz |first=Ludwik |date=1876 |title=Przegląd lwowski |volume=6, Issues 13–18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R18xAQAAMAAJ |location=Lwów |publisher=X. E. Podolski |language=Polish |access-date=25 March 2021 |oclc=837240117}}
* {{cite book |last=Zieliński |first=Władysław Kornel |date=1878 |title=Monografia Lublina |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MhJ5K5z3DgAC |location=Lublin |publisher=J. Herszenhorn & M. Sznajdermesser |language=Polish |access-date=28 March 2021 |oclc=1014590007}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Daniel Stone, ''The Polish Lithuanian State, 1386–1795'' (University of Washington 2001).
* [[Janusz Tazbir]]: ''Historia kościoła katolickiego w Polsce 1460–1795''. Warsaw: 1966, p.&nbsp;91.
* Stanisław Rosik, ''Przemysław Wiszewski: Poczet polskich królów i książąt''. p.&nbsp;927.
* Stanisław Rosik, Przemysław Wiszewski, ''Poczet polskich królów i książąt'', p.&nbsp;929.
* Stanisław Rosik, Przemysław Wiszewski, ''Wielki Poczet polskich królów i książąt'', Wrocław 2006, p.&nbsp;923.
* ''Warszawa w latach 1526–1795'', Warsaw 1984 {{ISBN|83-01-03323-1}}, p.&nbsp;13.
{{div col end}}

== External links ==

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{{Commons category|Sigismund III of Poland}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=Zygmunt III}}
* [https://www.hoemirates.com/coins-of-poland/ Sigismund's reign began amid religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants within the Commonwealth.]

{{Clear}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Vasa]]|20 June|1566|30 April|1632}}
{{S-reg}}
|-
{{S-bef|before=[[Anna Jagiellon|Anna]]|before2=[[Stephen Báthory|Stephen]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Poland]]<br />[[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]|years=1587–1632}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Władysław IV]]}}
{{S-break}}
{{S-bef|before=[[John III of Sweden|John III]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Sweden]]|years=1592–1599}}
{{S-vac|next=[[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles IX]]}}
|-
{{s-pre|}}
{{s-new|loss|reason = Deposed by Charles IX}}
{{s-tul|title=[[King of Sweden]]|years=1599–1632}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Władysław IV Vasa]]}}
|-
{{S-end}}

{{Swedish princes}}
{{Monarchs of Poland}}
{{Monarchs of Lithuania}}
{{Monarchs of Sweden}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sigismund 3 Vasa}}
[[Category:1566 births]]
[[Category:1632 deaths]]
[[Category:Dethroned monarchs]]
[[Category:16th-century Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:16th-century Swedish monarchs]]
[[Category:People from Strängnäs Municipality]]
[[Category:Polish Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Kings of Poland]]
[[Category:Grand dukes of Lithuania]]
[[Category:House of Vasa]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Polish people of the Polish–Russian War (1609–1618)]]
[[Category:Burials at Wawel Cathedral]]
[[Category:People of the War against Sigismund]]
[[Category:Sons of kings]]