Editing Shapur I

{{Short description|Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire from 240 to 270}}
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{{Infobox royalty 
| name         = Shapur I<br>{{lang|pal|𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩}}
| title        = [[King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians]]
| image        = Shapour I statue.gif
| caption      = Reconstruction of the [[Colossal Statue of Shapur I]] by [[George Rawlinson]], 1876
| succession   = [[List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire|Shahanshah]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]]
| reign        = 12 April 240 – May 270
| predecessor  = [[Ardashir I]]
| successor    = [[Hormizd I]]
| queen        = [[Khwarranzem]]<br>[[al-Nadirah]] (?)
| issue        = [[Bahram I]]<br>[[Shapur Mishanshah]]<br>[[Hormizd I]]<br>[[Narseh]]<br>[[Shapurdukhtak of Sakastan|Shapurdukhtak]] (?)<br>[[Adur-Anahid]]
| royal house  = [[House of Sasan]]
| father       = [[Ardashir I]]
| mother       = [[Murrod]] or [[Denag (sister of Ardashir I)|Denag]]
| religion     = [[Zoroastrianism]]
| birth_date   = 
| birth_place  = 
| death_date   = May 270
| death_place  = [[Bishapur]]
| place of burial = 
}}
'''Shapur I''' (also spelled '''Shabuhr I'''; {{langx|pal|𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩|Šābuhr }}) was the second [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] [[King of Kings]] of [[Iran]]. The precise dating of his reign is disputed, but it is generally agreed that he ruled from 240 to 270, with his father [[Ardashir I]] as co-regent until the death of the latter in 242. During his co-regency, he helped his father with the conquest and destruction of the city of [[Hatra]], whose fall was facilitated, according to Islamic tradition, by the actions of his future wife [[al-Nadirah]]. Shapur also consolidated and expanded the empire of Ardashir I, waged war against the [[Roman Empire]], and seized its cities of [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] and [[Harran|Carrhae]] while he was advancing as far as [[Roman Syria]]. Although he was defeated at the [[Battle of Resaena]] in 243 by Roman emperor [[Gordian III]] ({{reign|238|244}}), he was the following year able to win the [[Battle of Misiche]] and force the new Roman emperor [[Philip the Arab]] ({{reign|244|249}}) to sign a favorable peace treaty that was regarded by the Romans as "a most shameful treaty".{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}}

Shapur later took advantage of the political turmoil within the Roman Empire by undertaking a second expedition against it in 252/3–256, sacking the cities of [[Antioch]] and [[Dura-Europos]]. In 260, during his third campaign, he defeated and captured the Roman emperor, [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]. He did not seem interested in permanently occupying the Roman provinces, choosing instead to resort to plundering and pillaging, gaining vast amounts of riches. The captives of Antioch, for example, were allocated to the newly reconstructed city of [[Gundeshapur]], later famous as a center of scholarship. In the 260s, subordinates of Shapur suffered setbacks against [[Odaenathus]], the king of [[Palmyra]]. According to Shapur's inscription at Hajiabad, he still remained active at the court in his later years, participating in [[archery]]. He died of illness in [[Bishapur]], most likely in May 270.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark |first=Joshua J. |title=Shapur I |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Shapur_I/ |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>

Shapur was the first Iranian monarch to use the title of "King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians"; beforehand the royal titulary had been "King of Kings of Iranians". He had adopted the title due to the influx of Roman citizens whom he had deported during his campaigns. However, it was first under his son and successor [[Hormizd I]], that the title became regularized. Shapur had new [[Zoroastrian]] [[fire temple]]s constructed, incorporated new elements into the faith from Greek and Indian sources, and conducted an extensive program of rebuilding and refounding of cities.

== Name ==
''Shapur'' was a popular name in [[Sasanian Iran]], being used by three Sasanian monarchs and other notables during and after the Sasanian era. Derived from [[Old Iranian]] ''*''{{Lang|ira-Latn|xšayaθiya.puθra}} 'son of a king', it must initially have been a title, which became—at least in the late 2nd century AD—a personal name.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} It appears in the list of [[Parthian Empire|Arsacid]] kings in some Arabic-Persian sources; however, this is [[anachronistic]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} Shapur is transliterated in other languages as; [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Lang|grc-Latn|Sapur}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|Sabour}} and {{Lang|grc-Latn|Sapuris}}; [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|Sapores}} and {{Lang|la|Sapor}}; [[Arabic]] {{Lang|ar-Latn|Sābur}} and {{Lang|ar-Latn|Šābur}}; [[New Persian]] {{Lang|fa-Latn|Šāpur}}, {{Lang|fa-Latn|Šāhpur}}, {{Lang|fa-Latn|Šahfur}}.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}}

== Birth ==
According to the semi-legendary ''[[Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan]]'', a [[Middle Persian]] biography of [[Ardashir I]],{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=25}} the daughter of the Parthian king [[Artabanus IV of Parthia|Artabanus IV]], Zijanak, attempted to poison her husband Ardashir. Discovering her intentions, Ardashir ordered her to be executed. Finding out about her pregnancy, the ''[[mobad]]s'' (priests) were against it. Nevertheless, Ardashir still demanded her execution, which led the ''mobads'' to conceal her and her son Shapur for seven years, until the latter was identified by Ardashir, who chose to adopt him based on his virtuous traits.{{sfn|Stoneman|Erickson|Netton|2012|p=12}} This type of narrative is repeated in Iranian historiography. According to 5th-century BCE Greek historian [[Herodotus]], the Median king [[Astyages]] wanted to have his grandson [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]] killed because he believed that he would one day overthrow him. A similar narrative is also found in the story of the mythological Iranian king [[Kay Khosrow]].{{sfn|Stoneman|Erickson|Netton|2012|p=12}} According to the modern historian Michael Bonner, this story of Shapur's birth "may conceal a marriage between Ardashir and an Arsacid princess or perhaps merely a noble lady connected with the Parthian aristocracy."{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=49}} According to [[A. Shapur Shahbazi]], this is one of several stories meant to legitimize Sasanian role by connecting Ardashir and his successors with the Parthian nobility.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} In the tale, the birth of Shapur to Zijanak takes place after the overthrow of Artabanus, but [[C. E. Bosworth]] states that Shapur I must have been born "well before" this event (i.e., before 224);{{Sfn|Al-Tabari|1985–2007|loc=v. 5: p. 25, note 86}} the Sasanian [[Rock relief|rock reliefs]] and the history of [[al-Tabari]] indicate that Shapur took part in Ardashir's battles against the Parthians.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} In his inscriptions, Shapur identifies his mother as a certain [[Murrod]].{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=49}}

== Background and state of Iran==
Shapur I was a son of Ardashir I and his wife [[Murrod]]<ref>Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2002). "Šāpur I". Encyclopaedia Iranica.</ref><ref>Brosius, Maria (2000). "Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia". [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol]. London et al.</ref><ref>Bonner, Michael (2020). ''The Last Empire of Iran''. New York: Gorgias Press. pp. 1–406. {{ISBN|978-1463206161}}</ref> or [[Denag (sister of Ardashir I)|Denag]].{{sfn|Gignoux|1994|p=282}} The background of the Sasanian family is obscure; although based in [[Fars province|Pars]] (also known as [[Persis]]), they were not native to the area, and were seemingly originally from the east.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2016|pp=23–32}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2010|p=242}} The historian Marek Jan Olbrycht has suggested that the family was descended from the [[Indo-Parthians]] of [[Sakastan]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2016|pp=23–32}} [[Iranologist]] Khodadad Rezakhani also noted similarities between the early Sasanians and the Indo-Parthians, such as their coinage.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017b|pp=44–45}} Yet, he stated that "evidence might still be too inconclusive."{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017b|pp=44–45}}

Pars, a region in the southwestern [[Iranian plateau]], was the homeland of the southwestern branch of the [[Iranian peoples]], the Persians.{{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2000a|p=195}} It was also the birthplace of the first Iranian Empire, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]].{{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2000a|p=195}} The region served as the center of the empire until its conquest by the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] king [[Alexander the Great]] ({{reign|336|323|era=BCE}}).{{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2000a|p=195}} Since the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, Pars was ruled by local dynasts subject to the [[Hellenistic]] [[Seleucid Empire]].{{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2009}} These dynasts held the ancient Persian title of ''[[frataraka]]'' ("leader, governor, forerunner"), which is also attested in the Achaemenid-era.{{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2000b|p=195}} Later under the ''frataraka'' [[Wadfradad II]] (fl. 138 BCE) was made a vassal of the Iranian [[Parthian Empire|Parthian (Arsacid) Empire]].{{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2009}} The ''frataraka'' were shortly afterwards replaced by the [[Kings of Persis]], most likely at the accession of the Arsacid monarch [[Phraates II]] ({{reign|132|127|era=BCE}}).{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=178}} Unlike the ''fratarakas'', the Kings of Persis used the title of [[shah]] ("king"), and laid foundations to a new dynasty, which may be labelled the Darayanids.{{sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=178}}

Under [[Vologases V]] ({{reign|191|208}}), the Parthian Empire was in decline, due to wars with the [[Roman Empire|Romans]], civil wars and regional revolts.{{sfn|Daryaee|2010|p=249}} The Roman emperor [[Septimius Severus]] ({{reign|193|211}}) had invaded the Parthian domains in 196, and two years later did the same, this time sacking the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon.{{sfn|Daryaee|2010|p=249}} At the same time, revolts occurred in [[Media (region)|Media]] and Persis.{{sfn|Daryaee|2010|p=249}} The Iranologist Touraj Daryaee argues that the reign of Vologases V was "the turning point in Parthian history, in that the dynasty lost much of its prestige."{{sfn|Daryaee|2010|p=249}} The kings of Persis were now unable to depend on their weakened Parthian overlords.{{sfn|Daryaee|2010|p=249}} Indeed, in 205/6, Pabag rebelled and overthrew the [[Bazrangi]]d ruler of Persis, [[Gochihr]], taking Istakhr for himself.{{sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=187}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2010|p=249}} Around 208 [[Vologases VI]] succeeded his father Vologases V as king of the Arsacid Empire. He ruled as the uncontested king from 208 to 213, but afterwards fell into a dynastic struggle with his brother [[Artabanus IV]],{{efn|Artabanus IV is erroneously known in older scholarship as Artabanus V. For further information, see {{harvtxt|Schippmann|1986a|pp=647–650}}}} who by 216 was in control of most of the empire, even being acknowledged as the supreme ruler by the Roman Empire.{{sfn|Schippmann|1986a|pp=647–650}} Artabanus IV soon clashed with the Roman emperor [[Caracalla]], whose forces he managed to contain at [[Battle of Nisibis (217)|Nisibis]] in 217.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=3}}

Peace was made between the two empires the following year, with the Arsacids keeping most of [[Mesopotamia]].{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=3}} However, Artabanus IV still had to deal with his brother Vologases VI, who continued to mint coins and challenge him.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=3}} The Sasanian family had meanwhile quickly risen to prominence in Pars, and had now under Ardashir begun to conquer the neighboring regions and more far territories, such as [[Kirman (Sasanian province)|Kirman]].{{sfn|Schippmann|1986a|pp=647–650}}{{sfn|Schippmann|1986b|pp=525–536}} At first, Ardashir I's activities did not alarm Artabanus IV, until later, when the Arsacid king finally chose to confront him.{{sfn|Schippmann|1986a|pp=647–650}}

== Early life and co-rule ==
[[Image:Ardachir relief Firuzabad 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|1840 illustration of a [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] relief at [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]], showing [[Ardashir I]]'s [[Battle of Hormozdgan|victory]] over [[Artabanus IV of Parthia|Artabanus IV]] and his forces.]]
Shapur, as portrayed in the Sasanian [[rock relief]]s, took part in his father's war with the Arsacids, including the [[Battle of Hormozdgan]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} The battle was fought on 28 April 224, with Artabanus IV being defeated and killed, marking the end of the Arsacid era and the start of 427 years of Sasanian rule.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=469–470}} The chief secretary of the deceased Arsacid king, [[Dad-windad]], was afterwards executed by Ardashir I.{{sfn|Rajabzadeh|1993|pp=534–539}} Ardashir celebrated his victory by having two rock reliefs sculptured at the Sasanian royal city of Ardashir-Khwarrah (present-day [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]]) in [[Pars (Sasanian province)|Pars]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=601}} The first relief portrays three scenes of personal fighting; starting from the left, a Persian aristocrat seizing a Parthian soldier; Shapur impaling the Parthian minister Dad-windad with his lance; and Ardashir I ousting Artabanus IV.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=601}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=469–470}} The second relief, conceivably intended to portray the aftermath of the battle, displays the triumphant Ardashir I being given the badge of kingship over a fire shrine from the [[Zoroastrian]] supreme god [[Ahura Mazda]], while Shapur and two other princes are watching from behind.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=601}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}} Ardashir considered Shapur "the gentlest, wisest, bravest and ablest of all his children" and nominated him as his successor in a council amongst the magnates.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} Shapur was crowned co-ruler of the empire on 12 April 240. He may have been crowned again as sole ruler in 243, but [[Richard N. Frye]] writes that a single coronation in 240 is more likely.{{Sfn|Frye|2000|p=119}}

==Military career==
{{see also|Roman–Persian Wars}}

===The eastern front===
{{Original research|section|date=April 2025|reason=This section seems to be the result of synthesis from primary sources.}}
The eastern provinces of the fledgling Sasanian Empire bordered on the land of the [[Kushans]] and the land of the [[Sakas]] (roughly today's Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan). The military operations of Shapur's father Ardashir I had led to the local Kushan and Saka kings offering tribute to the Sasanians. Satisfied by this show of submission, Ardashir seems to have refrained from occupying their territories. [[Al-Tabari]] alleges that he rebuilt the ancient city of [[Zrang]] in [[Sakastan]] (the land of the Sakas, [[Sistan]]), but the only founding of a new Sasanian settlement in the east which is certain in this period is the building by Shapur I of [[Nishapur]]—"Beautiful (city built) by Shapur"—in [[Dihistan]] (former [[Parthia]], apparently lost by the [[Parthian people|Parthians]] to the Kushans).<ref>Thaalibi 485–486 even ascribes the founding of Badghis and Khwarazm to Ardashir I</ref>

Soon after the death of his father in 241 AD, Shapur felt the need to cut short the campaign they had started in Roman Syria and reassert Sasanian authority in the East, perhaps because the Kushan and Saka kings were lax in abiding by their tributary status. However, he first had to fight "The Medes of the Mountains"—possibly in the mountain range of [[Gilan]] on the Caspian coast—and after subjugating them, he appointed his son Bahram (the later [[Bahram I]]) as their king. He then marched to the East and annexed most of the land of the Kushans, and appointing his son [[Narseh]] as Sakanshah—king of the Sakas—in [[Sistan]]. In 242 AD, Shapur conquered [[Sasanian Khwarazm|khwarezm]].<ref>[[Richard N. Frye|Frye, Richard N]]. (1983). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA116 "The political history of Iran under the Sasanians"]. The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–181. {{ISBN|978-0521246934}}.</ref> Shapur could now proudly proclaim that his empire stretched all the way to Peshawar, and his relief in [[Rag-i-Bibi]] in present-day Afghanistan confirms this claim.<ref>W. Soward, "The Inscription of Shapur I at Naqsh-E Rustam in Fars", sasanika.org, 3.<br/>Cf. F. Grenet, J. Lee, P. Martinez, F. Ory, "The Sasanian Relief at Rag-i Bibi (Northern Afghanistan)” in G. Hermann, J. Cribb (ed.), After Alexander. Central Asia before Islam (London 2007), pp. 259–260</ref> Shapur I claims in his [[Naqsh-e Rostam]] inscription possession of the territory of the Kushans ({{Lang|pal-Latn|Kūšān šahr}}) as far as "Purushapura" ([[Peshawar]]), suggesting he controlled [[Bactria]] and areas as far as the [[Hindu-Kush]] or even south of it:{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017a|pp=202–203}}{{full citation needed<!--There are two sources that match this author/date. Please use a and b after the year both here and in the full citations.-->|date=April 2021}}

{{blockquote|I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan.|[[Naqsh-e Rostam]] inscription of Shapur I}}

He seems to have garrisoned the Eastern territories with prisoners of war from his previous campaign against the Medes of the Mountains. Agathias claims [[Bahram II]] (274–293 AD) later campaigned in the land of the Sakas and appointed his brother Hormizd as its king. When Hormizd revolted, the [[Panegyrici Latini]] list his forces as the Sacci (Sakas), the Rufii (Cusii/Kushans) and the Geli (Gelans / [[Gilaks]], the inhabitants of [[Gilan]]). Since the Gilaks are obviously out of place among these easterners, and as we know that Shapur I had to fight the Medes of the Mountains first before marching to the land of the Kushans, it is conceivable those Gilaks were the descendants of warriors captured during Shapur I's North-western campaign, forcibly drafted into the Sasanian army, and settled as a hereditary garrison in [[Merv]], [[Nishapur]], or [[Zrang]] after the conclusion of Shapur's north-eastern campaign, the usual Sasanian practice with prisoners of war.<ref>Agathias 4.24.6–8; Panegyrici Latini N3.16.25; Thaalibi 495; {{cite book|author=Arthur Christensen|title=L'Iran sous les Sassanides|place=Copenhague|year=1944 |publisher=Ejnar Munksgaard |url=https://archive.org/details/christensen-liran-sous-les-sa |language=fr |page=214}}</ref>

===Roman campaigns===
[[Image:N-Mesopotamia and Syria.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map showing the Roman-Sasanian borders after the peace treaty in 244]]

Towards the end of his reign, Ardashir I had renewed the war against the [[Roman Empire]], and Shapur I had conquered the [[Mesopotamia]]n fortresses [[Nisibis]] and [[Carrhae]] and had advanced into [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]. In 242, the Romans under the father-in-law of their child-emperor [[Gordian III]] set out against the Sasanians with "a huge army and great quantity of gold" (according to a Sasanian rock relief), and wintered in [[Antioch]], while Shapur was occupied with subduing [[Gilan]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and [[Sistan]].{{sfn|Raditsa|2000|p=125}} There the Roman general [[Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus|Timesitheus]] fought against the Sasanians and won repeated battles, and recaptured Carrhae and Nisibis, and at last routed a Sasanian army at Resaena, forcing the Persians to restore all occupied cities unharmed to their citizens. "We have penetrated as far as Nisibis, and shall even get to [[Ctesiphon]]," the young emperor [[Gordian III]], who had joined his father-in-law Timesitheus, exultantly wrote to the Senate.

The Romans later invaded eastern Mesopotamia but faced tough resistance from Shapur I who returned from the East. [[Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus|Timesitheus]] died under uncertain circumstances and was succeeded by [[Philip the Arab]]. The young emperor Gordian III went to the [[Battle of Misiche]] and was either killed in the battle or murdered by the Romans after the defeat. The Romans then chose Philip the Arab as Emperor. Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants and was aware that he had to return to Rome to secure his position with the Senate. Philip concluded a peace with Shapur I in 244; he had agreed that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence. He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500,000 gold denarii.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians ({{lang|la|pax fundata cum Persis}}).{{sfn|Southern|2003|p=71}}
Shapur I commemorated this victory on several rock reliefs in [[Fars province|Pars]].

Philip later broke the treaty and seized lost territory,{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia in 250 but again, serious trouble arose in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and Shapur I had to march over there and settle its affair.

Having settled the affair in Khorasan he resumed the invasion of Roman territories, and later annihilated a Roman force of 60,000 at the [[Battle of Barbalissos]]. He then burned and ravaged the Roman province of [[Syria]] and all its dependencies.
[[File:Naghsh-e rostam, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 12.jpg|thumb|Rock-face relief at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]] of Shapur (on horseback) with [[Philip the Arab]] and [[Emperor Valerian]]]]
[[Image:HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg|thumb|right|''The Humiliation of [[Emperor Valerian]] by Shapur I'', pen and ink, [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], ca. 1521. At the time it was made, the above rock-face relief was unknown in the west.]]

Shapur I then reconquered [[Armenia]], and incited [[Anak the Parthian]] to murder the king of Armenia, [[Khosrov II of Armenia|Khosrov II]]. Anak did as Shapur asked, and had Khosrov murdered in 258; yet Anak himself was shortly thereafter murdered by Armenian nobles.<ref>Hovannisian, ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century'', p. 72</ref> Shapur then appointed his son [[Hormizd I]] as the "Great King of Armenia". With Armenia subjugated, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] submitted to the Sasanian Empire and fell under the supervision of a Sasanian official.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} With Georgia and Armenia under control, the Sasanians' borders on the north were thus secured.

During Shapur's invasion of [[Roman Syria|Syria]] he captured important Roman cities like [[Antioch]]. The emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (253–260) marched against him and by 257 Valerian had recovered Antioch and returned the province of Syria to Roman control. The speedy retreat of Shapur's troops caused Valerian to pursue the Persians to [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], but they were [[Battle of Edessa|defeated]], and Valerian, along with the Roman army that was left, was captured by Shapur{{sfn|Frye|2000|p=126}} Shapur then advanced into [[Asia Minor]] and managed to capture [[Siege of Caesarea (260)|Caesarea]],{{sfn|Henning|1939|p=842}} deporting hundred upon thousands of Roman citizens to the Sasanian empire.{{sfn|Henning|1939|p=843}} He used these captive Roman citizens to build a [[Levee|dyke]] near [[Shushtar]], called "Caesar's dyke".{{sfn|Henning|1939|p=843}}

The victory over Valerian is presented in a mural at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]], where Shapur is represented on horseback wearing royal armor and a crown. Before him kneels a man in Roman dress, asking for grace. The same scene is repeated in other rock-face inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book |author=Grishman, R. |year=1995 |title=Iran From the Beginning Until Islam}}</ref>
Christian tradition has Shapur I humiliating Valerian, infamous for his [[persecution of Christians]], by the [[King of Kings]] using the Emperor as a footstool to mount his horse, and they claim he later died a miserable death in captivity at the hands of the enemy. However, just as with the above-mentioned [[Gilaks]] deported to the East by Shapur, the Persian treatment of prisoners of war was unpleasant but honorable, drafting the captured Romans and their Emperor into their army and deporting them to a remote place, [[Bishapur]] in [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzistan]], where they were settled as a garrison and built a weir with bridge for Shapur.<ref>{{cite book |author=A. Tafazzoll |year=1990 |title=History of Ancient Iran |page=183}}</ref>

However, the Persian forces were later defeated by the Roman officer [[Balista]] and the lord of [[Palmyra]] [[Septimius Odaenathus]], who captured the royal harem. Shapur plundered the eastern borders of Syria and returned to Ctesiphon, probably in late 260.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} In 264 Septimius Odaenathus reached Ctesiphon, but failed to take the city.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=oRyDnAwJCTwC&dq=odaenathus+ctesiphon+failed&pg=PA214 Who's Who in the Roman World] By John Hazel</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QybaAAAAMAAJ&q=odaenathus+ctesiphon++walls Babylonia Judaica in the Talmudic Period] By A'haron Oppenheimer, Benjamin H. Isaac, Michael Lecker</ref>

The [[Colossal Statue of Shapur I]], which stands in the Shapur Cave, is one of the most impressive sculptures of the [[Sasanian Empire]].

==Interactions with minorities==
Shapur is mentioned many times in the [[Talmud]], in which he is referred to in [[Jewish Aramaic]] as ''Shabur Malka'' ({{Lang|he|שבור מלכא}}), meaning "King Shapur". He had good relations with the Jewish community and was a friend of [[Samuel of Nehardea|Shmuel]], one of the most famous of the [[Babylonia]]n ''[[Amoraim]]'', the Talmudic sages from among the important Jewish communities of [[Mesopotamia]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

==Roman prisoners of war==
Shapur's campaigns deprived the Roman Empire of resources while restoring and substantially enriching his own treasury, by [[deportation|deporting]] many Romans from conquered cities to Sasanian provinces like [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzestan]], [[Asuristan]], and [[Pars (Sasanian province)|Pars]]. This influx of deported artisans and skilled workers revitalised Iran's domestic commerce.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}}

==Death==
In May 270, Shapur died of an illness while in [[Bishapur]]. He was succeeded by his son, [[Hormizd I]]. Two of his other sons, [[Bahram I]] and [[Narseh]], would also become kings of the Sasanian Empire, while another son, [[Shapur Meshanshah]], who died before Shapur, sired children who would hold exalted positions within the empire.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}}

==Government==
===Governors during his reign===
[[File:Naqsh-e Rajab 01.jpg|thumb|Relief showing Shapur I on horseback, followed by his sons and nobles]]
Under Shapur, the Sasanian court, including its territories, were much larger than that of his father. Several governors and vassal-kings are mentioned in his inscriptions; Ardashir, governor of [[Qom]]; Varzin, governor of [[Spahan]]; Tiyanik, governor of [[Hamadan]]; Ardashir, governor of Neriz; Narseh, governor of Rind; Friyek, governor of [[Gundishapur]]; Rastak, governor of [[Veh-Ardashir]]; [[Amazasp III of Iberia|Amazasp III]], king of [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]]. Under Shapur several of his relatives and sons served as governor of Sasanian provinces; [[Bahram I|Bahram]], governor of [[Gilan]]; [[Narseh]], governor of [[Sindh]], [[Sakastan (Sasanian province)|Sakastan]] and [[Turan (Sasanian province)|Turan]]; Ardashir, governor of [[Kirman (Sasanian province)|Kirman]]; [[Hormizd I|Hormizd-Ardashir]], governor of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]]; [[Shapur Meshanshah]], governor of [[Meshan]]; Ardashir, governor of [[Adiabene]].{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=299}}

===Officials during his reign===
Several names of Shapur's officials are carved on his inscription at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]]. Many of these were the offspring of the officials who served Shapur's father. During the reign of Shapur, a certain Papak served as the commander of the royal guard (''[[hazarbed]]''), while Peroz served as the chief of the cavalry (''[[aspbed]]''); Vahunam and Shapur served as the director of the clergy; Kirdisro served as viceroy of the empire (''[[bidaxsh]]''); Vardbad served as the "chief of services"; Hormizd served as the chief scribe; Naduk served as "the chief of the prison"; Papak served as the "gate keeper"; Mihrkhwast served as the treasurer; Shapur served as the commander of the army; Arshtat Mihran served as the secretary; Zik served as the "master of ceremonies".{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=373}}

=== Army ===
[[File:Shapur I (The Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp).png|thumb|upright=0.8|right|Shapur I in the [[Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp]]]]
Under Shapur, the Iranian military experienced a resurgence after a rather long decline in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, which gave the Romans the opportunity to undertake expeditions into the Near East and Mesopotamia during the end of the Parthian Empire.{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2017|p=157}} Yet, the military was essentially the same as that of the Parthians; the same Parthians nobles who served the Arsacid royal family, now served the Sasanians, forming the majority of the Sasanian army.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}} However, the Sasanians seem to have employed more [[cataphracts]] who were equipped with lighter chain-mail armor resembling that of the Romans.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}}

Although Iranian society was greatly militarized and its elite designated themselves as a "warrior nobility" (''arteshtaran''), it still had a significantly smaller population, was more impoverished, and was a less centralized state compared to the Roman Empire.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}} As a result, the Sasanian shahs had access to fewer full-time fighters, and depended on recruits from the nobility instead.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}} Some exceptions were the royal cavalry bodyguard, garrison soldiers, and units recruited from places outside Iran.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=603}} The bulk of the nobility included the powerful Parthian noble families (known as the ''[[wuzurgan]]'') that were centered on the [[Iranian plateau]].{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=604}} They served as the backbone of the Sasanian [[Feudalism|feudal]] army and were largely autonomous.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=604}} The Parthian nobility worked for the Sasanian shah for personal benefit, personal oath, and, conceivably, a common awareness of the "Aryan" (Iranian) kinship they shared with their Persian overlords.{{sfn|McDonough|2013|p=604}}

Use of [[Persian war elephants|war elephants]] is also attested under Shapur, who made use of them to demolish the city of [[Hatra]].{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=46}} He may also have used them against Valerian, as attested in the ''[[Shahnameh]]'' (''The Book of Kings'').{{sfn|Daryaee|2016|p=37}}

===Monuments===
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2017}}
[[Image:Bishapour palais Shapur.jpg|thumb|Picture of the ruined palace of Shapur I at [[Bishapur]]]]

Shapur I left other reliefs and rock inscriptions. A relief at [[Naqsh-e Rajab]] near [[Estakhr]] is accompanied by a Greek translation. Here Shapur I calls himself "the [[Zoroastrianism|Mazdayasnan]] (worshipper of [[Ahuramazda]]), the divine Shapur, King of Kings of the [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]], and non-Iranians, of divine descent, son of the Mazdayasnan, the divine [[Ardashir I|Ardashir]], King of Kings of the Aryans, grandson of the divine king [[Papak]]". Another long inscription at Estakhr mentions the King's exploits in archery in the presence of his nobles.

From his titles we learn that Shapur I claimed sovereignty over the whole earth, although in reality his domain extended little farther than that of Ardashir I.
Shapur I built the great town [[Academy of Gundishapur|Gundishapur]] near the old Achaemenid capital [[Susa]], and increased the fertility of the district with a dam and irrigation system—built by Roman prisoners—that redirected part of the [[Karun River]]. The barrier is still called ''[[Band-e Kaisar]]'', "the mole of the Caesar". He is also responsible for building the city of [[Bishapur]], with the labors of Roman soldiers captured after the defeat of Valerian in 260. Shapur also built a town named [[Pushang]] in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].

===Religious policy===
In all records Shapur calls himself ''mzdysn'' ("Mazda-worshipping"). His inscription at the [[Ka'ba-ye Zartosht]] recounts his wars and religious establishments to the same extent. He believed that he had a responsibility; "For the reason, therefore, that the gods have so made us their instrument (''dstkrt''), and that by the help of the gods we have sought out for ourselves, and hold, all these nations (''štry'') for that reason we have also founded, province by province, many Varahrān fires (''ʾtwry wlhlʾn''), and we have dealt piously with many Magi (''mowmard''), and we have made great worship of the gods."{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} According to the Zoroastrian priest [[Kartir]], Shapur treated the Zoroastrians generously, and permitted members of their clergy to follow him on his expeditions against the Romans.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} According to the historian [[Prods Oktor Skjærvø]], Shapur was a "lukewarm Zoroastrian".{{sfn|Skjærvø|2011|pp=608–628}}

During the reign of Shapur, [[Manichaeism]], a new religion founded by the Iranian prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], flourished. Mani was treated well by Shapur, and in 242, the prophet joined the Sasanian court, where he tried to convert Shapur by dedicating his only work written in [[Middle Persian]], known as the ''[[Shabuhragan]]''. Shapur, however, did not convert to Manichaeism and remained a Zoroastrian.<ref>{{BBKL |m/mani|band=5|author=Marco Frenschkowski|artikel=Mani (iran. Mānī<; gr. Μανιχαῑος < ostaram. Mānī ḥayyā "der lebendige Mani")|spalten=669–680}}</ref>

== Coinage and imperial ideology ==
[[File:Dinar of Shapur I, ca. 260-272.jpg|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of Shapur I, minted at [[Ctesiphon]]]]
[[Image:Coin of Shapur I with eagle-headed crown.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient drachma|Drachma]] of Shapur wearing an eagle-headed crown]]

While Ardashir used the title "King of Kings of Iran(ians)", Shapur slightly changed it, adding the phrase "and non-Iran(ians)".{{sfn|Shayegan|2013|p=805}} The extended title demonstrates the incorporation of new territory into the empire; however, what was precisely seen as "non-Iran(ian)" (''[[aneran]]'') is not certain.{{sfn|Shayegan|2004|pp=462–464}} Although this new title was used on his inscriptions, it was almost never used on his [[Sasanian coinage|coinage]].{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|pp=21, 23}} The title first became regularized under Hormizd I.{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|p=21}}

== See also ==
* [[Shapour I's inscription in Ka'ba-ye Zartosht]]
* [[Shapour I's inscription in Naqsh-e Rostam]]
* [[Siege of Dura Europos (256)]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
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{{Refend}}

{{commons category}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian dynasty]]||||May 270}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Ardashir I]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran]]|years=240–270}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Hormizd I]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Sasanian Rulers}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shapur 01}}
[[Category:Shapur I| ]]
[[Category:270 deaths]]
[[Category:3rd-century Sasanian monarchs]]
[[Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:People from Firuzabad, Fars]]
[[Category:Shahnameh characters]]
[[Category:City founders]]