Editing Seán Lemass

{{Short description|Taoiseach from 1959 to 1966}}
{{Use Hiberno-English|date=September 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name           = Seán Lemass
| image          = Seán Lemass, 1966.jpg 
| caption        = Lemass in 1966
| office         = [[Taoiseach]]
| president      = [[Seán T. O'Kelly]]<br />[[Éamon de Valera]]
| 1blankname     = [[Tánaiste]]
| 1namedata      = [[Seán MacEntee]]<br />[[Frank Aiken]]
| term_start     = 23 June 1959
| term_end       = 10 November 1966
| predecessor    = Éamon de Valera
| successor      = [[Jack Lynch]]
| office1        = [[Leader of Fianna Fáil]]
| term_start1    = 23 June 1959
| term_end1      = 10 November 1966
| predecessor1   = Éamon de Valera
| successor1     = Jack Lynch
| office2        = [[Tánaiste]]
| taoiseach2     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start2    = 20 March 1957
| term_end2      = 23 June 1959
| predecessor2   = [[William Norton]]
| successor2     = [[Seán MacEntee]]
| taoiseach3     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start3    = 13 June 1951
| term_end3      = 2 June 1954
| predecessor3   = William Norton
| successor3     = William Norton
| taoiseach4     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start4    = 14 June 1945
| term_end4      = 18 February 1948
| predecessor4   = [[Seán T. O'Kelly]]
| successor4     = William Norton
| office5        = [[Minister for Enterprise, Trade and Employment|Minister for Industry and Commerce]]
| taoiseach5     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start5    = 20 March 1957
| term_end5      = 23 June 1959
| predecessor5   = William Norton
| successor5     = Jack Lynch
| taoiseach6     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start6    = 13 June 1951
| term_end6      = 2 June 1954
| predecessor6   = [[Thomas F. O'Higgins]]
| successor6     = William Norton
| taoiseach7     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start7    = 18 August 1941
| term_end7      = 18 February 1948
| predecessor7   = Seán MacEntee
| successor7     = [[Daniel Morrissey]]
| taoiseach8     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start8    = 9 March 1932
| term_end8      = 16 September 1939
| predecessor8   = [[Patrick McGilligan (Fine Gael politician)|Patrick McGilligan]]
| successor8     = Seán MacEntee
| office9        = [[Minister for Supplies]]
| taoiseach9     = Éamon de Valera
| term_start9    = 8 September 1939
| term_end9      = 31 July 1945
| predecessor9   = New office 
| successor9     = Office abolished
| office10       = [[Teachta Dála]]
| term_start10   = [[1948 Irish general election|February 1948]]
| term_end10     = [[1969 Irish general election|June 1969]]
| constituency10 = [[Dublin South-Central (Dáil constituency)|Dublin South-Central]]
| term_start11   = [[November 1924 Dublin South by-election|November 1924]]
| term_end11     = [[1948 Irish general election|February 1948]]
| constituency11 = [[Dublin South (Dáil constituency)|Dublin South]]
| birth_name     = John Francis Lemass
| birth_date     = {{birth date|1899|7|15|df=y}}
| birth_place    = [[Ballybrack]], [[Dublin]], Ireland
| death_date     = {{death date and age|1971|05|11|1899|07|15|df=y}}
| death_place    = [[Phibsborough]], Dublin, Ireland
| resting_place  = [[Deansgrange]], Dublin, Ireland
| party          = [[Fianna Fáil]] 
| spouse         = {{marriage|[[Kathleen Lemass|Kathleen Hughes]]|1924|<!--For deceased persons still married at time of death, do not include the end year, per [[Template:Infobox person]]-->}}
| children       = 4, including [[Maureen Haughey|Maureen]] and [[Noel Lemass|Noel]]
| relations      = {{Ubl|[[Charles Haughey]] (son-in-law)|[[Seán Haughey]] (grandson)|[[Eileen Lemass]] (daughter-in-law)}}
| education      = [[O'Connell School]]
|}}
'''Seán Francis Lemass''' (born '''John Francis Lemass'''; 15 July 1899 – 11 May 1971) was an Irish [[Fianna Fáil]] politician who served as [[Taoiseach]] and [[Leader of Fianna Fáil]] from 1959 to 1966. He also served as [[Tánaiste]] from 1957 to 1959, 1951 to 1954 and 1945 to 1948, [[Minister for Enterprise, Trade and Employment|Minister for Industry and Commerce]] from 1957 to 1959, 1951 to 1954, 1945 to 1949 and 1932 to 1939 and [[Minister for Supplies]] from 1939 to 1945. He served as a [[Teachta Dála]] (TD) from 1924 to 1969.

A veteran of the [[Easter Rising|1916 Easter Rising]], the [[Irish War of Independence|War of Independence]] and the [[Irish Civil War|Civil War]], Lemass was first elected as a [[Sinn Féin]] [[Teachta Dála|TD]] for the [[Dublin South (Dáil constituency)|Dublin South]] constituency in a [[1924 Dublin South by-election|by-election on 18 November 1924]].<ref>MacEoin, Uinseann (1997), ''The IRA in the twilight years 1923-1948'', Argenta Publications, Dublin, pg 96, ISBN 0951117246</ref> Lemass was returned at each election until the constituency was abolished in 1948 when he was re-elected for [[Dublin South-Central (Dáil constituency)|Dublin South-Central]] until his retirement in 1969. He was a founder-member of [[Fianna Fáil]] in 1926 and served as Minister for Industry and Commerce, Minister for Supplies and Tánaiste in successive Fianna Fáil governments.<ref name=oireachtas_db>{{cite web|url=https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/members/member/Se%C3%A1n-F-Lemass.D.1924-11-18/|title=Seán F. Lemass|work=Oireachtas Members Database|access-date=1 June 2009|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416210121/https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/members/member/Se%C3%A1n-F-Lemass.D.1924-11-18/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Lemass's legacy is tied to his efforts in facilitating industrial growth, bringing [[foreign direct investment]] into the country, and forging permanent links between Ireland and the [[European community]].<ref name=lemass_time>{{cite news|url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940296,00.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080117011631/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940296,00.html|url-status= dead|archive-date= 17 January 2008|title=Lifting the Green Curtain|work=TIME Magazine|access-date=11 July 2011|date=12 July 1963}}</ref> One of the most important modernizing reforms during Lemass's tenure was the introduction of free secondary education, an initiative that took effect shortly after Lemass retired as Taoiseach.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wallace |first=Duncan |title=Explore the Irish State Dataset and Reports |url=https://isad.ie/item.php?t=m&id=7 |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=Irish State Administration Database |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Lemass was born at Norwood Lodge, [[Ballybrack]], [[Dublin]] on 15 July 1899, the second of seven children born to John T. Lemass and his wife Frances ({{nee}} Phelan) Lemass.<ref name=dib>{{cite web|url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/lemass-sean-a4787|title=Lemass, Seán|work=[[Dictionary of Irish Biography]]|last=Fanning|first=Ronan|access-date=22 September 2022}}</ref> He was baptised at Ss. Alphonsus and Columba Roman Catholic Church, [[Killiney]], six days later, on 21 July 1899. The family operated a hatter and outfitter business and lived at the premises in Capel Street (in [[Dublin city centre]]) where Lemass grew up.<ref name="Sean Lemass: The Enigmatic Patriot">{{cite book|last=Horgan|first=John |title=Sean Lemass: The Enigmatic Patriot: The Definitive Biography of Ireland's Great Modernising Taoiseach|publisher=Gill Books|year=1997}}</ref><ref name="judginglemass">{{cite book|last=Garvin |first=Tom |title=Judging Lemass: The Measure of the Man |publisher=Royal Irish Academy|year=2009 |isbn=978-1-904890-57-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Irish National Archive|url=http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1911/Dublin/North_City/Capel_St_/36300/|title=1911 Census: Lemass family|access-date=8 February 2011|archive-date=26 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326082233/http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1911/Dublin/North_City/Capel_St_/36300/|url-status=live}}</ref> He was of distant French [[Huguenot]] descent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100059470|title=Sean Francis Lemass – oi|access-date=9 September 2019}}</ref> Within the family his name soon changed to Jack and eventually, after 1916, he himself preferred to be called Seán. He was educated at [[O'Connell School]], where he was described as studious. He won a first-class honours exhibition in mathematics in 1915.<ref name=dib/>

One of Lemass's classmates was the popular Irish comedian [[Jimmy O'Dea]]. Another friend during his youth was [[Tom Farquharson]], who went on to play as a [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeeper]] for [[Cardiff City F.C.|Cardiff City]]. In January 1915, Lemass was persuaded to join the [[Irish Volunteers]]. His mature looks ensured he would be accepted although he was only fifteen and a half at the time. Lemass became a member of the A Company of the 3rd Battalion of the Dublin Brigade. The battalion adjutant was [[Éamon de Valera]], future [[Taoiseach]] and [[President of Ireland]]. While out on a journey in the Dublin mountains during Easter 1916, Lemass and his brother Noel met two sons of Professor [[Eoin MacNeill]]. They informed the Lemasses of the [[Easter Rising]] that was taking place in the city. On Tuesday 25 April, Seán and Noel Lemass were allowed to join the Volunteer garrison at the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]]. Lemass was equipped with a [[shotgun]] and was positioned on the roof. He also was involved in fighting on Moore Street. However, by Friday the Rising had ended in failure and all involved were imprisoned. Lemass was held for a month in Richmond Barracks, due to his age he was released from the 1,783 that were arrested. Following this, Lemass's father wanted his son to continue with his studies and be called to the [[Irish Bar]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Deaths of the Lemass brothers===
Three of Lemass's brothers died while young. When he was 16, Lemass killed his own baby brother, Herbert, aged twenty-two months, in a domestic shooting accident with a revolver on 28 January 1916.<ref name=it-lemass-silent-anguish>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/se%C3%A1n-lemass-s-silent-anguish-1.1469235|title=Seán Lemass's silent anguish|newspaper=[[The Irish Times]]|date=21 July 2013|access-date=22 July 2013|author=Eunan O'Halpin|author-link=Eunan O'Halpin|archive-date=21 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721164117/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/se%C3%A1n-lemass-s-silent-anguish-1.1469235|url-status=live}}</ref> His older brother, Noel, an anti-[[Anglo-Irish Treaty|Treaty]] officer, was abducted in June 1923 and murdered the following October, when he was 25; the Lemass family believed he was killed by pro-treaty soldier, [[Emmet Dalton]].<ref name=it-lemass-silent-anguish/> Another of Lemass's brothers, Patrick, died of natural causes at the age of 19 in 1926.<ref name=it-lemass-silent-anguish/>

===Alongside "The Twelve Apostles"===
Following the Easter Rising, Lemass remained active in the Irish Volunteers, carrying out raids for arms. Until November 1920, Lemass remained a part-time member of the Volunteers. In that month, during the height of the [[Irish War of Independence]], twelve members of the Dublin Brigade of the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] took part in an attack on British agents living in Dublin, whose names and addresses had been leaked to [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] by his network of spies. The names<ref group="note">The "Twelve Apostles" were Joe Leonard, Seán Doyle, Jim Slattery, Bill Stapleton, Pat McCrae, James Conroy, Ben Barret and Patrick Daly. Mick McDonnell, the first leader, was later succeeded by Daly and, in January 1920, three men were added – Tom Keogh, Mick O'Reilly and Vincent Byrne. Byrne was the last of the "Apostles" to die, in 1992, aged 92.</ref> of those who carried out Collins' orders on the morning of 21 November 1920 were not disclosed until author [[Tim Pat Coogan]] mentioned them in his book on the history of the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]], published in 1970. Coogan identified Lemass as taking part in the killing of a British agent as a member of the "Apostles" assassin squad which killed thirteen (and wounded five other) [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] agents of the [[Cairo Gang]]. That day, 21 November 1920, became known as [[Bloody Sunday (1920)|Bloody Sunday]].<ref name=dib/>

Lemass was arrested in December 1920 and interned at [[Abercorn Barracks|Ballykinlar Camp]], [[County Down]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Orr |first1=Philip |title=Ballykinler Camp, The First Seven Decades, 1900-1969 |date=2012 |publisher=Down County Museum |isbn=978-0956727879}}</ref>

===Anti-treaty===
In December 1921, after the signing of [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]], Lemass was released. He became a training officer for a period in [[Beggars Bush Barracks]] before the IRA split and was involved in the Belfast Boycott operations (see [[The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)]]). During the debates of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1921, Lemass was one of the minority who opposed it along with de Valera. As a protest, all the anti-Treaty side withdrew from the [[Dáil]]. In the [[Irish Civil War]] which followed Lemass was adjutant to [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]], when the group seized the [[Four Courts]], the home of the [[High Court (Ireland)|High Court]] of Ireland. The occupation of the Four Courts eventually resulted in the outbreak of the Civil War, when, under British pressure, the Free State side shelled the building on 28 June 1922.<ref>C Townshend, "The Republic", p.412</ref> As a result, [[Battle of Dublin (1922)|fighting broke out in Dublin]] between pro and anti-Treaty factions. The Four Courts surrendered after two days of bombardment, however, Lemass escaped with [[Ernie O'Malley]] and some others to [[Blessington]].<ref>M. Hopkinson, "Green against Green", p.143-44.</ref> Their [[Flying Column]] operated in [[Enniscorthy]], [[Tullow]], [[Ferns, County Wexford|Ferns]], [[Baltinglass]] and [[Borris, County Carlow|Borris]] before the Column was broken up. Lemass and O'Malley returned to Dublin along with [[Thomas Derrig]] as a member of the IRA Eastern Command Headquarters but were later captured in December 1922 and interned in the [[Curragh Camp]].<ref name=dib/>

In June 1923, after the end of the civil war, Seán Lemass's brother Noel Lemass, an anti-Treaty IRA officer, was abducted in Dublin by a number of men, believed to be connected to the [[National Army (Ireland)|National Army]] or the Police [[Criminal Investigation Department (Ireland)|CID]] unit.<ref>[http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-820426-4.pdf#search=%22noel%20lemass%20Irish%20civil%20war%20oriel%20house%22 ''The State and Civil War'', 1921–1923] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051102074437/http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-820426-4.pdf |date=2 November 2005 }}, Oxford University Press</ref> He was held in secret until October when his mutilated body was found in the Dublin Mountains,<ref>{{cite book|last=Buning|first=Marius|title=Historicising Beckett: issues of performance  |editor=Marius Buning|publisher=Rodopi|year=2005|volume=15 of Samuel Beckett today/aujourd'hui|isbn=978-90-420-1767-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=POGHjjvY5g4C&q=%22Featherbed+mountain+in+dublin%22&pg=PA118|access-date=14 August 2009}}</ref> (see also [[Executions during the Irish Civil War]]). Seán Lemass was released from prison on compassionate grounds following his brother's death. On 18 November 1924, Lemass was elected for the first time as a [[Sinn Féin]] TD.<ref name=elecs_irl>{{cite web|url=http://electionsireland.org/candidate.cfm?ID=1472|title=Seán Lemass|work=ElectionsIreland.org|access-date=1 June 2009|archive-date=14 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414173522/http://www.electionsireland.org/candidate.cfm?ID=1472|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Political foundations and ministerial career ==
{{More citations needed|section|date=January 2024}}[[File:Seán Lemass 1924.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|left|Lemass being carried on the shoulders of some of his supporters following his by-election victory in 1924. It marked the beginning of a decades-long career in Dáil Eireann.]]
In 1926, de Valera, supported by Lemass, sought to convince [[Sinn Féin]] to accept the existence of the [[Irish Free State]] and the legitimacy of the [[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]], and to abandon its [[abstentionism|abstentionist]] intention to refuse to sit in the Dáil if elected. Their effort was unsuccessful, however, and in March 1926 both de Valera and Lemass resigned from the party.<ref name=dib/>

At this point, de Valera contemplated leaving public life, a decision that would have changed the course of Irish history. It was Lemass who encouraged him to stay and form a political party. In May, de Valera, assisted by [[Gerald Boland]] and Lemass, began to plan the new party, which became known as [[Fianna Fáil]] – The Republican Party.<ref group="note">Lemass, the pragmatist, wanted to call the new party simply ''The Republican Party''. De Valera, attached to [[Gaels|Gaelic]] symbolism, insisted on the [[Irish language]] name ''Fianna Fáil'' ("soldiers of destiny") after contemplating the name ''Fine Gael'' (meaning 'family of the Gael', which, ironically, became the name of the [[Fine Gael|main opposition party]] to Fianna Fáil). The eventual formal name chosen for the new party was a combination of de Valera's Irish and Lemass's English ideas. It was indicative of Lemass's status in 1926 that his preferred choice of name was included in the final title, albeit secondarily to de Valera's chosen name.</ref> Lemass travelled around the country trying to raise support for Fianna Fáil. The vast majority of Sinn Féin TDs were persuaded to join. The new party was strongly opposed to partition but accepted the ''de facto'' existence of the Free State, seeking to republicanise it from within. It opposed the controversial [[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]] and campaigned for its removal.<ref name=dib/>

Due largely to Lemass' organisational skill, most of Sinn Féin's branches defected to Fianna Fáil.<ref name="examnotes">[http://test.scoilnet.ie/Res/maryodubhain100899224214_2.html Exam notes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003030713/http://test.scoilnet.ie/Res/maryodubhain100899224214_2.html |date=3 October 2017 }} about Seán Lemass</ref> This enabled the new party to make a strong showing at [[June 1927 Irish general election|the June 1927 election]], taking 44 seats while reducing its parent party to only five. More importantly, this was only three seats behind the governing party, [[Cumann na nGaedheal]]. Pending the removal of the Oath of Allegiance, the party announced that it would not take up its Dáil seats. A court case was begun in the name of Lemass and others. However, the assassination by the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] of [[Kevin O'Higgins]], the [[Vice-President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State|Vice-President of the Executive Council]] (deputy prime minister), led to the passing of a new Act requiring all prospective Dáil candidates to take an oath that, if elected, they would swear the Oath of Allegiance; a refusal to do so would prohibit anyone from candidacy in a general or by-election.<ref name=dib/>

Faced with the threat of legal disqualification from politics, de Valera eventually took the Oath of Allegiance while claiming that he was simply signing a slip of paper to gain a right of participation in the Dáil, not ''actually'' taking an Oath. On 11 August 1927, having signed the Oath of Allegiance in front of a representative of the [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State]], the TDs from what Lemass described as "a slightly constitutional party" entered the Dáil. The party had another strong showing at [[September 1927 Irish general election|a fresh election in September]], taking 57 seats.<ref name=dib/>

Lemass was one of the party's stronger performers in opposition, attacking Cumann na nGaedheal as being too pro-British. He also attacked the government's stewardship of the economy, and was largely responsible for drafting Fianna Fáil's economic programme.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Minister for Industry and Commerce===
[[File:Seán Lemass circa 1932.png|thumb|left|Lemass in 1932]]
In 1932, Fianna Fáil took office in the [[Irish Free State]], remaining in government for 16 uninterrupted years. The party which Lemass had described as only a "slightly constitutional party" in 1929<ref group="note">In 1929 Lemass himself was not above resorting to illegal behaviour. He discussed with the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] the possibility of attacking [[Remembrance Day]] ceremonies due to be held in [[College Green, Dublin|College Green]] in the centre of Dublin and which drew thousands of people. However, the attack never took place and Lemass broke off contact with the IRA soon afterwards. ''National Archives of Ireland files''.{{Better source needed|date=April 2022}}</ref> was now leading the Free State, a state that de Valera and Lemass had fought a civil war to destroy a decade earlier. De Valera appointed Lemass as [[Minister for Enterprise, Trade and Employment|Minister for Industry and Commerce]], one of the more senior cabinet positions in the [[Executive Council of the Irish Free State|Executive Council]], which he would occupy, with only one short break, in all three of de Valera's governments.<ref name=dib/>

Lemass had the two difficult tasks of developing Irish industry behind his new tariff walls, and convincing the conservative [[Department of Finance (Ireland)|Department of Finance]] to promote state involvement in industry. Against the background of the [[Great Depression]], he and de Valera engaged in the [[Anglo-Irish Trade War]] which lasted from 1933 until 1938, causing severe damage and hardship to the Irish economy and the cattle industry. In 1933, Lemass set up the [[Industrial Credit Corporation]] to facilitate investment for industrial development; in the climate of the depression, investment had dried up. A number of semi-state companies, modelled on the success of the [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]], were also set up. These included the [[Irish Sugar Company]], to develop the sugar-beet industry, [[Bord na Móna|Turf Development Board]] for turf development, and an Irish airline, [[Aer Lingus]]. Years later Lemass described Aer Lingus as his "proudest achievement".<ref name=dib/>

The Irish market was still too small for multiple companies to exist, so practically all the semi-states had a monopoly on the Irish market. While Lemass concentrated on economic matters, de Valera focused primarily on constitutional affairs, leading to the passage of the new [[Constitution of Ireland]] in 1937. De Valera became [[Taoiseach]], while Lemass served in the new Government (the new name for the cabinet) again as Minister for Industry and Commerce.<ref name=dib/>

Subsequently, Irish [[economic historian]]s have found that many of his decisions on tariffs and licences were made on an ad-hoc basis, with little coherent policy and forward planning.<ref>Daly M.E., ''Industrial Development and Irish National Identity, 1922–39'' (Gill and Macmillan, Dublin 1992)</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Garvin|first=Tom|title=Preventing the Future; Why was Ireland so poor for so long?|url=http://www.gillmacmillan.ie/history/history/preventing-the-future|publisher=Gill & Macmillan|location=Dublin|date=2005|isbn=978-0-7171-3970-5|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052118/http://www.gillmacmillan.ie/history/history/preventing-the-future|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

===Minister for Supplies===
Lemass became [[Minister for Supplies]] in 1939, following the outbreak of [[World War II]] (known in Ireland as [[The Emergency (Ireland)|The Emergency]]). It was a crucial role for Ireland, which maintained official neutrality.<ref group="note">Irish neutrality was to a significant extent fiction, as revealed by government papers released years after the war{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}. The Irish government secretly aided the Allies; the date of [[D-Day]], for example, was decided because of weather forecasts from Ireland, which indicated approaching weather systems from the Atlantic, the right weather being crucial to the success of the [[Normandy Landings]].</ref>

The state had to achieve an unprecedented degree of self-sufficiency and it was Lemass's role to ensure this; he had the difficult task of organising what little resources existed. In 1941, the [[Irish Shipping|Irish Shipping Company]] was set up to keep a vital trickle of supplies coming into the country. However, petrol, gas, and some foodstuffs remained in short supply. When [[Seán T. O'Kelly]] was elected [[president of Ireland]] in 1945, de Valera chose Lemass over older cabinet colleagues to succeed him as [[Tánaiste]].<ref name=dib/>

===Post-war years===
[[File:IrelandRepublicPopulation1841.PNG|thumb|right|450px]]
After [[World War II]] Lemass sought help from the [[Marshall Aid]] Plan, securing $100m that was mainly spent on the road network. Emigration continued, particularly [[Irish migration to Great Britain|to Britain]]. Despite a high birth rate, the Republic's population continued to fall until the 1960s (see chart).

In 1948, partly due to its own increasing isolation and also due to a republican backlash against its anti-IRA policies (which during the Emergency had seen the execution of IRA prisoners – in part due to IRA links with the [[Nazism|Nazis]]), which had produced a rival republican party, [[Clann na Poblachta]], Fianna Fáil lost office.<ref name=dib/>

The [[Government of the 13th Dáil|First Inter-Party government]], made up of [[Fine Gael]], the [[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour Party]], [[National Labour Party (Ireland)|National Labour Party]], [[Clann na Talmhan]], Clann na Poblachta and Independents, was formed under Fine Gael TD [[John A. Costello]]. In opposition, Lemass played a crucial role in re-organising and streamlining Fianna Fáil. As a result of this, and also due to crises within the Inter-Party government over the controversial [[Mother and Child Scheme]], Fianna Fáil were not long out of government.<ref name=dib/>

In 1951, Fianna Fáil returned to office as a minority government. Lemass again returned as Minister for Industry and Commerce. Lemass believed that a new economic policy was needed, however, de Valera disagreed.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} [[Seán MacEntee]], the [[Minister for Finance (Ireland)|Minister for Finance]], tried to deal with the crisis in the balance of payments. He was also unsympathetic to a new economic outlook. In 1954, the government fell and was replaced by the [[Government of the 15th Dáil|Second Inter-Party government]].<ref name=dib/>

Lemass was confined to the Opposition benches for another three years. In 1957, de Valera, at the age of seventy-five, announced to Fianna Fáil that he planned to retire. He was persuaded however to become [[Taoiseach]] one more time until 1959 when the office of [[President of Ireland]] would become vacant. Lemass returned as [[Tánaiste]] and Minister for Industry and Commerce. In 1958, the first ''Programme for Economic Development'' was launched. De Valera was [[1959 Irish presidential election|elected president]] in 1959 and retired as [[Fianna Fáil]] leader and Taoiseach.<ref name=dib/>

==Taoiseach (1959–1966)==
On 23 June 1959, Seán Lemass was appointed [[Taoiseach]], on the nomination of [[Dáil Éireann]]. Many had wondered if [[Fianna Fáil]] could survive without de Valera as leader. However, Lemass quickly established his control over the party. Although he was one of the founding members of Fianna Fáil he was still only fifty-nine years old, seventeen years younger than De Valera. 

The change of personnel in Fianna Fáil was also accompanied by a change of personnel in [[Fine Gael]], with [[James Dillon (Fine Gael politician)|James Dillon]] becoming leader upon [[Richard Mulcahy]]'s retirement in 1959, and [[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour]], in which [[Brendan Corish]] succeeded [[William Norton]] in 1960. A generation of leaders who had dominated Irish politics for over three decades had moved off the stage of history – although neither Fine Gael nor Labour's new leaders initiated major policy changes on the level of Lemass's.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Lemass also initiated several changes in the cabinet. He is credited with providing a transition phase between the old guard and a new generation of professional politicians. Younger men such as [[Brian Lenihan Snr|Brian Lenihan]], [[Charles Haughey]], [[Patrick Hillery]] and [[Donogh O'Malley]] were all given their first cabinet [[Portfolio (government)|portfolio]]s by Lemass, and ministers who joined under de Valera, such as [[Jack Lynch]], [[Neil Blaney]] and [[Kevin Boland]] were promoted by the new Taoiseach. Similarly, several members of the old guard retired from politics during the Lemass era. By 1965, [[Frank Aiken]] was the only de Valera veteran remaining in government, and would become the only founder-member of Fianna Fáil to survive Lemass as a member of the government and the Dáil.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

{{anchor|Lemass era}}The term ''Lemass era'' is used by author and academic Brian Girvin to describe the period of economic change between 1959 and 1966. It is so termed because Lemass came from a business background, unlike the more academic and religious de Valera, and this was seen as a factor in the economic turnaround at the time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Girvin|first=Brian|title=The Lemass Era: Politics and Society in the Ireland of Sean Lemass|publisher=University College Dublin Press|year=2005|isbn=1904558291}}</ref> However, factors other than the leadership of Lemass had a role to play in the change in Ireland at the time – a generation of young politicians born after the [[Irish Civil War|Civil War]], the presence of [[T. K. Whitaker]] in the [[Department of Finance (Ireland)|Department of Finance]] and the arrival of television all had a role.<ref name=":0" />

During the Lemass era, the [[Industrial Development Authority|IDA]] greatly refocused its efforts on attracting quality industry, [[RTÉ]] was created, whilst population decline and emigration halted somewhat, and the Programme for Economic Expansion was implemented.<ref name=":0" />

The period also saw the destruction of much of [[Georgian Dublin]] to make way for modern buildings, and the resettlement of inner-city Dublin communities in new developments such as [[Ballymun]] and [[Tallaght]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Economic programmes===
Lemass summed up his economic philosophy by copying an often-quoted phrase: "A rising tide lifts all boats". By this, he meant that an upsurge in the Irish economy would benefit both the richest and the poorest.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

====First Programme for Economic Expansion====
[[File:Seán Lemass at Schiphol Airport (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Lemass in 1947]]
Although the White Paper entitled "Economic Development" was first introduced in 1958 in de Valera's last government, its main recommendations formed the basis for the First Programme for Economic Expansion, which was adopted by Lemass as [[Government of Ireland|government]] policy upon his ascension in 1959.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hanna|first=Erika|title= Modern Dublin Urban Change and the Irish Past, 1957–1973|location=Oxford|year=2013|pages=95–105|isbn=978-0-19-968045-0}}</ref>

The programme, which was the brainchild of [[T. K. Whitaker]], involved a move away from the [[protectionist]] policies that had been in place since the 1930s. Tax breaks and grants were also to be provided to foreign firms wishing to set up a company in Ireland. The programme also allowed for the spending of P£220&nbsp;million of state capital in investing in an integrated system of national development.<ref>The Irish currency was the [[Irish pound]] (IEP). It was abolished when Ireland adopted the [[Euro]] on 1 January 1999.</ref>

Following the introduction of this programme the policy of protection was eventually ended and the Control of Manufacturers Act, which had been in place since 1932 and had been introduced by Lemass himself, was also abolished. The implementation of the programme coincided with favourable trading conditions, which contributed to the initiative's popularity. However, the government's introduction of a 2.5% [[turnover tax]] in 1963, badly damaged the political position, with a by-election of that year reducing the government's majority to one seat. But by the beginning of 1964, another round of by-elections saw a rebound in the government's popularity: in the preceding five years, unemployment had fallen by a third; emigration had reduced considerably and the population grew for the first time since the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|famine]]. Agriculture was the only sector which failed to respond to the programme.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Professor [[Tom Garvin]] has found that the protectionist policies were first suggested to de Valera by Lemass in a paper written in 1929–30, and then adopted following the change of government in 1932. He considers the proposition that Lemass moved the economy away from free trade in the 1930s, and back into it in the 1960s; a costly mistake that affected many thousands of (non-voting) emigrants.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garvin|first=Tom|title=Preventing the Future|location=Dublin|year=2004|pages=45–46|isbn=0-7171-3771-6}}</ref>

The programme paved the way for [[free trade]]. In 1960, Ireland signed the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT), a worldwide agreement to reduce tariffs. In 1961, Ireland applied unsuccessfully for membership in the [[European Community|European Economic Community]]. Ireland's failure to join was said to be Lemass's biggest regret and disappointment as Taoiseach. Ireland eventually joined in 1973, two years after Lemass's death. The 1965 Merger Treaties paved the way for the signing of the Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement between Lemass's government and [[Harold Wilson]]'s Labour government.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

====Second Programme for Economic Expansion====
A Second Programme was launched in 1963, with even more ambitious targets. In particular, the policy focused on expenditures for education, with a doubling of expenditures planned, and high production goals for the dairy industry. Agriculture, which had disappointing results in the First Programme, was understated in the second – a clear break in the Lemass policies from de Valera's longstanding courting of rural voters.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

The Second Programme was discontinued in 1967 after Lemass had left office and the programme's goals proved far from completion.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Social change===
As a result of the economic expansion, there was an increase in industrialisation and urbanisation. An increase in prosperity also led to a move away from insularity and conservatism in Irish life. This was facilitated in no small part by the establishment of the state television service, [[Raidió Teilifís Éireann]] on 31 December 1961. Television programmes, such as ''[[The Late Late Show (Irish talk show)|The Late Late Show]]'' and imported American and British ones, had a profound effect on a change in attitude. Subjects such as contraception, the Catholic Church and divorce were being discussed openly in a way that previous generations would never have imagined. The pontificate of [[Pope John XXIII]] and the [[Second Vatican Council]] also had a profound effect on the changing attitudes of Irish Catholics.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

In 1963, Ireland saw the first visit of a sitting [[US President]] to Ireland, President [[John F. Kennedy]], the great-grandson of an Irish emigrant, came on an official visit. His visit seemed to symbolise a new age for the post-Famine Irish. During his visit Kennedy visited distant relatives in [[County Wexford]], as well as visiting [[Dublin]], [[Cork (city)|Cork]], [[Galway]] and [[Limerick]]. Kennedy later said that his four-day visit to Ireland was one of his most enjoyable. Kennedy later personally invited Lemass back to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in October of the same year. One month later the young President Kennedy would be assassinated.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

In 1965, a report titled "Investment in Education" was published. After over forty years of independence, the report painted a depressing picture of a system where no changes had taken place. Lemass appointed several young and intelligent men to the post of [[Minister for Education (Ireland)|Minister for Education]], including Patrick Hillery and [[George Colley]]. Under these people, a slow process of change eventually began to take place.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

The most innovative change in education came in 1966 when [[Donogh O'Malley]] was appointed Minister. Shortly after taking over O'Malley announced that from 1969 all schools up to Intermediate level<ref group="note">The [[Intermediate Certificate (Ireland)|Intermediate Certificate]] was an examination taken after three years' study in a secondary school. See [[Junior Certificate]] for the modern equivalent.</ref> would be free and free buses would provide transport for the students. This plan had the backing of Lemass; O'Malley, however, never discussed this hugely innovative and expensive plan with any other cabinet ministers, least of all the Minister for Finance [[Jack Lynch]].{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} However, the plan was not expensive in the long term and has continued ever since. O'Malley had died by the time his brainchild came to maturity.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Various improvements in welfare provision were also carried out during the Lemass era. In 1960, old-age pension insurance was introduced for all manual workers and for salaried employees under a certain earnings ceiling, and in 1963, child allowances were extended to the first child.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GaWtd5zJfB8C&q=growth+to+limits+ireland+old+age+pension+insurance+for+all+manual+wage+earners&pg=PA248|title=Growth to Limits: The Western European Welfare States Since World War II|first=Peter|last=Flora|date=2 November 1986|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|access-date=2 November 2017|via=Google Books|isbn=9783110111316|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429151053/https://books.google.com/books?id=GaWtd5zJfB8C&q=growth+to+limits+ireland+old+age+pension+insurance+for+all+manual+wage+earners&pg=PA248|url-status=live}}</ref> A National Manpower Agency was also established.<ref>Ideologues, Partisans, and Loyalists Ministers and Policymaking in Parliamentary Cabinets By Despina Alexiadou, 2016, P.182</ref>

===Northern Ireland===
The failure of the IRA [[Border Campaign (IRA)|border campaign]] in the 1950s and the accession of Lemass as Taoiseach heralded a new policy towards [[Northern Ireland]]. Although he was of the staunch republican tradition that rejected partition, he saw clearly that it was unlikely to end in the foreseeable future and that consequently the Republic was better served by disposing of the matter.<ref name="judginglemass"/> The new Taoiseach played down the [[Irish nationalism|nationalist]] and anti-partition rhetoric that had done little to further the situation over the previous forty years. Still, as long as the hardline [[Basil Brooke, 1st Viscount Brookeborough|Basil Brooke]] was [[Prime Minister of Northern Ireland]] there was little hope of a ''rapprochement''.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

However, in 1963, [[Terence O'Neill]], a younger man with a more pragmatic outlook, succeeded Brooke as Prime Minister. He had years before told Tony Grey of ''[[The Irish Times]]'' that if he ever succeeded Brooke, he hoped to meet with Lemass.<ref>{{cite book|last=O Sullivan |first=Michael |title=Seán Lemass: A Biography |publisher=Blackwater Press|year=1994 |page=178 |isbn=978-0-86121-583-6}}</ref> A friendship had developed between O'Neill's secretary, Jim Malley, and the Irish civil servant, [[T. K. Whitaker]]. A series of behind-the-scenes negotiations resulted in O'Neill issuing an invitation to Lemass to visit him at [[Stormont, Belfast|Stormont]] in [[Belfast]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Michael J.|title=Division and consensus: the politics of cross-border relations in Ireland, 1925–1969|publisher=Institute of Public Administration|year=2000|pages=232–|isbn=978-1-902448-30-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=asK9EjEpcYAC&q=tk+whitaker&pg=PA232|access-date=21 November 2020|archive-date=11 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211223006/https://books.google.com/books?id=asK9EjEpcYAC&q=tk+whitaker&pg=PA232|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 14 January 1965, Lemass travelled to [[Belfast]] in the utmost secrecy. The media and even his own cabinet had not been informed until the very last minute. The meeting got a mixed reaction in the North. In the [[Republic of Ireland|Republic]], however, it was seen as a clear indication that the "Irish Cold War" had ended, or at least that a thaw had set in. Lemass returned the invitation on 9 February of the same year by inviting O'Neill to [[Dublin]], but he did not want to be seen to be anti-British. The Irish government encouraged overseas developments with the [[United States]], so that they could share in the 50th-anniversary celebrations of the Easter Rising. The two leaders discussed cooperation between the two states on general economic matters; local services such as road systems and sewage facilities; agriculture, including exempting Northern Ireland from Britain's quota on butter imports from the Republic; customs; and all-Ireland representation in international sporting events.<ref name="judginglemass" /> While in 1966 people began to take notice of [[Ian Paisley]]'s more hard-line speeches, O'Neill was by Ulster standards a "liberal" (Roy Hattersley MP), and Harold Wilson's government decided that there had to be radical change as a consequence of the diplomatic {{lang|fr|rapprochement}} with Lemass.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} The 50th Anniversary of the Easter Rising was celebrated by [[Insurrection (TV series)|Insurrection]], a TV mini-series commissioned by [[RTÉ]] that was later broadcast on the [[BBC]].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

The meetings heralded a new (but short-lived) era of optimism, although, for the most part, it was manifested in the Republic. Hardline Northern [[Unionism in Ireland|unionists]] led by Ian Paisley continued to oppose any dealings with the Republic, and even moderate unionists felt the 50th-anniversary celebrations of [[Easter Rising]] in 1966 were insulting to them. The rise of the [[civil rights]] campaign and the unionists' refusal to acknowledge it ended the optimism with violence in 1969, after Lemass's term in office had finished.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Foreign policy===
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2012}}
The Lemass era saw some significant developments in Irish foreign policy. [[Frank Aiken]] served as [[Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade|Minister for External Affairs]] during the whole of Lemass's tenure as Taoiseach. At the [[United Nations]], Aiken took an independent stance and backed the admission of [[People's Republic of China|China]] to the organisation, in spite of huge protests from the United States. Admitted only in 1955, Ireland played a large role at the UN, serving on the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] in 1962, condemning Chinese aggression in [[Tibet]] and advocating nuclear arms limitation. One of the main areas of foreign policy which emerged during the Lemass years was a debate{{Clarify|date=April 2009}} over [[Irish neutrality|Ireland's neutrality]], a debate that has never been formally resolved, with the de facto policy being to avoid joining military engagements or alliances without neutrality as it's traditionally understood.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Lemass was always sceptical about remaining neutral, particularly if Ireland were to join the [[European Economic Community]]. Aiken was much more in favour of a neutral, independent stance. In 1960, [[Irish Army|Irish troops]] embarked on their first peace-keeping mission in the First Republic of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]. Nine soldiers were killed during this mission.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

While Aiken was at the UN, Lemass played a major role in pressing for Ireland's membership of the EEC which in many ways became the chief foreign policy consideration during the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael J.|last=Geary|title=An Inconvenient Wait: Ireland's Quest for Membership of the EEC, 1957–73|location=Dublin|publisher=Institute for Public Administration|date=2009|chapter=Chapters 1–2}}</ref>

==Personal life==
On 24 August 1924, Lemass married [[Kathleen Lemass|Kathleen Hughes]], much to the disapproval of the bride's parents. The wedding took place in the Roman Catholic Church of the Holy Name, [[Ranelagh]], Dublin. [[Jimmy O'Dea]], the well-known comedian, acted as Lemass's [[best man]].<ref name=dib/>

Together Seán and Kathleen had four children – [[Maureen Haughey|Maureen]], Peggy (1927–2004), [[Noel Lemass|Noel]] and Sheila (1932–1997). Maureen Lemass would marry [[Charles Haughey]], a successor of Lemass as [[Fianna Fáil]] leader and [[Taoiseach]].<ref name=dib/>

===Retirement===
In 1966, [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] celebrated the 50th anniversary of the 1916 Easter Rising. Éamon de Valera came within 1% of defeat in [[1966 Irish presidential election|that year's Irish presidential election]], less than two months after the celebrations in which he played such a central part. On 10 November 1966, Lemass announced to the [[Dáil]] his decision to retire as [[Fianna Fáil]] leader and [[Taoiseach]] with his usual penchant for efficiency, "I have resigned". Lemass retired to the backbenches and remained a TD until 1969.<ref name=dib/>

On the day of Lemass's retirement, [[Jack Lynch]] became the new leader and became the Taoiseach.<ref name=dib/>

===Death===
During the last few years of his leadership, Lemass's health began to deteriorate. He had been a heavy pipe smoker all his life, smoking almost a pound of tobacco a week in later life. At the time of his retirement, it was suspected that Lemass had cancer, but this assumption was later disproved. In February 1971, while attending a rugby game at [[Lansdowne Road]], he became unwell; he was rushed to hospital and was told by his doctor that one of his lungs was about to collapse.<ref name=dib/>

On Tuesday, 11 May 1971, Seán Lemass died in the [[Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, Dublin|Mater Hospital]] in Dublin, aged 71.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishhistorian.com/Selections/October_2013_Selection.html#facts|title=Irish Historian Selection October 2013|website=Irishhistorian.com|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107015020/http://www.irishhistorian.com/Selections/October_2013_Selection.html#facts|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/stories.php3?ca=9&si=1633582&issue_id=14207|title=Political Acclaim for Seán Lemass1971|website=RTE Archives|date=26 August 2016|access-date=30 April 2021|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192913/http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/stories.php3?ca=9&si=1633582&issue_id=14207|url-status=live}}</ref> He was afforded a [[List of Irish state funerals|state funeral]] and was buried in [[Deansgrange]] Cemetery.<ref name=dib/>

==Legacy==
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2008}}
Lemass remains one of the most highly regarded holders of the office of Taoiseach, being described even by later [[Fine Gael]] [[Taoiseach|Taoisigh]] [[Garret FitzGerald]] and [[John Bruton]]<ref group="note">Bruton hung a picture of Lemass, as well as [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] leader [[John Redmond]], in his office.</ref> as the best holder of the office, and the man whose cabinet leadership style they wished to follow. Some historians have questioned whether Lemass came to the premiership too late, arguing that had he replaced de Valera as Fianna Fáil leader and Taoiseach in 1951 he could have begun the process of reform of Irish society and the industrialisation of Ireland a decade earlier than 1959 when he eventually achieved the top governmental job. Others speculate whether he had been able to achieve some of his policy reforms he initiated in the 1950s precisely because de Valera was still the leader, his opponents being unwilling to challenge him given that he appeared to have de Valera's backing.

What is not in doubt is that Éamon de Valera and Seán Lemass held diametrically different visions of Ireland; de Valera's was of a pastoral rural-based society "given to frugal living", while Lemass had a vision of a modern industrialised society, a member of the European Community. Lemass's coolness towards the revival of the [[Irish language]] and intellectual agnosticism also contrasted with de Valera's passionate Gaelicism and commitment to traditional Catholicism.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/lemass-kept-agnostic-musings-and-religious-faith-strictly-private-1.128823|title=Lemass kept agnostic musings and religious faith strictly private|newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |access-date=9 September 2019|archive-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116040512/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/lemass-kept-agnostic-musings-and-religious-faith-strictly-private-1.128823|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Lemass quotations===
* '[[Fianna Fáil]] is a slightly constitutional party...but before anything we are a [[Irish republicanism|republican]] party.' (1928)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0022/D.0022.192803210025.html |title=Dáil Éireann – Volume 22 – 21 March 1928 – PRIVATE DEPUTIES' BUSINESS. – REVIEW OF PRISONERS' CASES—PROPOSED SELECT COMMITTEE |access-date=13 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404160152/http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0022/D.0022.192803210025.html |archive-date=4 April 2009 }}</ref>
* 'A rising tide lifts all boats.' (1964, attributed to [[John F. Kennedy]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0208/D.0208.196404150045.html |title=Dáil Éireann – Volume 208 – 15 April 1964 – Committee on Finance. – Resolution No. 11—General (Resumed) |access-date=13 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404160150/http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0208/D.0208.196404150045.html |archive-date=4 April 2009 }}</ref>
* 'The historical task of this generation, as I see it, is to consolidate the economic foundations of our political independence.' (1959)
* 'First and foremost we wish to see the [[United Ireland|re-unification of Ireland]] restored. By every test Ireland is one nation with a fundamental right to have its essential unity expressed in its political institutions.' (1960)
* 'The country is, I think, like an aeroplane at the take-off stage. It has become airborne; that is the stage of maximum risk and any failure of power could lead to a crash. It will be a long time before we can throttle back to level flight.' (1961)
* 'A defeatist attitude now would surely lead to defeat...We can't opt out of the future.' (1965)
* 'I regret that time would not stand still for me so that I could go on indefinitely.' (1966)
* 'RTE was set up by legislation as an instrument of public policy, and, as such is responsible to the government.' (1966)

==Governments==
The following governments were led by Lemass:
*[[9th government of Ireland]] (June 1959 – October 1961)
*[[10th government of Ireland]] (October 1961 – April 1965)
*[[11th government of Ireland]] (April 1965 – November 1966)

==See also==
*[[List of people on the postage stamps of Ireland]]
*[[Glimmer Man]]

==Notes==
<references group="note"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Wilsford, David, ed. ''Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary'' (Greenwood, 1995) pp.&nbsp;274–79.
*[https://digital.ucd.ie/view/ivrla:31149 Index to the speeches of Seán Lemass as Taoiseach.] A UCD Digital Library Collection.

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