Editing Scottish Enlightenment

{{short description|Intellectual movement in 18th–19th century Scotland}}
[[File:David Hume and Adam Smith statues, Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|250px|[[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]] on the [[Scottish National Portrait Gallery]]]]
{{History of Scotland}}
The '''Scottish Enlightenment''' ({{langx|sco|Scots Enlichtenment}}, {{langx|gd|Soillseachadh na h-Alba}}) was the period in [[History of Scotland#18th century|18th- and early-19th-century Scotland]] characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, [[Scotland]] had a network of parish schools in the [[Scottish Lowlands]] and five universities. The [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment culture]] was based on close readings of new books, and intense discussions which took place daily at such intellectual gathering places in Edinburgh as [[The Select Society]] and, later, [[The Poker Club]], as well as within Scotland's [[Ancient universities of Scotland|ancient universities]] ([[University of St Andrews|St Andrews]], [[Glasgow University|Glasgow]], [[Edinburgh University|Edinburgh]], [[University of Aberdeen|King's College, and Marischal College]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title='Natural History, Natural Philosophy and Readership', in Stephen Brown and Warren McDougall (eds.), The Edinburgh History of the Book in Scotland, Vol. II: Enlightenment and Expansion, 1707–1800|date=2012|publisher=University of Edinburgh|location=Edinburgh|pages=297–309|url=https://www.academia.edu/3770441}}</ref><ref>Mark R. M. Towsey (2010). ''Reading the Scottish Enlightenment: Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750–1820''.</ref>

Sharing the [[humanist]] and [[rational]] outlook of the [[Western Enlightenment]] of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority that could not be justified by reason. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing [[empiricism]] and practicality where the chief values were improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for the individual and society as a whole.

Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, botany and zoology, law, agriculture, chemistry and sociology. Among the Scottish thinkers and scientists of the period were [[Joseph Black]], [[James Boswell]], [[Robert Burns]], [[William Cullen]], [[Adam Ferguson]], [[David Hume]], [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], [[James Hutton]], [[Lord Monboddo]], [[John Playfair]], [[Thomas Reid]], [[Adam Smith]], and [[Dugald Stewart]].

The Scottish Enlightenment had effects far beyond Scotland, not only because of the esteem in which Scottish achievements were held outside Scotland, but also because its ideas and attitudes were carried all over Great Britain and across the [[Western world]] as part of the [[Scottish diaspora]], and by foreign students who studied in Scotland.

==Background==
The union with the [[Kingdom of England]] in 1707, which formed the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], meant the end of the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament]]. The parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and [[placemen]] moved to London. [[Scottish law]] remained entirely separate from [[English law]], so the civil law courts, lawyers and jurists remained in Edinburgh. The headquarters and leadership of the [[Church of Scotland]] also remained, as did the universities and the medical establishment. The lawyers and the divines, together with the professors, intellectuals, medical men, scientists and architects formed a new [[middle class]] elite that dominated urban Scotland and facilitated the Scottish Enlightenment.<ref>Alexander Broadie, ''The Scottish Enlightenment'' (1997) p. 10.</ref><ref>Michael Lynch, ed., ''Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (2001) pp. 133–37.</ref>

===Economic growth===
{{Main article|Economy of Scotland in the early modern era}}
At the union of 1707, the Kingdom of England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth, but there were five Scottish universities ([[University of St Andrews|St. Andrews]], [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]], [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]], and [[Aberdeen|Aberdeen's]] [[King's College, Aberdeen|King's College]] and [[Marischal College]]) against two in the Kingdom of England. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap.<ref>R. H. Campbell, "The Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. II: The Economic Consequences", ''Economic History Review'', vol. 16, April 1964.</ref> Contacts with the Kingdom of England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their displaced workers, enclosures led to unemployment and forced migrations to the burghs or abroad.<ref>J. D. Mackie, B. Lenman and G. Parker, ''A History of Scotland'' (London: Penguin, 1991), {{ISBN|0140136495}}, pp. 288–91.</ref> The major change in international trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market.<ref name=Mackie1991p292>J. D. Mackie, B. Lenman and G. Parker, ''A History of Scotland'' (London: Penguin, 1991), {{ISBN|0140136495}}, p. 292.</ref> Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade; initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, re-exporting particularly to France. The merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy [[tobacco lord]]s, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century.<ref name=autogenerated2>J. D. Mackie, B. Lenman and G. Parker, ''A History of Scotland'' (London: Penguin, 1991), {{ISBN|0140136495}}, p. 296.</ref> Banking also developed in this period. The [[Bank of Scotland]], founded in 1695 was suspected of [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] sympathies, and so a rival [[Royal Bank of Scotland]] was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr. These made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade.<ref name=Mackie1991p297>J. D. Mackie, B. Lenman and G. Parker, ''A History of Scotland'' (London: Penguin, 1991), {{ISBN|0140136495}}, p. 297.</ref>

===Education system===
{{Main article|Education in early modern Scotland}}
The humanist-inspired emphasis on education in Scotland culminated in the passing of the [[Education Act 1496]], which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools.<ref name=Bawcutt&Williams2006pp29-30>P. J. Bawcutt and J. H. Williams, ''A Companion to Medieval Scottish Poetry'' (Woodbridge: Brewer, 2006), {{ISBN|1-84384-096-0}}, pp. 29–30.</ref> The aims of a network of parish schools were taken up as part of the Protestant programme in the 16th century and a series of acts of the Privy Council and Parliament in [[School Establishment Act 1616|1616]], [[Education Act 1633|1633]], [[Education Act 1646|1646]] and 1696 attempted to support its development and finance.<ref>{{cite journal |title=School education prior to 1873 |journal=Scottish Archive Network |year=2010 |url=http://www.scan.org.uk/knowledgebase/topics/education_box1.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928100213/http://www.scan.org.uk/knowledgebase/topics/education_box1.htm |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By the late 17th century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas.<ref name=Anderson2003>R. Anderson, "The history of Scottish Education pre-1980", in T. G. K. Bryce and W. M. Humes, eds, ''Scottish Education: Post-Devolution'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2nd ed., 2003), {{ISBN|0-7486-1625-X}}, pp. 219–28.</ref> One of the effects of this extensive network of schools was the growth of the "democratic myth", which in the 19th century created the widespread belief that many a "lad of pairts" had been able to rise up through the system to take high office, and that literacy was much more widespread in Scotland than in neighbouring states, particularly England.<ref name="Anderson2003"/> Historians are now divided over whether the ability of boys who pursued this route to social advancement was any different than that in other comparable nations, because the education in some parish schools was basic and short, and attendance was not compulsory.<ref name=Devine2001p91-100>T. M. Devine. ''The Scottish Nation, 1700–2000'' (London: Penguin Books, 2001). {{ISBN|0-14-100234-4}}, pp. 91–100.</ref> Regardless of what the literacy rate actually was, it is clear that many Scottish students learned a useful form of visual literacy that allowed them to organise and remember information in a superior fashion.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eddy|first=Matthew Daniel |url=https://www.academia.edu/1817033 |title=The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy|journal=Science in Context |year=2013|volume=26|issue=2 |pages=215–45 |doi=10.1017/s0269889713000045|s2cid=147123263 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title=The Child Writer: Graphic Literacy and the Scottish Educational System, 1700–1820|journal=History of Education|date=2016|volume=45|issue=6|pages=695–718|url=https://www.academia.edu/23569976|doi=10.1080/0046760x.2016.1197971|s2cid=151785513}}</ref>

By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with England's two. After the disruption of the civil wars ([[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]), [[Scotland under the Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] and purges at the [[Restoration (Scotland)|Restoration]], they recovered with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry.<ref name=Anderson2003/> All saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at King's and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen. [[Robert Sibbald]] (1641–1722) was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the [[Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh]] in 1681.<ref name=Devine2012p373>T. M. Devine. "The rise and fall of the Scottish Enlightenment", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), {{ISBN|0-19-162433-0}}, p. 373.</ref> These developments helped the universities to become major centres of medical education and would put Scotland at the forefront of new thinking.<ref name=Anderson2003/> By the end of the century, the University of Edinburgh's Medical School was arguably one of the leading centres of science in Europe, boasting such names as the anatomist [[Alexander Monro (secundus)]], the chemists [[William Cullen]] and Joseph Black,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=M D|title=Useful Pictures: Joseph Black and the Graphic Culture of Experimentation|journal=In Robert G. W. Anderson (Ed.), Cradle of Chemistry: The Early Years of Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh (Edinburgh: John Donald, 2015)|pages=99–118|url=https://www.academia.edu/6346321}}</ref> and the [[natural historian]] [[John Walker (naturalist)|John Walker]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Eddy|first=Matthew Daniel|url=https://www.academia.edu/1112014 |title=The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800|year=2008|publisher=Ashgate|access-date=2014-05-09}}</ref> By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, Germany or France. Attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative.<ref>R. A. Houston, ''Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), {{ISBN|0-521-89088-8}}, p. 245.</ref> In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the intellectual benefits of this system.<ref name="HermanTwo">A. Herman, ''How the Scots Invented the Modern World'' (London: Crown Publishing Group, 2001), {{ISBN|0-609-80999-7}}.</ref>

===Intellectual climate===
In France, the Enlightenment was based in the [[Salon (gathering)|salons]] and culminated in the great ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' (1751–1772) edited by [[Denis Diderot]] and (until 1759) [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] (1713–1784) with contributions by hundreds of leading intellectuals such as [[Voltaire]] (1694–1778), [[Rousseau]] (1712–1778)<ref>D. Vallier, ''Rousseau'' (New York: Crown, c1979).</ref> and [[Montesquieu]] (1689–1755). Some 25,000 copies of the 35-volume set were sold, half of them outside France. In Scottish intellectual life the culture was oriented towards books.{{clarify|date=December 2014}}<ref>Mark R. M. Towsey, ''Reading the Scottish Enlightenment: Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750–1820'' (2010).</ref> In 1763 Edinburgh had six printing houses and three paper mills; by 1783 there were 16 printing houses and 12 paper mills.<ref>R. B. Sher, "Scotland Transformed: The Eighteenth Century", in J. Wormald, ed., ''Scotland: A History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 169.</ref>

Intellectual life revolved around a series of clubs, beginning in Edinburgh in the 1710s. One of the first was the Easy Club, co-founded In Edinburgh by the Jacobite printer [[Thomas Ruddiman]]. Clubs did not reach Glasgow until the 1740s. One of the first and most important in the city was the Political Economy Club, aimed at creating links between academics and merchants,<ref name="Lynch1992p346">M. Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'' (London: Pimlico, 1992), {{ISBN|0712698930}}, p. 346.</ref> of which noted economist [[Adam Smith]] was a prominent early member.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wood |editor-first1=John Cunningham |title=Adam Smith: Critical Assessments vol. 1 |date=1993 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9780415108942 |page=95 |edition=[Repr.].}}</ref> Other clubs in Edinburgh included [[The Select Society]], formed by the younger [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]], a prominent artist, and philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith<ref name="MacDonald2000p57">M. MacDonald, ''Scottish Art'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 2000), {{ISBN|0500203334}}, p. 57.</ref> and, later, [[The Poker Club]], formed in 1762 and named by [[Adam Ferguson]] for the aim to "poke up" opinion on the militia issue.<ref name="Lynch1992p348">M. Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'' (London: Pimlico, 1992), {{ISBN|0712698930}}, p. 348.</ref>

Historian [[Jonathan Israel]] argues that by 1750 Scotland's major cities had created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions, such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment".<ref name="HermanTwo"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Israel|first=Jonathan|title=Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xP4l0ug3rAC&pg=PA233|year=2011|publisher=Oxford UP|page=233|access-date=2014-05-09|isbn=9780191620041}}</ref> Bruce Lenman says their "central achievement was a new capacity to recognize and interpret social patterns."<ref>R. A. Houston and W. W. J. Knox, ''The New Penguin History of Scotland'' (London: Penguin, 2001) p. 342.</ref>

The Scottish Enlightenment owed much to the highly literate culture of Scottish Presbyterianism. Established as the Church of Scotland following the Revolution of 1688, the Presbyterians supported the 1707 Act of Union, and the protestant Hanoverian monarchy. The eighteenth century saw divisions and dispute between hard-line traditional Calvinists, Enlightenment influenced Moderates, and increasingly popular Evangelicals. Moderate clergy, with their emphasis on reason, toleration, morality and polite manners, were ascendant in the universities. Some of the leading intellectual lights of the Scottish Enlightenment were Presbyterian ministers, such as William Robertson (1721–93), historian and principal of the University of Edinburgh. The careers of sceptics, such as Adam Smith and David Hume, owed much to the tolerance, support and friendship of Moderate clergy.

Such was the reputation of the Scottish clergy for their Enlightenment values that a friend in England asked the Rev. James Wodrow, a minister in Ayrshire, whether two thirds of the Scottish clergy were in reality Deists. Wodrow dismissed the suggestion, and observed that "I cannot imagine the number of Deists among us bear almost any proportion at all to the rest. A few about Edinburgh in east Lothian & in the Merse by reading David Hume's books & by their conversation & connexions with him & his friends, to whom you may add a scatered Clergyman or two here & there in other parts of [the] Country who has happened to get his education among that set of people; are all you can reckon upon & it is no way difficult to account for their forsaking the faith … & loving a present World & the mode of thinking fashionable in it." (James Wodrow to Samuel Kenrick, 25 January 1769).<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fitzpatrick|first1=Martin|title=The Wodrow-Kenrick Correspondence 1750–1810, Volume I: 1750–1783|last2=Macleod|first2=Emma|last3=Page|first3=Anthony|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198809012|location=Oxford|pages=291–92}}</ref>

==Major intellectual areas==

===Empiricism and inductive reasoning===
{{Cleanup section|reason=Despite the heading, this section lacks content on inductive reasoning.|date=September 2018}}
The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]] (1694–1746), who was professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow from 1729 to 1746. He was an important link between the ideas of [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]] and the later school of [[Scottish Common Sense Realism]], developing [[Utilitarianism]] and [[Consequentialist]] thinking.<ref name="Mitchison1983p.150"/> Also influenced by Shaftesbury was [[George Turnbull (theologian)|George Turnbull]] (1698–1748), who was regent at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and who published pioneering work in the fields of Christian ethics, art and education.<ref>A. Broadie, ''A History of Scottish Philosophy'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), {{ISBN|0748616276}}, p. 120.</ref>

[[David Hume]] (1711–76) whose ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' (1738) and ''[[Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary|Essays, Moral and Political]]'' (1741) helped outline the parameters of philosophical [[Empiricism]] and [[Scepticism]].<ref name=Mitchison1983p.150>R. Mitchison, ''Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), {{ISBN|074860233X}}, p. 150.</ref> He would be a major influence on later Enlightenment figures including [[Adam Smith]], [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]].<ref>B. Freydberg, ''David Hume: Platonic Philosopher, Continental Ancestor'' (Suny Press, 2012), {{ISBN|1438442157}}, p. 105.</ref> Hume's argument that there were no efficient causes hidden in nature was supported and developed by [[Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown]] (1778–1820), who was [[Dugald Stewart]]'s (1753–1828) successor at Edinburgh and who would be a major influence on later philosophers including [[John Stuart Mill]].<ref>G. Graham, ''Scottish Philosophy: Selected Readings 1690–1960'' (Imprint Academic, 2004), {{ISBN|0907845746}}, p. 165.</ref>

In contrast to Hume, [[Thomas Reid]] (1710–96), a student of Turnbull's, along with minister [[George Campbell (minister)|George Campbell]] (1719–96) and writer and moralist [[James Beattie (writer)|James Beattie]] (1735–1803), formulated [[Common Sense Realism]].<ref>R. Emerson, "The contexts of the Scottish Enlightenment" in A. Broadie, ed., ''The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), {{ISBN|978-0-521-00323-0}}, p. 21.</ref> Reid set out his theories in ''An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense'' (1764).<ref>E. J. Wilson, P. H. Reill, ''Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment'' (Infobase Publishing, 2nd ed., 2004), {{ISBN|0816053359}}, pp. 499–501.</ref> This approach argued that there are certain concepts, such as human existence, the existence of solid objects and some basic moral "first principles", that are intrinsic to the make up of man and from which all subsequent arguments and systems of morality must be derived. It can be seen as an attempt to reconcile the new scientific developments of the Enlightenment with religious belief.<ref name=Gutjhar2011p39>Paul C. Gutjahr, ''Charles Hodge: Guardian of American Orthodoxy'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), {{ISBN|0199740429}}), p. 39.</ref>

===Literature===
{{Main article|Scottish literature in the eighteenth century}}
Major literary figures originating in Scotland in this period included [[James Boswell]] (1740–95), whose ''An Account of Corsica'' (1768) and ''[[The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides]]'' (1785) drew on his extensive travels and whose ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson]]'' (1791) is a major source on one of the English Enlightenment's major men of letters and his circle.<ref>E. J. Wilson and P. H. Reill, ''Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment'' (Infobase, 2nd ed., 2004), {{ISBN|0816053359}}, p. 68.</ref> [[Allan Ramsay (poet)|Allan Ramsay]] (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the [[Habbie stanza]] as a [[poetic form]].<ref>J. Buchan, ''Crowded with Genius'' (London: Harper Collins, 2003), {{ISBN|0-06-055888-1}}, p. 311.</ref> The lawyer [[Henry Home, Lord Kames]] (1696–1782) made a major contribution to the study of literature with ''Elements of Criticism'' (1762), which became the standard textbook on rhetoric and style.<ref>J. Friday, ed., ''Art and Enlightenment: Scottish Aesthetics in the Eighteenth Century'' (Imprint Academic, 2004), {{ISBN|0907845762}}, p. 124.</ref>

[[Hugh Blair]] (1718–1800) was a minister of the Church of Scotland and held the Chair of Rhetoric and [[Belles Lettres]] at the University of Edinburgh. He produced an edition of the works of [[Shakespeare]] and is best known for ''Sermons'' (1777–1801), a five-volume endorsement of practical Christian morality, and Lectures on Rhetoric and ''Belles Lettres'' (1783). The former fused the oratorical arts of humanism with a sophisticated theory on the relationship between cognition and the origins of language.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=Matthew Daniel |title=The Line of Reason: Hugh Blair, Spatiality and the Progressive Structure of Language |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=2011 |volume=65 |pages=9–24 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1112084 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2010.0098|s2cid=190700715 }}</ref> It influenced many leading thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, including Adam Smith and Dugald Stewart.

Blair was one of the figures who first drew attention to the [[Ossian]] cycle of [[James Macpherson]] to public attention.<ref>G. A. ''Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition Form Ancient to Modern Times'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), {{ISBN|0807861138}}, p. 282.</ref> Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published "translations" that were proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] [[Epic poetry|epics]]. ''Fingal'', written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on [[Johann Gottfried von Herder]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]].<ref>J. Buchan, ''Crowded with Genius'' (London: Harper Collins, 2003), {{ISBN|0-06-055888-1}}, p. 163.</ref> Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.<ref>D. Thomson, ''The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian"'' (Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).</ref>

Before [[Robert Burns]] (1759–96) the most important Scottish language poet was [[Robert Fergusson]] (1750–74), who also worked in English. His work often celebrated his native Edinburgh and Enlightenment conviviality, as in his best known poem "Auld Reekie" (1773).<ref name=Carruthers2009pp58-9>G. Carruthers, ''Scottish Literature'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), {{ISBN|074863309X}}, pp. 53–54.</ref> Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is now widely regarded as the [[national poet]] of Scotland and became a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected [[folk songs]] from across Scotland, often revising or [[Literary adaptation|adapting]] them.<ref>{{cite journal |author=L. McIlvanney |date=Spring 2005 |title=Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature |journal=Eighteenth-Century Life |volume=29 | issue = 2 |pages=25–46 |doi=10.1215/00982601-29-2-25|s2cid=144358210 }}</ref> Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge of [[Classics|Classical]], [[Biblical]], and [[English literature]], as well as the Scottish [[Makar]] tradition.<ref name=Literary-Style>Robert Burns: "[http://www.blurbwire.com/topics/Robert_Burns::sub::Literary_Style Literary Style] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016215809/http://www.blurbwire.com/topics/Robert_Burns::sub::Literary_Style |date=2013-10-16 }}". Retrieved on 24 September 2010.</ref>

===Economics===
[[Adam Smith]] developed and published ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', the starting point of modern economics.<ref name="Samuelson">{{cite book |last= Samuelson |first= Paul |title= Economics |url= https://archive.org/details/economics00samu |url-access= registration |year= 1976 |publisher= [[McGraw-Hill]] |isbn= 0-07-054590-1}}</ref> This study, which had an immediate impact on British [[economic policy]], still frames discussions on [[globalisation]] and [[tariff]]s.<ref name="Fry">{{cite book |last= Fry |first= Michael |others= [[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |title= Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |year= 1992 |publisher= [[Routledge]] |isbn= 978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse }}</ref> The book identified land, labour, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth, as distinct from the [[Physiocratic]] idea that only agriculture was productive. Smith discussed potential benefits of specialisation by [[division of labour]], including increased [[labour productivity]] and [[gains from trade]], whether between town and country or across countries.<ref>[[Alan Deardorff|Deardorff, Alan V.]], 2006. ''Glossary of International Economics'', [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/d.html#DivisionOfLabor Division of labor].</ref> His "theorem" that "the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market" has been described as the "core of a [[Theory of the firm|theory of the functions of firm]] and [[industrial organization|industry]]" and a "fundamental principle of economic organization."<ref>[[George J. Stigler|Stigler, George J.]] (1951). "The Division of Labor Is Limited by the Extent of the Market", ''Journal of Political Economy'', 59(3), pp. [https://www.sfu.ca/~allen/stigler.pdf 185–93.]</ref> In an argument that includes "one of the most famous passages in all economics,"<ref>Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). ''Economics''. 18th ed., McGraw-Hill, ch. 2, "Markets and Government in a Modern Economy", The Invisible Hand, p. 30.</ref> Smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society,<ref>'Capital' in Smith's usage includes [[fixed capital]] and [[circulating capital]]. The latter includes wages and labour maintenance, money, and inputs from land, mines, and fisheries associated with production per ''The Wealth of Nations'', Bk. II: ch. 1, 2, and 5.</ref> and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce.<ref>Smith, Adam (1776). ''The Wealth of Nations'', Bk. IV: Of Systems of political Œconomy, ch. II, "Of Restraints upon the Importation from Foreign Countries of such Goods as can be Produced at Home", para. 3–5 and 8–9.</ref> Economists have linked Smith's invisible-hand concept to his concern for the common man and woman through [[economic growth]] and [[economic development|development]],<ref>Smith, Adam (1776). ''The Wealth of Nations'', [[The Wealth of Nations|Bk. I-IV]] and Bk. I, ch. 1, para. 10.</ref> enabling higher levels of consumption, which Smith describes as "the sole end and purpose of all production."<ref>• Smith, Adam (1776). ''The Wealth of Nations'', Bk. IV, ch. 8, para. 49.</ref><ref>• Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). ''Economics''. 18th ed., McGraw-Hill, ch. 2, "Markets and Government in a Modern Economy", The Invisible Hand, p. 30.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; • Blaug, Mark (2008). "invisible hand", ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd ed., v. 4, pp.&nbsp;564–66. [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_I000220&edition=current&q=Invisible%20hand&topicid=&result_number=1 Abstract].</ref>

===Sociology and anthropology===
Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what leading thinkers such as [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]] (1714–99) and Lord Kames called a ''[[science of man]]'',<ref name="Magnusson">{{cite web|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |title=Northern lights |author=Magnus Magnusson |work=[[New Statesman]] |publisher=Review of [[James Buchan]]'s Capital of the Mind: Edinburgh (Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind in the [[United States]]) [[London]]: [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] ISBN 0-7195-5446-2 |date=10 November 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329124427/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=March 29, 2012 |author-link=Magnus Magnusson }}</ref> which was expressed historically in the work of thinkers such as [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|James Burnett]], [[Adam Ferguson]], [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]], [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]] and [[John Walker (natural historian)|John Walker]], all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures, with an awareness of the determining forces of [[modernity]]. Modern notions of visual anthropology permeated the lectures of leading Scottish academics like [[Hugh Blair]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eddy|first=Matthew Daniel|title=The Line of Reason: Hugh Blair, Spatiality and the Progressive Structure of Language|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society|year=2011|volume=65|pages=9–24|doi=10.1098/rsnr.2010.0098|s2cid=190700715}}</ref> and Alan Swingewood argues that modern sociology largely originated in Scotland.<ref>Alan Swingewood, "Origins of Sociology: the Case of the Scottish Enlightenment," ''The British Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 1970), pp. 164–80 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/588406 in JSTOR]</ref> [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|James Burnett]] is most famous today as a founder of modern comparative historical [[linguistics]]. He was the first major figure to argue that mankind had evolved language skills in response to his changing environment and social structures.<ref name=Hobbs>C. Hobbs, ''Rhetoric on the Margins of Modernity: Vico, Condillac, Monboddo'' (SIU Press, 2002), {{ISBN|978-0-8093-2469-9}}.</ref> He was one of a number of scholars involved in the development of early concepts of [[evolution]] and has been credited with anticipating in principle the idea of [[natural selection]] that was developed into a [[theory|scientific theory]] by [[Charles Darwin]] and Alfred Russel Wallace.<ref>P. J. Bowler, ''Evolution: the History of an Idea'' (Berkeley CA: University of California Press, 1989), {{ISBN|978-0-520-06386-0}}, p. 51.</ref>

===Mathematics, science and medicine===
One of the central pillars of the Scottish Enlightenment was scientific and medical knowledge. Many of the key thinkers were trained as physicians or had studied science and medicine at university or on their own at some point in their career. Likewise, there was a notable presence of university medically-trained professionals, especially physicians, apothecaries, surgeons and even ministers, who lived in provincial settings.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title='The Sparkling Nectar of Spas: The Medical and Commercial Relevance of Mineral Water', in Ursula Klein and Emma Spary (eds.), Materials and Expertise in Early Modern Europe: Between Market and Laboratory|date=2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|pages=198–226|url=https://www.academia.edu/1114266}}</ref> Unlike England or other European countries like France or Austria, the intelligentsia of Scotland were not beholden to powerful aristocratic patrons and this led them to see science through the eyes of utility, improvement and reform.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The true story of how western europe's poorest nation created our world and everything in it|url=https://archive.org/details/howscotsinvented00arth|url-access=limited|last=Herman|first=Arthur|publisher=Three Rivers Press|year=2001|isbn=0-609-80999-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howscotsinvented00arth/page/321 321]–322}}</ref>

[[Colin Maclaurin]] (1698–1746) was appointed as chair of mathematics by the age of 19 at Marischal College, and was the leading British mathematician of his era.<ref name=Mitchison1983p.150/> Mathematician and physicist [[Sir John Leslie]] (1766–1832) is chiefly noted for his experiments with heat and was the first person to artificially create ice.<ref>N. Chambers, ed., ''The Letters of Sir Joseph Banks: A Selection, 1768–1820'' (World Scientific, 2000), {{ISBN|1860942040}}, p. 376.</ref>

Other major figures in science included [[William Cullen]] (1710–90), physician and chemist, [[James Anderson of Hermiston|James Anderson]] (1739–1808), agronomist. [[Joseph Black]] (1728–99), physicist and chemist, discovered carbon dioxide (fixed air) and [[latent heat]],<ref>R. Mitchelson, ''A History of Scotland'' (London: Routledge, 2002), 0203412710, p. 352.</ref> and developed what many consider to be the first chemical formulae.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title=How to See a Diagram: A Visual Anthropology of Chemical Affinity|journal=Osiris|date=2014|pages=178–96|doi=10.1086/678093|pmid=26103754|url=https://www.academia.edu/4588508|volume=29|s2cid=20432223}}</ref>

[[James Hutton]] (1726–97) was the first modern [[geologist]], with his ''Theory of the Earth'' (1795) challenging existing ideas about the [[age of the Earth]].<ref name="Denby">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/10/11/041011crat_atlarge |title=Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh |author=David Denby |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |publisher=Review of [[James Buchan]]'s Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind (Capital of the Mind: Edinburgh in the [[UK]]) [[HarperCollins]], 2003. Hardcover: ISBN 0-06-055888-1, ISBN 978-0-06-055888-8 |date=11 October 2004 |author-link=David Denby (film critic) }}</ref><ref name="Repcheck">{{cite book |last=Repcheck |first=Jack |title=The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/manwhofoundtimej0000repc |chapter-url-access=registration |year=2003 |publisher=[[Basic Books]], [[Perseus Books Group]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |isbn=0-7382-0692-X |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manwhofoundtimej0000repc/page/117 117–43] |chapter=Chapter 7: The Athens of the North}}</ref> His ideas were popularised by the scientist and mathematician [[John Playfair]] (1748–1819).<ref>https://archive.org/details/NHM104643 {{cite book |author=Playfair, John |title=Illustration of the Huttonian Theory |year=1802 |publisher=Cadell & Davies |location=Edinburgh}} at [https://archive.org/ archive.org]</ref> Prior to [[James Hutton]], Rev. [[David Ure]] then minister to East Kilbride Parish was the first to represent the shells 'entrochi' in illustrations and make accounts of the geology of southern Scotland. The findings of [[David Ure]] were influential enough to inspire the Scottish endeavour to the recording and interpretation of [[natural history]] and [[Fossils]], a major part of the Scottish Enlightenment.<ref>''Life of Rev. David Ure'', 1865</ref><ref>''History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride'', 1793, David Ure</ref>

Edinburgh became a major centre of medical teaching and research.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bynum|first1=W. F.|last2=Porter|first2=Roy|title=William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJc0wTuTGuMC&pg=PA142|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=142–43|isbn=9780521525176}}</ref>

==Significance==
Representative of the far-reaching impact of the Scottish Enlightenment was the new ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', which was designed in Edinburgh by [[Colin Macfarquhar]], [[Andrew Bell (engraver)|Andrew Bell]] and others. It was first published in three volumes between 1768 and 1771, with 2,659 pages and 160 engravings, and quickly became a standard reference work in the English-speaking world. The fourth edition (1810) ran to 16,000 pages in 20 volumes. The ''Encyclopaedia'' continued to be published in Edinburgh until 1898, when it was sold to an American publisher.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ian Brown|title=The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (1707–1918)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BasUT5FyhM8C&pg=PA199|year=2007|publisher=Edinburgh U.P.|pages=199–200|isbn=9780748624812}}</ref>

===Cultural influence===
The Scottish Enlightenment had numerous dimensions, influencing the culture of the nation in several areas including architecture, art and music.<ref>June C. Ottenberg, "Musical Currents of the Scottish Enlightenment," ''International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music'' Vol. 9, No. 1 (June 1978), pp. 99–109 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/836530 in JSTOR]</ref>

Scotland produced some of the most significant architects of the period who were involved in the intellectual culture of the Enlightenment. [[Robert Adam]] (1728–92) was an interior designer as well as an architect, with his brothers developing the [[Adam style]],<ref>''Adam Silver'' (HMSO/Victoria & Albert Museum, London, 1953), p. 1.</ref> He influenced the development of architecture in Britain, Western Europe, [[Architecture of the United States|North America]] and in Russia.<ref>N. Pevsner, ''An Outline of European Architecture'' (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 2nd ed., 1951), p. 237.</ref><ref name=GlendinningMacInnes&MacKechniep106>M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie, ''A History of Scottish Architecture: from the Renaissance to the Present Day'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), {{ISBN|978-0-7486-0849-2}}, p. 106.</ref> Adam's main rival was [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]], another Scot, but born in Sweden.<ref>J. Harris and M. Snodin, ''Sir William Chambers Architect to George III'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), {{ISBN|0-300-06940-5}}, p. 11.</ref> Chambers was appointed architectural tutor to the Prince of Wales, later [[George III]], and in 1766, with Robert Adam, as Architect to the King.<ref>D. Watkin, ''The Architect King: George III and the Culture of the Enlightenment'' (Royal Collection Publications, 2004), p. 15.</ref><ref>P. Rogers, ''The Eighteenth Century'' (London: Taylor and Francis, 1978), {{ISBN|0-416-56190-X}}, p. 217.</ref>

Artists included [[John Alexander (painter)|John Alexander]] and his younger contemporary [[William Mossman]] (1700–71). They painted many of the figures of early-Enlightenment Edinburgh.<ref name=MacDonald2000p56>M. MacDonald, ''Scottish Art'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 2000), {{ISBN|0500203334}}, p. 56.</ref> The leading Scottish artist of the late eighteenth century, Allan Ramsay, studied in Sweden, London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh, where he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility and he undertook portraits of many of the major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, including his friend the philosopher David Hume and the visiting [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/490799/Allan-Ramsay "Allan Ramsey"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', retrieved 7 May 2012.</ref> [[Gavin Hamilton (artist)|Gavin Hamilton]] (1723–98) spent almost his entire career in Italy and emerged as a pioneering neo-classical painter of historical and mythical themes, including his depictions of scenes from Homer's ''[[Iliad]]'', as well as acting as an informal tutor to British artists and as an early archaeologist and antiquarian.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253404/Gavin-Hamilton "Gavin Hamilton"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', retrieved 7 May 2012.</ref> Many of his works can be seen as Enlightenment speculations about the origins of society and politics, including the ''Death of Lucretia'' (1768), an event thought to be critical to the birth of the [[Roman Republic]]. His classicism would be a major influence on French artist [[Jacques-Louis David]] (1748–1825).<ref name=MacDonald2000pp63-5>M. MacDonald, ''Scottish Art'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 2000), {{ISBN|0500203334}}, pp. 63–65.</ref>

The growth of a musical culture in the capital was marked by the incorporation of the Musical Society of Edinburgh in 1728.<ref>E. G. Breslaw, ''Doctor Alexander Hamilton and Provincial America'' (Louisiana State University Press, 2008), {{ISBN|0807132780}}, p. 41.</ref> Scottish composers known to be active in this period include: Alexander Munro (fl. c. 1732), James Foulis (1710–73) and Charles McLean (fl. c. 1737).<ref name="Baxter2001app140-1">J. R. Baxter, "Culture, Enlightenment (1660–1843): music", in M. Lynch, ed., ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), {{ISBN|0-19-211696-7}}, pp. 140–41.</ref> [[Thomas Erskine, 6th Earl of Kellie]] (1732–81) was one of the most important British composers of his era, and the first Scot known to have produced a [[symphony]].<ref name=Wilson2004p33>N. Wilson, ''Edinburgh'' (Lonely Planet, 3rd ed., 2004), {{ISBN|1740593820}}, p. 33.</ref> In the mid-eighteenth century, a group of Scottish composers began to respond to Allan Ramsey's call to "own and refine" their own musical tradition, creating what James Johnson has characterised as the "Scots drawing room style", taking primarily Lowland Scottish tunes and adding simple figured basslines and other features from Italian music that made them acceptable to a middle-class audience. It gained momentum when major Scottish composers like [[James Oswald (composer)|James Oswald]] (1710–69) and [[William McGibbon]] (1690–1756) became involved around 1740. Oswald's ''Curious Collection of Scottish Songs'' (1740) was one of the first to include Gaelic tunes alongside Lowland ones, setting a fashion common by the middle of the century and helping to create a unified Scottish musical identity. However, with changing fashions there was a decline in the publication of collections of specifically Scottish collections of tunes, in favour of their incorporation into British collections.<ref>M. Gelbart, ''The Invention of "Folk Music" and "Art Music"'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), {{ISBN|1139466089}}, p. 30.</ref>

===Wider impact===

While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century,<ref name="Magnusson"/> disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more, thanks to such figures as [[Thomas Carlyle]], [[James Watt]], [[William Murdoch]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Lord Kelvin]] and [[Sir Walter Scott]].<ref>E. Wills, ''Scottish Firsts: a Celebration of Innovation and Achievement'' (Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2002), {{ISBN|1-84018-611-9}}.</ref> The influence of the movement spread beyond Scotland across the British Empire, and onto the Continent. The political ideas had an important impact on the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]], which broke away from the empire in 1775.<ref>Daniel Walker Howe. "Why the Scottish Enlightenment Was Useful to the Framers of the American Constitution". ''Comparative Studies in Society and History''. Vol. 31, No. 3 (July 1989), pp. 572–87 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/178771 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>Robert W. Galvin. ''America's Founding Secret: What the Scottish Enlightenment Taught Our Founding Fathers'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2002).</ref><ref>Michael Fry. ''How the Scots Made America'', (Thomas Dunne Books, 2004).</ref> The philosophy of [[Common Sense Realism]] was especially influential in 19th century American thought and religion.<ref>Sydney E. Ahlstrom, "The Scottish Philosophy and American Theology," ''Church History'', Vol. 24, No. 3 (Sept. 1955), pp. 257–72 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3162115 in JSTOR]</ref>

In traditional historiography, the Scottish Enlightenment was long identified with [[abolitionism]] due to the writings of some of its members and the rarity of enslaved people in Scotland. However, academic John Stewart argues that due to the fact that many members of the Scottish Enlightenment were involved in supporting [[slavery]] and [[scientific racism]] (a consequence, he argues, of Scotland's disproportionate involvement in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]), "the development of eighteenth-century [[chemistry]] and the broader intellectual [Scottish] Enlightenment were inextricably entangled with the economic Improvement Movement and the colonial economy of the British slave trade."<ref> {{Cite journal |last=Stewart |first=John |date=2020 |title=Chemistry and slavery in the Scottish Enlightenment |journal=Annals of Science |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=155–168 |doi=10.1080/00033790.2020.1738747 |pmid=32419638}} </ref>

===Cultural representations===
The Scottish dramatist [[Robert McLellan]] (1907-1985) wrote a number of full-length stage comedies which give a self-conscious representation of Edinburgh at the height of the Scottish enlightenment, most notably ''[[The Flouers o Edinburgh]]'' (1957). These plays include references to many of the figures historically associated with the movement and satirise various social tensions, particularly in the field of spoken language, between traditional society and [[anglicised]] Scots who presented themselves as exponents of so-called 'new manners'. Other later examples include ''[[Young Auchinleck]]'' (1962), a stage portrait of the young [[James Boswell]], and ''[[The Hypocrite]]'' (1967) which draws attention to conservative religious reaction in the country that threatened to check enlightenment trends. McLellan's picture of these tensions in [[nation]]al terms is complex, even-handed and multi-faceted.<ref>Colin Donati (ed.), ''Robert McLellan: Playing Scotland's Story, Collected Dramatic Works'' (Edinburgh, Luath Press, 2013), {{ISBN|9781906817534}}. See also the various essays included in the volume.</ref>

==Key figures==
{{div col|colwidth=30em|gap=2em}}
* [[William Adam (architect)|William Adam]] (1689–1748) architect 
* [[John Adam (architect)|John Adam]] (1721–1792) architect 
* [[Robert Adam]] (1728–1792) architect and artist 
* [[James Adam (architect)|James Adam]] (1732–1794) architect and designer 
* [[Archibald Alison (author)|Archibald Alison]] (1757–1839) essayist 
* [[David Allan (painter)|David Allan]] (1744–1796) painter and illustrator 
* [[James Anderson (lawyer)|James Anderson]] (1662–1728) lawyer, antiquary and historian 
* [[James Anderson of Hermiston|James Anderson]] (1739–1808) agronomist, lawyer 
* [[John Arbuthnot]] (1667–1735) physician, satirist and polymath 
* [[John Armstrong (poet)|John Armstrong]] (1709–1779) physician, poet and satirist 
* [[Joanna Baillie]] (1762–1851) poet and dramatist 
* [[George Husband Baird]] (1761–1840) minister, educational reformer and linguist 
* [[James Beattie (poet)|James Beattie]] (1735–1803) philosopher and poet 
* [[Andrew Bell (educationalist)|Andrew Bell]] (1753–1832) priest and educationalist 
* [[Sir Charles Bell]] (1774–1842) surgeon, physiologist and neurologist
* [[Henry Bell (engineer)|Henry Bell]] (1767–1830) engineer 
* [[John Bell (traveller)|John Bell]] of Antermony (1691–1780) doctor and traveller 
* [[Joseph Black]] (1728–1799) physicist and chemist, first to isolate carbon dioxide 
* [[Thomas Blackwell (scholar)|Thomas Blackwell]] (1701–1757) classical scholar and historian 
* [[William Blackwood]] (1776–1834) publisher, founder of Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine
* [[Hugh Blair]] (1718–1800) minister, author
* [[Gilbert Blane|Sir Gilbert Blane of Blanefield, 1st Baronet]] (1749–1834) physician 
* [[James Boswell]] (1740–1795) lawyer, author of ''[[Life of Johnson]]''
* [[John Broadwood]] (1732–1812) piano manufacturer 
* [[Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux]] (1778–1868) Englishman born, educated and active in Edinburgh, advocate, journalist and statesman 
* [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]] (1773–1858) botanist 
* [[Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown]] (1778–1820) philosopher
* [[James Bruce]] of Kinnaird (1730–1794) African explorer 
* [[Jacob Bruce|James Daniel (Yakov) Bruce]] (1669–1735) Moscow-born Scot, Count of the Russian Empire, statesman, general, diplomat and scientist 
* [[Patrick Brydone]] (1736–1818) traveller and author 
* [[David Steuart Erskine, 11th Earl of Buchan]] (1742–1829) founder of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 
* [[Robert Burns]]<ref name="Manning">{{cite web |url=http://www.scibooks.org/manwhofoundtime.html |title=A Toast To Times Past |author=Phillip Manning |work=[[Chapel Hill, North Carolina|Chapel Hill]] News |date=28 December 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184701/http://www.scibooks.org/manwhofoundtime.html |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> (1759–1796) poet
* [[John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute]] (1713–1792) politician, botanist, literary and artistic patron, first President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
* [[Charles Cameron (architect)|Charles Cameron]] (1746–1812) architect, active in Russia 
* [[George Campbell (Presbyterian minister)|George Campbell]] (1719–1796) philosopher 
* [[Thomas Campbell (poet)|Thomas Campbell]] (1777–1844) poet 
* [[Alexander Carlyle]] (1722–1805) church leader and autobiographer 
* [[Thomas Carlyle]] (1795–1881) historian and philosopher 
* [[Thomas Chalmers]] (1780–1847) minister and political economist 
* [[Sir William Chambers]] (1723–1796) architect 
* [[John Cleland]] (1709–1789) writer, author of ''Fanny Hill''
* [[Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, 2nd Baronet]] (1676–1755) politician, lawyer, judge and antiquary 
* [[John Clerk of Eldin|Sir John Clerk of Eldin]] (1728–1812) artist, navalist 
* [[John Clerk, Lord Eldin]] (1757–1832) advocate, judge and collector 
* [[Archibald David Constable]] (1774–1827) publisher 
*[[William Cruickshank (chemist)|William Cruickshank]] (c 1740-1810/1) chemist
*[[James Craig (architect)|James Craig]] (1739–1795) architect, designer of the Edinburgh New Town 
* [[William Cullen]] (1710–1790) physician, chemist, medical researcher 
* [[David Dale]] (1739–1806) industrialist, merchant and philanthropist 
* [[Alexander Dalrymple]] (1737–1808) geographer 
* [[James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair]] (1619–1695) lawyer and statesman
* [[Sir Alexander Dick, 3rd Baronet|Sir Alexander Dick, 3rd Baronet of Prestonfield]] (1703–1785) doctor, President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
* [[Sir Robert Douglas, 6th Baronet|Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie, 6th Baronet]] (1694–1770) genealogist 
* [[Alexander Dow]] (1735/6 – 1779) writer and Orientalist
* [[George Drummond (politician)|George Drummond]] (1688–1766) accountant-general and politician, Lord Provost of Edinburgh 
* [[James Elphinston]] (1721–1809) educator and linguist 
* [[Robert Erskine (doctor)]] (1677–1718) doctor and naturalist, head and reformer of Russian medicine, compiled first herbarium in Russia and discovered mineral waters 
* [[Henry Erskine (lawyer)|Henry Erskine]] (1746–1817) advocate and politician 
* [[Henry Farquharson]] (c.1675–1739) mathematician, active in Russia where he introduced Arabic numerals and logarithms 
* [[Adam Ferguson]] (1723–1816) considered the founder of sociology 
* [[James Ferguson (Scottish astronomer)|James Ferguson]] (1710–1776) astronomer and instrument maker 
* [[Robert Fergusson]] (1750–1774) poet 
* [[Andrew Fletcher (politician)|Andrew Fletcher]] of Saltoun (1653–1716) forerunner of the Scottish Enlightenment,<ref name="Fletcher">{{cite web |url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521439947 |title= Andrew Fletcher: Political Works |author= Cambridge University Press |author-link= Cambridge University Press }}</ref> writer, patriot, commissioner of Parliament of Scotland 
* [[George Fordyce]] (1736–1802) physician and chemist 
* [[Andrew Foulis]] (1712–1775) printer 
* [[Robert Foulis (printer)|Robert Foulis]] (1707–1776) printer and publisher 
* [[John Galt (novelist)|John Galt]] (1779–1839) novelist
* [[Alexander Gerard]] (1728–1795) minister, academic and philosophical writer 
* [[James Gillray]] (1756–1815) caricaturist and printmaker 
* [[Walter Goodall]] (1706?–1766) historical writer 
* [[Alexander Gordon (general)|Alexander Gordon]] of Auchintoul (1669/70–1752) general and memoirist
* [[Alexander Gordon (antiquary)|Alexander Gordon]] (1692?–1755) antiquary and singer 
* [[Thomas Gordon (writer)]] (c.1691–1750) writer and translator from Latin
* [[Thomas Gordon (philosopher)|Thomas Gordon]] (1714–1797) philosopher, mathematician and antiquarian 
* [[John Gregory (moralist)|John Gregory]] (1724–1773) physician, medical writer and moralist 
* [[John Grieve (physician)|John Grieve]] (1753–1805) physician 
* [[Matthew Guthrie]] (1743–1807) physician, mineralogist and traveller 
* [[Sir David Dalrymple, Lord Hailes]] (1726–1792) advocate, judge and historian 
* [[Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet]] (1761–1832) geologist, geophysicist 
* [[Alexander Hamilton (Scottish physician)|Alexander Hamilton]] (1739–1802) physician 
* [[Gavin Hamilton (artist)|Gavin Hamilton]] (1723–1798) painter and archaeologist 
* [[William Hamilton (diplomat)|Sir William Hamilton]] (1730–1803) diplomat, antiquarian, archaeologist and vulcanologist 
* [[Matthew Hardie]] (1755–1826) violin maker, called the 'Scottish Stradivari'
* [[James Hogg]] (1770–1835) writer, author of ''The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner''
* [[Francis Home]] (1719–1813) physician 
* [[John Home]] (1722–1808) minister and writer, author of ''Douglas'' 
* [[John Hope (botanist)|John Hope]] (1725–1786) physician and botanist 
* [[Francis Horner]] (1778–1817) politician, lawyer and political economist
* [[John Hunter (surgeon)|John Hunter]] (1728–1793) surgeon 
* [[William Hunter (anatomist)|William Hunter]] (1718–1783) anatomist, physician
* [[David Hume]] (1711–1776) philosopher, historian and essayist
* [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]] (1694–1746) philosopher
* [[James Hutton]]<ref name="Repcheck"/><ref name="Manning"/> (1726–1797) founder of modern geology 
* [[John Jamieson]] (1759–1838) minister, philologist and antiquary 
* [[Robert Jameson]] (1774–1854) Scottish naturalist and mineralogist 
* [[Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey]] (1773–1850) advocate, journalist and literary critic, founder of the ''Edinburgh Review''
* [[Henry Home, Lord Kames]] (1696–1782) philosopher, judge, historian and agricultural improver 
* [[John Kay (caricaturist)|John Kay]] (1742–1826) caricaturist and engraver 
* [[James Keir]] (1735–1820) chemist, geologist, industrialist and inventor 
* [[Thomas Alexander Erskine, 6th Earl of Kellie]] (1732–1781) composer and virtuoso violinist 
* [[John Law (economist)|John Law]] of Lauriston (1671–1729) economist, banker, active in France 
* [[Sir John Leslie]] (1766–1832) mathematician, physicist
* [[James Lind]] (1716–1794) doctor, pioneer of naval hygiene
* [[James Lind (naturalist)|James Lind]] (1736–1812) naturalist and physician
*[[Charles Lyell (botanist)]] (1767–1849) botanist and translator of Dante
* [[John Loudon MacAdam]] (1756–1836) engineer and road-builder 
* [[Zachary Macaulay]] (1768–1838) statistician, abolitionist 
* [[Colin Macfarquhar]] (1745?–1793) printer, co-founder of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''
* [[Sir Alexander Mackenzie]] (1764–1820) explorer of North America 
* [[Henry Mackenzie]] (1745–1831) lawyer and writer 
* [[Charles Mackie (historian)|Charles Mackie]] (1688–1770) first Professor of History at Edinburgh University and in the British Isles
* [[Sir James Mackintosh]] (1765–1832) jurist, politician and historian 
* [[Charles Macintosh]] (1766–1843) chemist, inventor of waterproof fabrics 
* [[Colin Maclaurin]] (1698–1746) mathematician
* [[James Macpherson]] (1736–1796) writer, author of ''Ossian''
* [[David Mallet (writer)|David Mallet]] (Malloch) (c.1705–1765) writer 
* [[Francis Masson]] (1741–1805) botanist 
* [[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield]] (1705–1793) jurist, judge and politician 
* [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]] (1742–1811) advocate and statesman 
* [[Andrew Meikle]] (1719–1811) engineer and inventor
* [[Adam Menelaws]] (1749/56–1831) architect, active in Russia 
* [[James Mill]] (1773–1836) philosopher 
* [[Andrew Millar]] (1705–1768) publisher 
* [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]] (1735–1801) philosopher, historian 
* [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]] (1714–1799) judge, founder of modern comparative historical linguistics 
* [[Alexander Monro (primus)|Alexander Monro]] I (1697–1767) physician, founder of Edinburgh Medical School 
* [[Alexander Monro (secundus)|Alexander Monro]] II of Craiglockhart and Cockburn (1733–1817) anatomist, physician 
* [[John Monro (advocate)|John Monro of Auchinbowie]] (1725–1789) advocate 
* [[Jacob More]] (1740–1793) painter 
* [[James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton]] (1702–1768) astronomer, patron of science, President of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal Society 
* [[James Mounsey]] (1709/10–1773) physician and naturalist 
* [[Thomas Muir (radical)|Thomas Muir]] of Huntershill (1765–1799) political reformer 
* [[William Murdoch]] (1754–1839) engineer and inventor 
* [[Alexander Murray (linguist)|Alexander Murray]] (1775–1813) minister and philologist
* [[John Murray (1778–1843)|John Murray]] (1778–1843) publisher 
* [[Carolina Nairne]] Lady Nairne, née Oliphant (1766–1845) writer and song collector 
* [[William Napier (musician)|William Napier]] (c.1741–1812) musician and music publisher 
* [[William Nicholson (poet)|William Nicholson]] (1782–1849) poet 
* [[Alexander Nisbet]] (1657–1725) lawyer, antiquarian and heraldist 
* [[William Ogilvie of Pittensear]] (1736–1819) classicist, numismatist and land reformer
* [[James Oswald (composer)|James Oswald]] (1710–1769) composer, cellist and music publisher 
* [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]] (1771–1806) explorer of West Africa 
* [[Thomas Pennant]] Welsh naturalist, traveller, writer and antiquarian (1726–1798), whose travel writings and collected pictorial representations of Scotland inspired the 'petit' grand tour fueling philosophical and artistic re-interpretation of landscape appreciation in Scotland. 
* [[John Pinkerton]] (1758–1826) antiquarian, cartographer and historian 
* [[Archibald Pitcairne]] (1652–1713) physician and bibliophile 
* [[John Playfair]] (1748–1819) mathematician, geologist 
* [[James Playfair (architect)|James Playfair]] (1755–1794) architect 
* [[William Playfair]] (1759–1823) engineer, political economist, founder of graphical methods of statistics
* [[Jane Porter]] (1776–1850) historical novelist 
* [[Sir Robert Ker Porter]] (1777–1842) artist, author, diplomat and traveller
* [[Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet]] (1707–1782) physician 
* [[Allan Ramsay (poet)|Allan Ramsay]]<ref name="DavidAllan">{{cite web|url=http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/academic/history/scothist/hons/4111.shtml |title=A Hotbed of Genius: Culture and Society in the Scottish Enlightenment |author=Dr David Allan |publisher=[[University of St Andrews]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927202608/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/academic/history/scothist/hons/4111.shtml |archive-date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref> (1686–1758) poet
* [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]] (1713–1784) portrait painter
* [[Andrew Michael Ramsay]] (1686–1743) writer, based in France
* [[Henry Raeburn]]<ref name="Magnusson"/> (1756–1823) portrait painter
* [[Thomas Reid]] (1710–1796) philosopher, founder of the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]]
* [[John Rennie the Elder|John Rennie]] (1761–1821) civil engineer 
* [[William Richardson (classicist)|William Richardson]] (1743–1814) author and literary scholar
* [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]] (1721–1793) historian, minister and Principal of the University of Edinburgh 
* [[John Robison (physicist)|John Robison]] (1739–1805) physicist, mathematician and philosopher, first General Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
* [[Sir John Ross]] (1777–1856) Arctic explorer 
* [[William Roxburgh]] (1751–1815) surgeon and botanist, founding father of Indian botany 
* [[Thomas Ruddiman]] (1674–1757) classical scholar 
* [[Alexander Runciman]] (1736–1785) painter 
* [[John Runciman]] (1744–1768/9) painter 
* [[John Rutherford (physician)|John Rutherford]] (1695–1779) physician
* [[Daniel Rutherford]] (1749–1819) physician, chemist and botanist 
* [[Paul Sandby]] (1731–1809) English Topographical and landscape painter, among the first to depict Scotland as a place of landscape appreciation in its natural state, influencing Robert Adam and John Clerk of Eldin.
* [[Sir Walter Scott]] (1771–1832) novelist, poet
* [[Sir Robert Sibbald]] (1641–1722) physician and antiquary
* [[Sir John Sinclair]] of Ulbster (1754–1835) writer, statistician
* [[George Sinclair (mathematician)|George Sinclair]] (1630–1696), mathematician, engineer, demonologist and professor 
* [[William Skirving]] (c.1745–1796) political reformer 
* [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]] (1740–1795) editor of the first edition of ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [[Adam Smith]] (1723–1790) philosopher and political economist 
* [[Sydney Smith]] (1771–1845) English writer, co-founder of ''Edinburgh Review''
* [[Tobias Smollett]] (1721–1771) writer
* [[Mary Somerville]] (1780–1872) science writer, astronomer, polymath
* [[Dugald Stewart]] (1753–1828) philosopher 
* [[James Stirling (mathematician)|James Stirling]] (1692–1770) mathematician
* [[Sir Robert Strange]] (1721–1792) engraver 
* [[Gilbert Stuart]] (1742–1786) journalist and historian 
* [[William Symington]] (1764–1831) engineer, inventor, builder of the first practical steamboat
* [[Robert Tannahill]] (1774–1810) poet 
* [[James Tassie]] (1735–1799) gem engraver and modeller 
* [[Thomas Telford]] (1757–1834) civil engineer and architect 
* [[James Thomson (poet, born 1700)|James Thomson]] (1700–1748) poet, author of ''The Seasons'' 
* [[George Thomson (musician)|George Thomson]] (1757–1851) collector and publisher of the music of Scotland
* [[Thomas Trotter (physician)|Thomas Trotter]] (1760–1832) physician
* [[George Turnbull (theologian)|George Turnbull]] (1698–1748) theologian, philosopher and writer on education
* [[William Tytler]] (1711–1792) lawyer and historian 
* [[Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee]] (1747–1813) advocate, judge, writer and historian 
* [[David Ure]] (1750–1798) Reverend, Natural History and History, 1st Statistical Account. First to represent entrochi for Scotland and appreciate Scottish natural history in any detail in History of Rutherglen & East Kilbride, 1793.
* [[Richard Waitt]] (died 1732) painter 
* [[John Walker (naturalist)]] (1731–1803) minister and natural historian 
* [[James Watt]] (1736–1819) inventor of a more efficient, practical steam engine 
* [[James Wilson (Founding Father)|James Wilson]] (1742–1798) a Founding Father of the United States, signer of [[United States Declaration of Independence]] 
* [[John Witherspoon]] (1723–1794) a Founding Father of the United States, signer of US Declaration of Independence
{{div col end}}
<br/>
Plus those who visited and corresponded with Scottish scholars:<ref name="Repcheck"/>
* [[Alexander J. Dallas (statesman)|Alexander James Dallas]] (1759–1817) American statesman 
* [[Erasmus Darwin]] (1731–1802) English physician, botanist, philosopher, grandfather of [[Charles Darwin]]
* [[Semyon Efimovich Desnitsky]] (c. 1740–1789) native of Ukraine, University of Glasgow graduate, "Father of Russian jurisprudence" 
* [[Benjamin Franklin]] (1706–1790) polymath, one of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atiyah |first1=Michael |year=2006 |title=Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=150 |issue=3|pages=591–606}}</ref> 
* [[Princess Yekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova]] (1743–1810) Director of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg, first President of the Russian Academy

==See also==
*[[American Enlightenment]]
*[[John Amyatt]]
*[[List of books for the "Famous Scots Series"|Books in the "Famous Scots Series"]]
*[[Industrial Revolution in Scotland]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Allan, David, ''Virtue, Learning and the Scottish Enlightenment: Ideas of Scholarship in Early Modern History'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], 1993, {{ISBN|978-0-7486-0438-8}}.
* Amrozowicz, Michael C. " Scottish Enlightenment Histories of Social Organization" ''Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture'' Vol. 48, 2019 pp.&nbsp;161–186 10.1353/sec.2019.0011
* Berry, C. J., ''Social Theory Of The Scottish Enlightenment'', Edinburgh University Press 1997, {{ISBN|0-7486-0864-8}}.
* Broadie, Alexander. ''The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation''. [[Birlinn Limited|Birlinn]] 2002. Paperback: {{ISBN|1-84158-151-8}}, {{ISBN|978-1-84158-151-4}}.
* Broadie, Alexander, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment''. (Cambridge Companions to Philosophy) [[Cambridge University Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-521-00323-0}}.
* Bruce, Duncan A. ''The Mark of the Scots: Their Astonishing Contributions to History, Science, Democracy, Literature, and the Arts''. 1996. Hardcover: {{ISBN|1-55972-356-4}}, {{ISBN|978-1-55972-356-5}}. Citadel, [[Kensington Books]], 2000. Paperback: {{ISBN|0-8065-2060-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8065-2060-5}}.
* [[Buchan, James]] ''Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind''. (Harper Perennial, 2004). {{ISBN|978-0-06-055889-5}}; UK edition: ''Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh Changed the World'' (John Murray, 2003). {{ISBN|978-0-719-55446-9}}.
* Campbell, R. H. and Andrew S. Skinner, eds. ''The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment'' (1982), 12 essays by scholars, esp. on history of science
* Daiches, David, Peter Jones and Jean Jones. ''A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730–1790'' (1986), 170 pp; well-illustrated introduction
* Derry, J. F. ''Darwin in Scotland: Edinburgh, Evolution and Enlightenment''. Whittles Publishing, 2009. Paperback: {{ISBN|1-904445-57-8}}.
* [[Daiches, David]], Peter Jones, Jean Jones (eds). ''A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment 1731–1790''. (Edinburgh University Press, 1986); {{ISBN|0-85411-069-0}}
* Dunyach, Jean-François and Ann Thomson, eds. ''The Enlightenment in Scotland: national and international perspectives'' (2015)
* Eddy, Matthew Daniel. ''The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800'' (2008).
* Goldie, Mark. "The Scottish Catholic Enlightenment," ''The Journal of British Studies'' Vol. 30, No. 1 (Jan. 1991), pp.&nbsp;20–62 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/175736 in JSTOR]
* Graham, Gordon. "Morality and Feeling in the Scottish Enlightenment," ''Philosophy'' Vol. 76, No. 296 (Apr. 2001), pp.&nbsp;271–82 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3751923 in JSTOR]
* [[Arthur L. Herman|Herman, Arthur]]. ''[[How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The True Story of How Western Europe's Poorest Nation Created Our World & Everything in It]]'' (Crown Publishing Group, 2001), {{ISBN|0-609-80999-7}}; UK edition: ''The Scottish Enlightenment: The Scots' Invention of the Modern World'' (Fourth Estate, 2002). {{ISBN|978-1-841-15275-2}}.
* Hook, Andrew (ed.) The History of Scottish Literature. Vol. 2. 1660–1800 (Aberdeen, 1987). 
* Israel, Jonathan "Scottish Enlightenment and Man's 'Progress'" ch 9 in ''Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790'' (2011) pp.&nbsp;233–69 [https://books.google.com/books?id=3xP4l0ug3rAC&pg=PA233 excerpt and text search]
* Lenman, Bruce P. ''Enlightenment and Change: Scotland 1746–1832'' (2nd ed. The New History of Scotland Series. Edinburgh University Press, 2009). 280 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-0-7486-2515-4}}; 1st edition also published under the titles ''Integration, Enlightenment, and Industrialization: Scotland, 1746–1832'' (1981) and ''Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832'' (1992); general survey.
* Scott, Paul H. (ed.) Scotland. A Concise Cultural History (Edinburgh, 1993). 
* Swingewood, Alan. "Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment," ''The British Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 1970), pp.&nbsp;164–80 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/588406 in JSTOR]
* Towsey, Mark R. M. ''Reading the Scottish Enlightenment: Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750–1820'' (2010)
{{div col end}}

===Primary sources===
* Broadie, Alexander, ed. ''The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology'' (1998), primary sources. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0862417384 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
* [http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/10/11/041011crat_atlarge Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041026080117/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/scottish.htm Scottish Enlightenment] – an introduction (archived 26 October 2004)
* [http://www.livingphilosophy.org.uk/Philosophy_Play.htm Living philosophy] – Philosophical play readings of the legacy of David Hume, Adam Smith and Robert Burns
* [http://www.eota.org.uk/ Edinburgh Old Town Association] – has references and links
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548ln "The Enlightenment in Scotland"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Tom Devine, Karen O'Brien and Alexander Broadie (''In Our Time'', Dec. 5, 2002)

{{Scotland topics}}
{{Eighteenth-century Scotland}}
{{Scottish literature}}
{{Age of Enlightenment}}

[[Category:Scottish Enlightenment| ]]
[[Category:1750s in Scotland]]
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[[Category:Scottish philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophical schools and traditions]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophy]]
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[[Category:History of Scotland by period]]
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