Editing Saturnalia

{{Citation style|date=January 2025}}
{{good article}}
{{Short description|Ancient Roman festival in December}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name  = Saturnalia
| type          = [[Religious]]
| longtype      = [[Religion in ancient Rome|Classical Roman religion]]
| image         = File:Saturnalia by Antoine Callet.jpg
| image_size    = 300px
| caption       = ''Saturnalia'' (1783) by [[Antoine-François Callet]], showing his interpretation of what the Saturnalia might have looked like
| observedby    = [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]
| date          = 17–23 December
| celebrations  = Feasting, role reversals, gift-giving, gambling
| observances   = Public sacrifice and banquet for the god Saturn; universal wearing of the [[Pileus (hat)|pileus]]
| relatedto     = 
| significance  = Public festival
}}

'''Saturnalia''' is an [[Roman festivals|ancient Roman festival]] and [[holiday]] in honour of the [[List of Roman deities|god]] [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]], held on 17 December in the [[Julian calendar]] and later expanded with festivities until 19 December. By the 1st century BC, the celebration had been extended until 23 December, for a total of seven days of festivities.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-12-14 |title=Chester: The city which still celebrates Saturnalia |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-merseyside-67680824 |access-date=2024-08-10 |work=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the [[Temple of Saturn]], in the [[Roman Forum]], and a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a [[carnival]] atmosphere that overturned [[Ancient Roman culture|Roman social norms]]: [[Dice#History|gambling]] was permitted, and masters provided table service for their [[Slavery in ancient Rome|slaves]] as it was seen as a time of liberty for both slaves and freedmen alike.<ref>Miller, John F. "Roman Festivals," in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 2010), p. 172.</ref> A common custom was the election of a "King of the Saturnalia", who gave orders to people, which were followed and presided over the merrymaking. The gifts exchanged were usually [[practical joke device|gag gifts]] or small figurines made of wax or pottery known as ''[[Sigillaria (ancient Rome)|sigillaria]]''. The poet [[Catullus]] called it "the best of days".<ref>[[Catullus]] 14.15 ''(optimo dierum)'', as cited by {{harvnb|Mueller|2010|page=221}}</ref>

Saturnalia was the Roman equivalent to the earlier Greek holiday of [[Kronia]], which was celebrated during the [[Attic calendar|Attic month]] of Hekatombaion in late midsummer. It held theological importance for some Romans, who saw it as a restoration of the ancient [[Golden Age]], when the world was ruled by Saturn. The [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] interpreted the freedom associated with Saturnalia as symbolizing the "freeing of souls into immortality". Saturnalia may have influenced some of the customs associated with later celebrations in western Europe occurring in midwinter, particularly traditions associated with [[Christmas]], the [[Feast of the Holy Innocents]], and [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]]. In particular, the historical western European Christmas custom of electing a "[[Lord of Misrule]]" may have its roots in Saturnalia celebrations.

==Origins==
{{stack|[[File:Giocatrici-di-astragali.JPG|thumb|[[Ancient Greek painting]] signed by "Alexander of Athens", discovered in [[Herculaneum]], showing five women playing [[knucklebones]], a game which was played during the Attic holiday of [[Kronia]]<ref name="Hansen2002"/>]]}}
In [[Roman mythology]], Saturn was an agricultural deity who was said to have reigned over the world in the [[Golden Age]], when humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in a state of [[innocence]]. The revelries of Saturnalia were supposed to reflect the conditions of the lost mythical age. The Greek equivalent was the [[Kronia]],<ref name="Hansen2002">{{cite book |last=Hansen |first=William F. |title=Ariadne's Thread: A Guide to International Tales Found in Classical Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDlXl7gP9oC |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |date=2002 |page=385 |isbn=978-0801475726 }}</ref> which was celebrated on the twelfth day of the month of Hekatombaion,<ref name="Bremmer">{{cite book |last=Bremmer |first=Jan M. |title=Greek Religion and Culture, the Bible and the Ancient Near East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTfxZH4QnqgC |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |publisher=Brill |date=2008 |page=82 |isbn= 978-9004164734 }}</ref><ref name="Hansen2002"/> which occurred from around mid-July to mid-August on the [[Attic calendar]].<ref name="Hansen2002"/><ref name="Bremmer"/>

The Greek writer [[Athenaeus]] cites numerous other examples of similar festivals celebrated throughout the [[Greco-Roman world]],<ref name="Parker">{{cite book |last=Parker |first=Robert |date=2011 |title=On Greek Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dfS-nh2WM9wC&q=Saturnalia |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-7735-5 |page=211 }}</ref> including the [[Crete|Cretan]] festival of [[Hermaea (festival)|Hermaia]] in honor of [[Hermes]], an unnamed festival from [[Troezen]] in honor of [[Poseidon]], the [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] festival of [[Peloria (festival)|Peloria]] in honor of [[Epithets in Homer|Zeus Pelorios]], and an unnamed festival from [[Babylon]].<ref name="Parker"/> He also mentions that the custom of masters dining with their slaves was associated with the Athenian festival of [[Anthesteria]] and the Spartan festival of [[Hyacinthia]].<ref name="Parker"/> The Argive festival of [[Hybristica]], though not directly related to the Saturnalia, involved a similar reversal of roles in which women would dress as men and men would dress as women.<ref name="Parker"/>

The ancient Roman historian [[Justin (historian)|Justinus]] credits Saturn with being a historical king of the [[Aborigines (mythology)|pre-Roman inhabitants of Italy]]:

{{quote|"The first inhabitants of Italy were the Aborigines, whose king, Saturnus, is said to have been a man of such extraordinary justice, that no one was a slave in his reign, or had any private property, but all things were common to all, and undivided, as one estate for the use of every one; in memory of which way of life, it has been ordered that at the Saturnalia slaves should everywhere sit down with their masters at the entertainments, the rank of all being made equal." |[[Justin (historian)|Justinus]], ''Epitome of Pompeius Trogus'' 43.3<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.attalus.org/translate/justin7.html#42.1 |title=Justinus: Epitome of Pompeius Trogus (7) |last=Smith |first=Andrew |website=www.attalus.org |access-date=2017-09-07}}</ref>}}

{{stack|[[File:0 Autel dédié au dieu Malakbêl et aux dieux de Palmyra - Musei Capitolini (1b).JPG|thumb|2nd-century CE Roman bas-relief depicting the god Saturn, in whose honor the Saturnalia was celebrated, holding a scythe.]]}}
Although probably the best-known Roman holiday, Saturnalia as a whole is not described from beginning to end in any single ancient source. Modern understanding of the festival is pieced together from several accounts dealing with various aspects.{{sfn|Dolansky|2011|page=484}} The Saturnalia was the dramatic setting of the multivolume work of that name by [[Macrobius]], a Latin writer from [[late antiquity]] who is the major source for information about the holiday. Macrobius describes the reign of Justinus's "king Saturn" as "a time of great happiness, both on account of the universal plenty that prevailed and because as yet there was no division into bond and free – as one may gather from the complete license enjoyed by slaves at the Saturnalia."<ref>{{cite book |last=Standhartinger |first=Angela |title=Saturnalia in Greco-Roman Culture |page=184}}</ref> In [[Lucian]]'s ''Saturnalia'' it is [[Chronos]] himself who proclaims a "festive season, when 'tis lawful to be drunken, and slaves have license to revile their lords".<ref>{{cite book |last=Roth |first=Marty |title=Drunk the Night Before: An Anatomy of Intoxication |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]]}}</ref>

In one of the interpretations in Macrobius's work, Saturnalia is a festival of light leading to the [[winter solstice]], with the abundant presence of candles symbolizing the quest for knowledge and truth.<ref>[[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 1.1.8–9; Jane Chance, ''Medieval Mythography: From Roman North Africa to the School of Chartres, A.D. 433–1177'' ([[University Press of Florida]], 1994), p. 71.</ref> The renewal of light and the coming of the [[new year]] was celebrated in the later [[Roman Empire]] at the ''[[Sol Invictus|Dies Natalis Solis Invicti]]'', the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun", on 25 December.<ref>Robert A. Kaster, ''[[Macrobius]]: Saturnalia, Books 1–2'' ([[Loeb Classical Library]], 2011), note on p. 16.</ref>

The popularity of Saturnalia continued into the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century|4th centuries]] CE, and as the [[Roman Empire]] came under Christian rule, many of its customs were recast into or at least influenced the seasonal celebrations surrounding [[Christmas]] and the [[New Year's Day|New Year]].<ref>Williams, Craig A., ''[[Martial]]: Epigrams Book Two'' (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 259 (on the custom of gift-giving). Many observers schooled in the [[classical tradition]] have noted similarities between the Saturnalia and historical revelry during the [[Twelve Days of Christmas]] and the [[Feast of Fools]]</ref><ref name="GraftonMostSettis">{{cite book |last1=Grafton |first1=Anthony |url=https://archive.org/details/classicaltraditi0000unse_l4k4/page/116/mode/2up |title=The Classical Tradition |last2=Most |first2=Glenn W. |last3=Settis |first3=Salvatore |date=2010 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03572-0 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England |page=116 |article=Bacchanalia and Saturnalia |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>"The reciprocal influences of the Saturnalia, [[Yule|Germanic solstitial festivals]], Christmas, and [[Chanukkah]] are familiar," notes C. Bennet Pascal, "October Horse", ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'' 85 (1981), p. 289.</ref>

==Historical context==
Saturnalia underwent a major reform in 217 BC, after the [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]], when the Romans suffered one of their most crushing defeats by [[Carthage]] during the [[Second Punic War]]. Until that time, they had celebrated the holiday according to Roman custom ''([[mos maiorum|more Romano]])''. It was after a consultation of the [[Sibylline Books]] that they adopted "Greek rite", introducing sacrifices carried out in the Greek manner, the public banquet, and the continual shouts of ''io Saturnalia'' that became characteristic of the celebration.<ref>[[Livy]] 22.1.20; [[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 1.10.18 (on the shout); {{harvnb|Palmer|1997|pages=63–64}}</ref> [[Cato the Elder]] (234–149 BC) remembered a time before the so-called "Greek" elements had been added to the Roman Saturnalia.<ref>{{harvnb|Palmer|1997|page=64}}, citing the implications of Cato, frg. 77 ''ORF<sup>4</sup>''.</ref>

It was not unusual for the Romans to offer cult ''([[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#cultus|cultus]])'' to the deities of other nations in the hope of redirecting their favour (see ''[[evocatio]]''), and the Second Punic War in particular created pressures on Roman society that led to a number of religious innovations and reforms.<ref>{{harvnb|Palmer|1997|page=''passim''}} See also the [[Cybele#Roman Cybele|importation of Cybele to Rome]] during this time.</ref> [[Robert E.A. Palmer]] has argued that the introduction of new rites at this time was in part an effort to appease [[Baal Hammon|Ba'al Hammon]], the [[Punic religion|Carthaginian god]] who was regarded as the counterpart of the Roman Saturn and Greek [[Cronus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Palmer|1997|page=64}} For other scholars who have held this view, including those who precede Palmer, see {{harvnb|Versnel|1992|pages=141–142}}, especially note 32.</ref> The table service that masters offered their slaves thus would have extended to Carthaginian or African war captives.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|pages=63–64}}

==Public religious observance==
{{See also|Religion in ancient Rome}}
===Rite at the temple of Saturn===
[[File:Tavares.Forum.Romanum.redux.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.25|Ruins of the [[Temple of Saturn]] (eight columns on right) in Rome, traditionally said to have been constructed in 497 BC{{sfn|Palmer|1997|page=63}}{{sfn|Mueller|2010|page=221}}]]

The statue of Saturn at his main temple normally had its feet bound in wool, which was removed for the holiday as an act of liberation.<ref>[[Macrobius]] 1.8.5, citing [[Verrius Flaccus]] as his authority; see also [[Statius]], ''Silvae'' 1.6.4; [[Arnobius]] 4.24; [[Minucius Felix]] 23.5; Miller, "Roman Festivals," in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'', p. 172</ref>{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=142}} The official rituals were carried out according to "Greek rite" ''([[ritus graecus]])''. The sacrifice was officiated by a priest,<ref>The identity or title of this priest is unknown; perhaps the ''[[rex sacrorum]]'' or one of the [[Roman Magistrates|magistrates]]: [[William Warde Fowler]], ''The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic'' (London, 1908), p. 271.</ref> whose head was uncovered; in Roman rite, priests sacrificed ''[[capite velato]]'', with head covered by a special fold of the [[toga]].{{sfn|Versnel|1992|pages=139–140}} This procedure is usually explained by  Saturn's [[interpretatio graeca|assimilation with his Greek counterpart]] [[Cronus]], since the Romans often adopted and reinterpreted [[Greek mythology|Greek myths]], iconography, and even religious practices for [[List of Roman deities|their own deities]], but the uncovering of the priest's head may also be one of the Saturnalian reversals, the opposite of what was normal.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=140}}

Following the sacrifice the [[Roman Senate]] arranged a ''[[lectisternium]]'', a ritual of Greek origin that typically involved placing a deity's image on a sumptuous couch, as if he were present and actively participating in the festivities. A public banquet followed ''([[Symposium|convivium]] publicum)''.<ref>[[Livy]] 22.1; {{harvnb|Palmer|1997|page=63}}</ref>{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=141}}

The day was supposed to be a holiday from all forms of work. Schools were closed, and exercise regimens were suspended. Courts were not in session, so no justice was administered, and no [[declaration of war]] could be made.<ref>{{harvnb|Versnel|1992|page=147}}, citing [[Pliny the Younger]], ''Letters'' 8.7.1, [[Martial]] 5.84 and 12.81; [[Lucian]], ''Cronosolon'' 13; Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' 1.10.1, 4, 23.</ref> After the public rituals, observances continued [[domus|at home]].{{sfn|Beard|North|Price|1998a|page=50}} On 18 and 19 December, which were also holidays from public business, families conducted domestic rituals. They bathed early, and those with means sacrificed a [[suckling pig]], a traditional offering to an [[chthonic|earth deity]].<ref>[[Horace]], ''Odes'' 3.17, Martial 14.70; Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 272.</ref>

===Human offerings===
[[File:Oscillum con due maschere di pan e baccante, arte galloromana, I sec dc.JPG|thumb|During Saturnalia, the Romans offered ''[[oscilla|oscillum]]'', effigies of human heads, in place of real human heads.<ref name="Taylor"/><ref name="Chance"/>]]
Saturn also had a less benevolent aspect. One of his consorts was [[Lua (goddess)|Lua]], sometimes called ''Lua Saturni'' ("Saturn's Lua") and identified with Lua Mater, "Mother Destruction", a goddess in whose honor the weapons of enemies killed in war were burned, perhaps in expiation.<ref>{{harvnb |Mueller |2010 |page=222}}; Versnel, however, proposes that ''Lua Saturni'' should not be identified with ''Lua Mater'', but rather refers to "loosening": she represents the liberating function of Saturn {{harvnb |Versnel |1992 |page=144}}</ref> Saturn's [[chthonic]] nature connected him to the underworld and its ruler [[Dīs Pater]], the Roman equivalent of Greek [[Pluto (mythology)|Plouton]] (Pluto in Latin) who was also a god of hidden wealth.<ref>{{harvnb |Versnel |1992 |pages=144–145}} See also the [[Satre (Etruscan god)|Etruscan god Satre]].</ref> In sources of the third century AD and later, Saturn is recorded as receiving dead [[gladiator]]s as offerings (''munera'') during or near the Saturnalia.<ref>For instance, [[Ausonius]], ''Eclogue'' 23 and ''De feriis Romanis'' 33–7. See {{harvnb |Versnel |1992 |pages=146 and 211–212}} and [[Thomas Ernst Josef Wiedemann|Thomas E. J. Wiedemann]], ''Emperors and Gladiators'' (Routledge, 1992, 1995), p. 47.</ref> These gladiatorial events, ten days in all throughout December, were presented mainly by the [[quaestor]]s and sponsored with funds from the treasury of Saturn.<ref>More precisely, eight days were subsidized from the Imperial treasury (''arca fisci'') and two mostly by the sponsoring [[Roman Magistrates|magistrate]]. Salzmann, Michele Renee, ''On Roman Time: The Codex-Calendar of 354 and the Rhythms of Urban Life in Late Antiquity'' ([[University of California Press]], 1990), p. 186.</ref>

The practice of gladiator ''munera'' was criticized by [[Christian apologists]] as a form of [[Religion in ancient Rome#Human sacrifice|human sacrifice]].{{sfn |Mueller |2010 |page=222}}{{sfn |Versnel |1992 |page=146}} Although there is no evidence of this practice during the Republic, the offering of gladiators led to later theories that the primeval Saturn had demanded human victims. Macrobius says that Dīs Pater was placated with human heads and Saturn with sacrificial victims consisting of men (''virorum [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#victima|victimis]]'').<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' 1.7.31</ref>{{sfn |Versnel |1992 |page=146}} In mythic lore, during the visit of [[Hercules in ancient Rome|Hercules to Italy]], the civilizing demigod insisted that the practice be halted and the ritual reinterpreted. Instead of heads to Dīs Pater, the Romans were to offer effigies or masks ''([[oscilla]])''; a mask appears in the representation of Saturnalia in the [[Chronograph of 354|Calendar of Filocalus]]. Since the Greek word ''phota'' meant both 'man' and 'lights', candles were a substitute offering to Saturn for the light of life.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Rabun |title=Roman ''Oscilla'': An Assessment |journal=RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics |volume=48 |date=2005 |issue=48 |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |page=101|doi=10.1086/RESv48n1ms20167679 |jstor=20167679 |s2cid=193568609 }}</ref><ref name="Chance">{{cite book |last=Chance |first=Jane |date=1994 |title=Medieval Mythography: From Roman North Africa to the School of Chartres, A.D. 433–1177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3J3-0I7YLfoC |location=Gainesville, Florida |publisher=University Press of Florida |isbn=9780813012568 |pages=71–72}}</ref> The figurines that were exchanged as gifts (''[[sigillaria (ancient Rome)|sigillaria]]'') may also have represented token substitutes.<ref>[[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 1.10.24; Carlin A. Barton, ''The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster'' ([[Princeton University Press]], 1993), p. 166. For another Roman ritual that may represent human sacrifice, see [[Argei]]. ''[[Oscilla]]'' were also part of the [[Feriae Latinae|Latin Festival]] and the [[Compitalia]]: Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 272.</ref>

==Private festivities==
{{quote box
|quote="Meanwhile, the head of the slave household, whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to the [[Penates]], to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic servants, came to tell his master that the household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honor the slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master; and only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to the table."{{sfn|Beard|North|Price|1998b|page=124}}
|source=[[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 1.24.22–23
| align = right
| width = 30%
| bgcolor = #FFFFF0
|salign=right
}}
===Role reversal===
Saturnalia was characterized by role reversals and behavioral license.<ref name="Parker"/> Slaves were treated to a banquet of the kind usually enjoyed by their masters.<ref name="Parker"/> Ancient sources differ on the circumstances: some suggest that master and slave dined together,<ref>[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], ''Epistulae'' 47.14; Carlin A. Barton, ''The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster'' (Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 498.</ref> while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice might have varied over time.{{sfn|Dolansky|2011|page=484}}

Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to disrespect their masters without the threat of a punishment. It was a time for [[Marsyas#Prophecy and free speech at Rome|free speech]]: the [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan]] poet [[Horace]] calls it "December liberty".<ref>[[Horace]], ''Satires'' 2.7.4, ''libertas Decembri''; {{harvnb|Mueller|2010|pages=221–222}}</ref> In two [[Satires (Horace)|satires]] set during the Saturnalia, Horace has a slave offer sharp criticism to his master.<ref>[[Horace]], ''Satires'', Book 2, poems 3 and 7; Catherine Keane, ''Figuring Genre in Roman Satire'' (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 90; Maria Plaza, ''The Function of Humour in Roman Verse Satire: Laughing and Lying'' (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 298–300 ''et passim.''</ref> Everyone knew, however, that the leveling of the [[social class in ancient Rome|social hierarchy]] was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end.<ref>Barton, ''The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans'', ''passim''.</ref>

The [[toga]], the characteristic garment of the male Roman citizen, was set aside in favor of the Greek ''[[Synthesis (clothing)|synthesis]]'', colourful "dinner clothes" otherwise considered in poor taste for daytime wear.<ref>{{harvnb|Versnel|1992|page=147}} (especially note 59).</ref> Romans of citizen status normally went about bare-headed, but for the Saturnalia donned the ''[[Pileus (hat)|pilleus]]'', the conical felt cap that was the usual mark of a freedman. Slaves, who ordinarily were not entitled to wear the ''pilleus'', wore it as well, so that everyone was "pilleated" without distinction.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=147}}{{sfn|Dolansky|2011|page=492}}

The participation of [[Women in ancient Rome|freeborn Roman women]] is implied by sources that name gifts for women, but their presence at banquets may have depended on the custom of their time; from the late Republic onward, women mingled socially with men more freely than they had in earlier times. Female entertainers were certainly present at some otherwise all-male gatherings.{{sfn|Dolansky|2011|pages=492–494}} Role-playing was implicit in the Saturnalia's status reversals, and there are hints of mask-wearing or "[[guising]]".<ref>At the beginning of [[Horace]]'s ''Satire'' 2.3, and the mask in the Saturnalia imagery of the [[Calendar of Philocalus]], and [[Martial]]'s inclusion of masks as Saturnalia gifts</ref>{{sfn|Beard|North|Price|1998b|page=125}} No theatrical events are mentioned in connection with the festivities, but the classicist [[Erich Segal]] saw [[Roman comedy]], with its cast of impudent, free-wheeling slaves and libertine seniors, as imbued with the Saturnalian spirit.<ref>[[Erich Segal|Segal, Erich]], ''Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus'' (Oxford University Press, 1968, 2nd ed. 1987), pp. 8–9, 32–33, 103 ''et passim''.</ref>

===Gambling===
[[File:Pompeii - Osteria della Via di Mercurio - Dice Players.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Dice players in a wall painting from [[Pompeii]]]]
Gambling and dice-playing, normally prohibited or at least frowned upon, were permitted for all, even slaves. Coins and nuts were the [[gambling|stakes]]. On the [[Calendar of Philocalus]], the Saturnalia is represented by a man wearing a fur-trimmed coat next to a table with dice, and a caption reading: "Now you have license, slave, to game with your master."<ref>{{harvnb|Versnel|1992|page=148}} citing [[Suetonius]], ''Life of Augustus'' 71; Martial 1.14.7, 5.84, 7.91.2, 11.6, 13.1.7; 14.1; Lucian, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl422.htm ''Saturnalia'' 1.]</ref><ref>See [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chronography_of_354_06_calendar.htm a copy of the actual calendar]</ref> Rampant overeating and drunkenness became the rule, and a sober person the exception.<ref>{{harvnb|Versnel|1992|page=147}}, citing [[Cato the Elder]], ''De agricultura'' 57; [[Aulus Gellius]] 2.24.3; Martial 14.70.1 and 14.1.9; [[Horace]], ''Satire'' 2.3.5; [[Lucian]], ''Saturnalia'' 13; ''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'', Alexander Severus 37.6.</ref>

[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] looked forward to the holiday, if somewhat tentatively, in a letter to a friend:

<blockquote>"It is now the month of December, when the greatest part of the city is in a bustle. Loose reins are given to public dissipation; everywhere you may hear the sound of great preparations, as if there were some real difference between the days devoted to Saturn and those for transacting business.&nbsp;... Were you here, I would willingly confer with you as to the plan of our conduct; whether we should eve in our usual way, or, to avoid singularity, both take a better supper and throw off the toga."<ref>[[Seneca the Younger]], ''Epistulae'' 18.1–2.</ref></blockquote>

Some Romans found it all a bit much. [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]] describes a secluded suite of rooms in his [[Laurentum|Laurentine]] [[Roman villa|villa]], which he used as a retreat: "... especially during the Saturnalia when the rest of the house is noisy with the licence of the holiday and festive cries. This way I don't hamper the games of my people and they don't hinder my work or studies."<ref>[[Pliny the Younger]], ''Letters'' 2.17.24. [[Horace]] similarly sets ''Satire'' 2.3 during the Saturnalia but in the countryside, where he has fled the frenzied pace.</ref>

===Gift-giving===
{{main|Sigillaria (ancient Rome)}}
The Sigillaria on 19 December was a day of gift-giving.<ref>{{harvnb|Dolansky|2011|pages=492, 502}} [[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 1.10.24, seems to indicate that the Sigillaria was a market that occurred at the end of Saturnalia, but the [[Gallo-Roman]] scholar-poet [[Ausonius]] (''Eclogues'' 16.32) refers to it as a religious occasion ''(sacra sigillorum,'' "rites of the ''sigillaria''").</ref> Because gifts of value would mark social status contrary to the spirit of the season, these were often the [[ancient Roman pottery|pottery]] or wax figurines called ''[[Sigillaria (ancient Rome)|sigillaria]]'' made specially for the day, candles, or "[[gag gift]]s", of which [[Augustus]] was particularly fond.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Life of Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#75 75]; {{harvnb|Versnel|1992|page=148}}, pointing to the ''[http://lucianofsamosata.info/Cronosolon.html Cronosolon]'' of Lucian on the problem of unequal gift-giving.</ref> Children received toys as gifts.<ref>Beryl Rawson, "Adult-Child Relationships in Ancient Rome," in ''Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome'' (Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 19.</ref> In his many poems about the Saturnalia, [[Martial]] names both expensive and quite cheap gifts, including writing tablets, dice, [[knucklebones]], moneyboxes, combs, toothpicks, a hat, a hunting knife, an axe, various lamps, balls, [[perfume]]s, pipes, a pig, a sausage, a [[parrot]], tables, cups, spoons, items of clothing, statues, masks, books, and pets.<ref>[[Martial]], ''Epigrams'' 13 and 14, the ''Xenia'' and the ''Apophoreta'', published 84–85 AD.</ref> Gifts might be as costly as a slave or exotic animal,<ref>{{harvnb|Dolansky|2011|page=492}} citing [[Martial]] 5.18, 7.53, 14; Suetonius, ''Life of Augustus'' 75 and ''Life of Vespasian'' 19 on the range of gifts.</ref> but Martial suggests that token gifts of low intrinsic value inversely measure the high quality of a friendship.<ref>Ruurd R. Nauta, ''Poetry for Patrons: Literary Communication in the Age of Domitian'' (Brill, 2002), pp. 78–79.</ref> [[Patronage in ancient Rome|Patrons]] or "bosses" might pass along a gratuity ''(sigillaricium)'' to their poorer clients or dependents to help them buy gifts. Some [[Roman emperor|emperors]] were noted for their devoted observance of the Sigillaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Versnel|1992|pages=148–149}}, citing Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' 1.10.24 and 1.11.49; [[Suetonius]], ''Life of Claudius'' 5; ''[[Scriptores Historiae Augustae]]'' Hadrian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/2*.html#17.3 17.3], Caracalla [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Caracalla*.html#1.8 1.8] and Aurelian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Aurelian/3*.html#ref184 50.3.] See also {{harvnb|Dolansky|2011|page=492}}</ref>

In a practice that might be compared to modern [[greeting card]]s, verses sometimes accompanied the gifts. Martial has a collection of poems written as if to be attached to gifts.<ref>Martial, Book 14 ''(Apophoreta)''; Williams, ''Martial: Epigrams'', p. 259; Nauta, ''Poetry for Patrons,'' p. 79 ''et [https://books.google.com/books?id=EelGbtB7ppsC&q=saturnalia passim.]''</ref>{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=148}} Catullus received a book of bad poems by "the worst poet of all time" as a joke from a friend.<ref>[[Catullus]], ''Carmen'' 14; Robinson Ellis, ''A Commentary on Catullus'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1876), pp. 38–39.</ref>

Gift-giving was not confined to the day of the Sigillaria. In some households, guests and family members received gifts after the feast in which slaves had shared.{{sfn|Dolansky|2011|page=492}}

===King of the Saturnalia===
[[File:Lawrence Alma-Tadema 06.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Ave, Caesar! Io, Saturnalia!'' (1880) by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]. The painting's title draws a comparison between the spontaneous declaration of [[Claudius]] as the new emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard]] after the assassination of [[Caligula]] and the election of a ''Saturnalicius princeps''.<ref>The painting represents a scene recorded by [[Josephus]], ''Antiquitates Iudiacae'' 19; and [[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#1 60.1.3.]</ref>]]
[[Roman Empire|Imperial]] sources refer to a ''Saturnalicius princeps'' ("Ruler of the Saturnalia"), who ruled as master of ceremonies for the proceedings. He was appointed by lot, and has been compared to the medieval [[Lord of Misrule]] at the [[Feast of Fools]]. His capricious commands, such as "Sing naked!" or "Throw him into cold water!", had to be obeyed by the other guests at the ''convivium'': he creates and (mis)rules a chaotic and absurd world. The future emperor [[Nero]] is recorded as playing the role in his youth.<ref>By [[Tacitus]], ''Annales'' 13.15.</ref>

Since this figure does not appear in accounts from the [[Roman Republic|Republican period]], the ''princeps'' of the Saturnalia may have developed as a satiric response to the new era of rule by a ''[[princeps]]'', the title assumed by the first emperor [[Augustus]] to avoid the hated connotations of the word "king" ''(rex)''. Art and [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|literature under Augustus]] celebrated his reign as a new Golden Age, but the Saturnalia makes a mockery of a world in which law is determined by one man and the traditional social and political networks are reduced to the power of the emperor over his subjects.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|pages=206–208}} In a poem about a lavish Saturnalia under [[Domitian]], [[Statius]] makes it clear that the emperor, like [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], still reigns during the temporary return of Saturn.<ref>[[Statius]], ''Silvae'' 1.6; Nauta, ''Poetry for Patrons'', p. 400.</ref>

===''Io Saturnalia''===
The phrase ''io Saturnalia'' was the characteristic shout or salutation of the festival, originally commencing after the public banquet on the single day of 17 December.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=141}}{{sfn|Palmer|1997|page=63}} The [[interjection]] ''io'' (Greek ''ἰώ'', ''ǐō'') is pronounced either with two [[syllable]]s (a short ''i'' and a long ''o'') or as a single syllable (with the ''i'' becoming the Latin [[consonant]]al ''j'' and pronounced ''yō''). It was a strongly emotive ritual exclamation or invocation, used for instance in announcing [[Roman triumph|triumph]] or celebrating [[Bacchus]], but also to punctuate a joke.<ref>Entry on ''io,'' ''[[Oxford Latin Dictionary]]'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), p. 963.</ref>

==On the calendar==
[[File:Chronography of 354 Mensis December.png|thumb|Drawing from the ''[[Chronography of 354]]'' (a calendar of the year 354 produced by [[Furius Dionysius Filocalus|Filocalus]]) depicting the month of December, with Saturnalian dice on the table and a mask (''[[oscilla]]'') hanging above]]

As an observance of state religion, Saturnalia was supposed to have been held "''... quarto decimo Kalendarum Ianuariarum''",<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' I.X.18.</ref> on the fourteenth day before the [[Kalends]] of the pre-Julian, twenty-nine day December, on the oldest [[Roman calendar|Roman religious calendar]],{{sfn|Palmer|1997|page=62}} which the Romans believed to have been established by the legendary founder [[Romulus]] and his successor [[Numa Pompilius]]. It was a ''[[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#festus|dies festus]]'', a legal holiday when no public business could be conducted.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|page=63}} The day marked the dedication anniversary ''([[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#dies natalis|dies natalis]])'' of the Temple to Saturn in the Roman Forum in 497 BC.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|page=63}}{{sfn|Mueller|2010|page=221}} When [[Julius Caesar]] had the [[Julian calendar|calendar reformed]] because it had fallen out of synchronization with the [[tropical year|solar year]], two days were added to the month, and the date of Saturnalia then changed, still falling on the 17 December, but with this now being the sixteenth day before the Kalends, as per the Roman reckoning of dates of this time. It was felt, thus, that the original day had thus been moved by two days, and so Saturnalia was celebrated under [[Augustus]] as a three-day official holiday encompassing both dates.<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' 1.10.23; {{harvnb|Mueller|2010|page=221}}; Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 268; Carole E. Newlands, "The Emperor's Saturnalia: Statius, ''Silvae'' 1.6," in ''Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text'' (Brill, 2003), p. 505.</ref>

By the late [[Roman Republic|Republic]], the private festivities of Saturnalia had expanded to seven days,<ref>[[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 1.10.3, citing the [[Atellan Farce|Atellane]] composers [[Quintus Novius|Novius]] and Mummius</ref>{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=146}} but during the Imperial period contracted variously to three to five days.<ref>Miller, "Roman Festivals," in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'', p. 172.</ref> [[Caligula]] extended official observances to five.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Life of Caligula'' 17; [[Cassius Dio]] 59.6.4; {{harvnb|Mueller|2010|page=221}}; Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 268, citing [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]] and ''[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]]'' I.337.</ref>

The date 17 December was the first day of the [[Capricorn (astrology)|astrological sign Capricorn]], the [[house (astrology)|house]] of [[Saturn|Saturn, the planet]] named for the god.<ref>Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 268, note 3; Roger Beck, "Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New Evidence from a Cult Vessel," ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 90 (2000), p. 179.</ref> Its proximity to the [[winter solstice]] (21 to 23 December on the Julian calendar) was endowed with various meanings by both ancient and modern scholars: for instance, the widespread use of wax candles ''(cerei,'' singular ''cereus)'' could refer to "the returning power of the sun's light after the solstice".<ref>Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 272. Fowler thought the use of candles influenced the Christmas rituals of the [[Latin Church]], and compared the symbolism of the candles to the [[Yule log]].</ref>

==Ancient theological and philosophical views==

===Roman===
[[File:Lucius Appuleius Saturninus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|Saturn driving a four-horse chariot ''([[quadriga]])'' on the reverse of a [[denarius]] issued in 104 BC by the [[tribune|plebeian tribune]] [[Lucius Appuleius Saturninus|Saturninus]], with the head of the [[Roma (mythology)|goddess Roma]] on the obverse: Saturninus was a [[populares|popularist]] politician whose Saturnian imagery played on his name and evoked both his program of grain distribution to aid the poor and his intent to subvert the social hierarchy, all ideas associated with the Saturnalia.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=162}}]]

The Saturnalia reflects the contradictory nature of the deity Saturn himself: "There are joyful and utopian aspects of careless well-being side by side with disquieting elements of threat and danger."{{sfn|Versnel|1992|page=148}}

As a deity of agricultural bounty, Saturn embodied prosperity and wealth in general. The name of his consort [[Ops]] meant "wealth, resources". Her festival, [[Opalia]], was celebrated on 19 December. The [[Temple of Saturn]] housed the state treasury (''[[aerarium|aerarium Saturni]]'') and was the administrative headquarters of the [[quaestor]]s, the public officials whose duties included oversight of the [[mint (coin)|mint]]. It was among the oldest cult sites in Rome, and had been the location of "a very ancient" altar ''([[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#ara|ara]])'' even before the building of the first temple in 497 BC.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|pages=136–137}}<ref>Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 271.</ref>

The Romans regarded Saturn as the original and [[autochthon (person)|autochthonous]] ruler of the [[Capitolium]],<ref>The Capitolium had thus been called the ''Mons Saturnius'' in older times.</ref> and the first king of [[Latium]] or even the whole of Italy.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|pages=138–139}} At the same time, there was a tradition that Saturn had been an immigrant deity, received by [[Janus (mythology)|Janus]] after he was usurped by his son [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] ([[Zeus]]) and expelled from Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Versnel|1992|page=139}} The Roman theologian [[Varro]] listed Saturn among the [[List of Roman deities#Sabine gods|Sabine gods]].</ref> His contradictions—a foreigner with one of Rome's oldest sanctuaries, and a god of liberation who is kept in fetters most of the year—indicate Saturn's capacity for obliterating social distinctions.{{sfn|Versnel|1992|pages=139, 142–143}}

Roman mythology of the Golden Age of Saturn's reign differed from the Greek tradition. He arrived in Italy "dethroned and fugitive",<ref>Versnel, "Saturnus and the Saturnalia," p. 143.</ref> but brought agriculture and civilization and became a king. As the Augustan poet [[Virgil]] described it: <blockquote>"[H]e gathered together the unruly race [of [[faun]]s and [[nymph]]s] scattered over mountain heights, and gave them laws&nbsp;.... Under his reign were the golden ages men tell of: in such perfect peace he ruled the nations."<ref>[[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' 8. 320–325, as cited by {{harvnb|Versnel|1992|page=143}}</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Disc Sol BM GR1899.12-1.2.jpg|thumb|Roman disc in silver depicting Sol Invictus (from [[Pessinus]] in [[Phrygia]], 3rd century AD)]]
The third century [[Neoplatonic]] philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] took an allegorical view of the Saturnalia. He saw the festival's theme of liberation and dissolution as representing the "freeing of souls into immortality"—an interpretation that [[Mithraic mysteries|Mithraists]] may also have followed, since they included many slaves and freedmen.<ref>[[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]], ''De antro'' 23, following [[Numenius of Apamea|Numenius]], as cited by Roger Beck, "''Qui Mortalitatis Causa Convenerunt'': The Meeting of the Virunum Mithraists on June 26, A.D. 184," ''Phoenix'' 52 (1998), p. 340. One of the speakers in Macrobius's ''Saturnalia'' is [[Vettius Agorius Praetextatus]], a Mithraist.</ref> According to Porphyry, the Saturnalia occurred near the [[winter solstice]] because the sun enters [[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]], the [[House (astrology)|astrological house]] of Saturn, at that time.<ref>Beck, Roger, "Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New Evidence from a Cult Vessel," ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 90 (2000), p. 179.</ref> In the  [[Saturnalia (Macrobius)|Saturnalia of Macrobius]], the proximity of the Saturnalia to the winter solstice leads to an exposition of solar [[monotheism]], the belief that the Sun (see [[Sol Invictus]]) ultimately encompasses all divinities as one.<ref>[[Roel van den Broek|van den Broek, Roel]], "The Sarapis Oracle in Macrobius ''Sat.'', I, 20, 16–17," in ''Hommages à Maarten J. Vermaseren'' (Brill, 1978), vol. 1, p. 123ff.</ref>

===Jewish===
[[Mishna|M.]] [[Avodah Zarah]] lists Saturnalia as a "festival of the gentiles," along with the [[Calends]] of January and [[Kratesis]].{{Efn|'''קלנטס וסטרנלייא''' ''Kalends and Saturnalia'' in MSS Kaufmann A50 and Parma A (de Rossi 138). The spelling is the same in both, though Kaufmann's [[Waw (letter)#Words written as vav|waw-conjunctive]] is the work of a later scribe and the phrase has been struck through in Parma A. All Mishnaic printings have edited the spellings toward the ''Kalenda and Saturnura'' of b. Avodah Zarah MSS.{{cn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mishnah Avodah Zarah 1:3|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Avodah_Zarah.1.3|access-date=2021-03-05|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref> [[Avodah Zarah|B. Avodah Zarah]] records that [[Hanan bar Rava|Ḥanan b. Rava]] said, "Kalends{{Efn|קלנדא ''Kalenda'' in extant MSS; however Ḥananel b. Ḥushiel quotes s.v. "קלנדס" ''Kalends''.{{cn|date=January 2025}}}} is held during the eight days after the [[Winter solstice|[winter] solstice]] and Saturnura{{Efn|MSS variants: ''Saturnaya'', ''Saturnurya''. This is likely a pun on סתר-נורא ''satar-nura'' "cloaking of the flame"; i.e. the shortening of the day which the solstice represents. In all printings of b. Avodah Zarah, the final mention of the holiday has been corrected to Saturnalia, though all MSS read Saturnura as before.{{cn|date=January 2025}}}} begins eight days before the [winter] solstice".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Avodah Zarah 6a:10|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Avodah_Zarah.6a.10|access-date=2021-03-05|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref> [[Chananel ben Chushiel|Ḥananel b. Ḥushiel]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rabbeinu Chananel on Avodah Zarah 6a:3|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Rabbeinu_Chananel_on_Avodah_Zarah.6a.3|access-date=2021-07-22|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref> followed by [[Rashi]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rashi on Avodah Zarah 6a:10:1|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Rashi_on_Avodah_Zarah.6a.10.1|access-date=2021-07-22|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref> claims: "Eight days before the solstice -- their festival was for all eight days," which slightly overstates the Saturnalia's historical six-day length, possibly to associate the holiday with [[Hanukkah]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Sarit|first=Kattan Gribetz|date=2020-11-17|title=Time and Difference in Rabbinic Judaism|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691192857.001.0001|doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691192857.001.0001|isbn=9780691192857|s2cid=241016818 }}</ref>

In the [[Jerusalem Talmud]], ''[[Avodah Zarah]]'' claims the etymology of Saturnalia is שנאה טמונה ''śinʾâ ṭǝmûnâ'' "hidden hatred," and refers to the hatred [[Esau]], whom the Rabbis believed had fathered Rome, harbored for [[Jacob]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jerusalem Talmud Avodah Zarah 3a:1|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Avodah_Zarah.3a.1|access-date=2021-07-23|website=www.sefaria.org|archive-date=2021-08-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820143819/https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Avodah_Zarah.3a.1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Babylonian Talmud]]'s ''Avodah Zarah'' ascribes the origins of Saturnalia (and Kalends) to [[Adam]], who saw that the days were getting shorter and thought it was punishment for his sin:
{{quote|When the [[Adam|First Man]] saw that the day was continuously shortening, he said, "Woe is me! Because I have sinned, the world darkens around me, and returns to formlessness and void. This is the death to which Heaven has sentenced me!" He decided to spend eight days in fasting and prayer. When he saw the winter solstice, and he saw that the day was continuously lengthening, he said, "It is the order of the world!" He went and feasted for eight days. The following year, he feasted for both. He established them in Heaven's name, but they established them in the name of idolatry.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Avodah Zarah 8a:7|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Avodah_Zarah.8a.7|access-date=2021-07-23|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref>}}In the Babylonian ''Avodah Zarah'', this etiology is attributed to the [[tannaim]], but the story is suspiciously similar to the etiology of Kalends attributed by the Jerusalem Avodah Zarah to [[Abba Arikha]].<ref name=":1" />

==Influence==
[[File:Escultura Saturnalia de Ernesto Biondi.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|''Saturnalia'' (1909) by [[Ernesto Biondi]], in the [[Buenos Aires Botanical Gardens]]]]

Unlike several Roman religious festivals which were particular to cult sites in the city, the prolonged seasonal celebration of Saturnalia at home could be held anywhere in the Empire.<ref>[[Greg Woolf|Woolf, Greg]], "Found in Translation: The Religion of the Roman Diaspora," in ''Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007)'' (Brill, 2009), p. 249. See [[Aulus Gellius]] 18.2.1 for Romans living in Athens and celebrating the Saturnalia.</ref> Saturnalia continued as a secular celebration long after it was removed from the official calendar.<ref>Michele Renee Salzman, "Religious ''Koine'' and Religious Dissent," in ''A Companion to Roman Religion'' (Blackwell, 2007), p. 121.</ref> As [[William Warde Fowler]] notes: "[Saturnalia] has left its traces and found its parallels in great numbers of medieval and modern customs, occurring about the time of the winter solstice."<ref>Fowler, ''Roman Festivals'', p. 268.</ref>

The [[Date of the birth of Jesus#Day of birth|date of Jesus's birth]] is unknown.<ref name="John">{{cite book |last1=John |first1=J. |title=A Christmas Compendium |date=2005 |publisher=Continuum |location=New York City, New York and London, England |isbn=0-8264-8749-1 |page=112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBP8a2jJ9A4C&q=Saturnalia+Christmas&pg=PA112 }}</ref><ref name="Struthers">{{cite book |last1=Struthers |first1=Jane |title=The Book of Christmas: Everything We Once Knew and Loved about Christmastime |date=2012 |publisher=Ebury Press |location=London, England |isbn=9780091947293 |pages=17–21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKaJsdIkOgsC&q=Saturnalia+Christmas&pg=PA18 }}</ref> A spurious correspondence between Cyril of Jerusalem and [[Pope Julius I]] (337–352), quoted by John of Nikiu in the 9th century, is sometimes given as a source for a claim that, in the fourth century AD, [[Pope Julius I]] decreed that the birth of Jesus be celebrated on 25 December.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm|title=Christmas|last=Martindale|first=Cyril|date=1908|website=The Catholic Encyclopedia|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|location=New York|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref><ref>Letter of Cyril of Jerusalem to Julius I, cited as false. {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYFg5iRuIyMC&q=censura+julii&pg=PA965|title=Patrologiae cursus completus, seu bibliotheca universalis, integra, uniformis, commoda, oeconomica, omnium SS. Patrum, doctorum scriptorumque ecclesiasticorum, sive latinorum, qui ab aevo apostolico ad tempora Innocentii 3. (anno 1216) pro Latinis et Concilii Florentini (ann. 1439) pro Graecis floruerunt: Recusio chronologica&nbsp;...: Opera quae exstant universa Constantini Magni, Victorini necnon et Nazarii, anonymi, S. Silvestri papae , S. Marci papae , S. Julii papae , Osii Cordubensis, Candidi Ariani, Liberii papae , et Potamii|date=1844|publisher=Vrayet|pages=965|language=la}}</ref> Some speculate that the date was chosen to create a Christian replacement or alternative to Saturnalia<ref name="John"/> and the birthday festival of [[Sol Invictus]], held on 25 December.<ref name="Struthers"/> Around AD 200, [[Tertullian]] had berated Christians for continuing to celebrate the pagan Saturnalia festival.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graf |first1=Fritz |title=Roman Festivals in the Greek East: From the Early Empire to the Middle Byzantine Era |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=77, 152}}</ref> The Church may have hoped to attract more converts to Christianity by allowing them to continue to celebrate on the same day.<ref name="Struthers"/>  The Church may have also been influenced by the idea that Jesus was conceived and died on the same date;<ref name="Struthers"/> Jesus died during Passover and, in the third century AD, Passover was celebrated on 25 March.<ref name="Struthers"/> The Church may have calculated Jesus's birthday as nine months later, on 25 December.<ref name="Struthers"/> But in fact the correspondence is spurious.<ref name="auto"/>

[[File:David Teniers (II) - Twelfth-night (The King Drinks) - WGA22083.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|''The King Drinks'' (between 1634 and 1640) by [[David Teniers the Younger]], showing a [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|Twelfth Night]] celebration with a "[[Lord of Misrule]]"]]

As a result of the close proximity of dates, many Christians in western Europe continued to celebrate traditional Saturnalia customs in association with Christmas and the surrounding holidays.<ref name="John"/><ref name="Forbes">{{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Bruce David |title=Christmas: A Candid History |date=2007 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, California |isbn=978-0-520-25104-5 |pages=9–10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqmlzjMYMRAC&q=Saturnalia+Christmas&pg=PA10 }}</ref><ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/> Like Saturnalia, Christmas during the [[Middle Ages]] was a time of ruckus, drinking, gambling, and overeating.<ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/> The tradition of the ''Saturnalicius princeps'' was particularly influential.<ref name="Forbes"/><ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/> In medieval France and Switzerland, a boy would be elected "[[Boy bishop|bishop for a day]]" on 28 December (the [[Feast of the Holy Innocents]])<ref name="Forbes"/><ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/> and would issue decrees much like the ''Saturnalicius princeps''.<ref name="Forbes"/><ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/> The boy bishop's tenure ended during the evening [[vespers]].<ref name="Mackenzie">{{cite book |last1=Mackenzie |first1=Neil |title=The Medieval Boy Bishops |date=2012 |publisher=Matadore |location=Leicestershire, England |isbn=978-1780880-082 |pages=26–29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_noYDwZ-2XUC&q=boy+bishop+Feast+of+the+Holy+Innocents&pg=PA29 }}</ref> This custom was common across western Europe, but varied considerably by region;<ref name="Mackenzie"/> in some places, the boy bishop's orders could become quite rowdy and unrestrained,<ref name="Mackenzie"/> but, in others, his power was only ceremonial.<ref name="Mackenzie"/> In some parts of France, during the boy bishop's tenure, the actual clergy would wear masks or dress in women's clothing, a reversal of roles in line with the traditional character of Saturnalia.<ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/>

During the [[Late Middle Ages|late medieval period]] and early [[Renaissance]], many towns in England elected a "[[Lord of Misrule]]" at Christmas time to preside over the [[Feast of Fools]].<ref name="Forbes"/><ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/> This custom was sometimes associated with the [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|Twelfth Night]] or [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaheen |first1=Naseeb |title=Biblical References in Shakespeare's Plays |date=1999 |publisher=[[University of Delaware Press]] |location=Newark, Maryland |isbn=978-1-61149-358-0 |page=196 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CqhJRC2JEScC&q=Twelfth+Night+feast+of+fools&pg=PT196 }}</ref> A common tradition in western Europe was to drop a [[Bean-feast|bean, coin, or other small token into a cake or pudding]];<ref name="Forbes"/> whoever found the object would become the "King (or Queen) of the Bean".<ref name="Forbes"/> During the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]], reformers sought to revise or even completely abolish such practices, which they regarded as "[[Papist|popish]]";<ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/> these efforts were largely successful.<ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/><ref name="Jeffrey">{{cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=Yvonne |title=The Everything Family Christmas Book |date=17 September 2008 |publisher=Everything Books |language=en |isbn=9781605507835 |pages=46–47}}</ref> The Puritans banned the "Lord of Misrule" in England<ref name="Jeffrey"/> and the custom was largely forgotten shortly thereafter, though the bean in the pudding survived as a tradition of a small gift to the one finding a single almond hidden in the traditional Christmas porridge in Scandinavia.<ref name="Jeffrey"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sjue |first1=K. |title=Historien om mandelen i grøten |url=https://www.dagbladet.no/mat/ingen-vet-helt-hvorfor-vi-har-mandel-i-groten/66561595 |access-date=25 November 2019 |agency=Dagbladet |date=25 December 2016}}</ref>

Nonetheless, in the middle of the nineteenth century, some of the old ceremonies, such as gift-giving, were revived in English-speaking countries as part of a widespread "Christmas revival".<ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/><ref name="Jeffrey"/><ref name="Rowel1993">{{cite journal |last=Rowell |first=Geoffrey |date=December 1993 |journal=[[History Today]] |volume=43 |issue=12 |access-date=December 28, 2016 |language=en |url=http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-rowell/dickens-and-construction-christmas |title=Dickens and the Construction of Christmas}}</ref> During this revival, authors such as [[Charles Dickens]] sought to reform the "conscience of Christmas" and turn the formerly riotous holiday into a family-friendly occasion.<ref name="Rowel1993"/> Vestiges of the Saturnalia festivities may still be preserved in some of the traditions now associated with Christmas.<ref name="GraftonMostSettis"/><ref name="Stuttard2012">{{cite web |last1=Stuttard |first1=David |author-link=David Stuttard |date=17 December 2012 |title=Did the Romans invent Christmas? |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/20617780 |website=bbc.co.uk |publisher=British Broadcasting Company }}</ref> The custom of gift-giving at Christmas time resembles the Roman tradition of giving ''sigillaria''<ref name="Stuttard2012"/> and the lighting of [[Advent candles]] resembles the Roman tradition of lighting torches and wax tapers.<ref name="Stuttard2012"/><ref name="Forbes"/> Likewise, Saturnalia and Christmas both share associations with eating, drinking, singing, and dancing.<ref name="Stuttard2012"/><ref name="Forbes"/>

== See also ==
* [[Brumalia]]
* [[Yule]]
* [[Bacchanalia]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Works cited===
====Ancient sources====
{{refbegin}}
* [[Horace]] ''Satire'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0063:book=2:poem=7 2.7.4]
* {{Cite book|last=Justinus|first=Marcus Junianus |translator-first=J. C. |translator-last=Yardley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkrtpKhGuNcC|title=Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus|date=1997|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-814907-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Macrobius |first1=Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius |editor1-last=Kaster |editor1-first=Robert A. |title=Saturnalia |date=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-99671-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D99brDiSmYC }}
* [[Pliny the Younger]] ''[http://www.attalus.org/info/pliny.html Letters]''
{{refend}}

====Modern secondary sources====
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Beard|first1=Mary|last2=North|first2=John|last3=Price|first3=Simon|title=Religions of Rome: Volume 1, A History|year=1998a|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521304016}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Beard|first1=Mary|last2=North|first2=John|last3=Price|first3=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQd82l39KX4C|title=Religions of Rome: Volume 2, A Sourcebook|year=1998b|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45646-3}}
* {{citation |last=Dolansky |first=Fanny |date=2011 |chapter=Celebrating the Saturnalia: Religious Ritual and Roman Domestic Life |title=A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VliK0r0Z69kC&q=Fanny+Dolansky+Celebrating+the+Saturnalia |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World |editor-last=Rawson |editor-first=Beryl |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1405187671 }}
* {{citation |last=Mueller |first=Hans Friedrich |date=2010 |article=Saturn |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome |editor1-last=Gagarin |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Fantham |editor2-first=Elaine |editor2-link=Elaine Fantham |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-538839-8 |pages=221–222 }}
* {{citation |last=Palmer |first=Robert E. A. |author-link=Robert E. A. Palmer |date=1997 |title=Rome and Carthage at Peace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0naEMwEACAAJ |series=Historia – Einzelschriften |location=Stuttgart, Germany |publisher=Franz Steiner |isbn=978-3515070409 }}
* {{citation |last=Versnel |first=Hank S. |title=Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion, Volume 2: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual | chapter=Saturnus and the Saturnalia | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLK9CwAAQBAJ |date=1992 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-29673-2 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{NSRW Poster|Saturnalia, The|Saturnalia}}
* {{Commonscat-inline}}
* [https://www.worldhistory.org/Saturnalia/ Saturnalia – World History Encyclopedia]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/calendar/saturnalia.html Saturnalia], A longer article by James Grout

<!--spacing-->

{{Roman religion (festival)}}

[[Category:Saturn (mythology)]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman festivals]]
[[Category:December observances]]
[[Category:Winter festivals]]
[[Category:Religious festivals in Italy]]
[[Category:Winter solstice]]