Editing Sancus

{{Short description|Roman god of trust, honesty, and oaths}}
{{About||the genus of butterfly|Sancus (skipper)|the genus of spider|Sancus (spider)}}
[[File:Sancus.png|thumb|Illustration of a statue of Sancus found in the Sabine's shrine on the Quirinal, near the modern church of S. Silvestro]]
In [[Religion in ancient Rome|ancient Roman religion]], '''Sancus''' (also known as '''Sangus''' or '''Semo Sancus''') was a [[god]] of trust ({{Lang|la|fides}}), honesty, and oaths. His [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]], one of the most ancient amongst the Romans, probably derived from [[Umbrian]] influences.{{efn|
[Dius Fidius] ist [...] bereits mit Semo Sancus gleichgesetzt, dem anderen Schwurgott, den die römische Religion kennt. Dius Fidius und Semo sind [...] in alter Zeit verschiedene Gottheiten gewesen; die Verbindung im Eide hat die beiden für die römischen Gelehrten und vielleicht nicht nur für diese zu einem Gott gemacht.[...] Er hatte einen Tempel auf dem Quirinal, [...] der im J. 466 v. Chr. geweiht ist, während man die Erbauung schon König Tarquinius zuschrieb. Da er auf dem Quirinal lag, sollte er nach anderen von den Sabinern des T. Tatius gegründet sein.<ref name=Latte-1967-1972/>
}} [[Cato the Elder|Cato]]<ref>
In a fragment preserved by [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], 2.49.2.
</ref> and [[Silius Italicus]]<ref>
[[Silius Italicus]] ''Punica'' VIII 421.
</ref> wrote that Sancus was a [[Sabine]] god and father of the [[eponym]]ous Sabine hero [[Sabus]]. He is thus sometimes considered a [[founding myth|founder-deity]].

== Oaths ==
Sancus was the god who protected oaths of marriage, hospitality, law, [[commerce]], and particularly formal [[contract]]s. Some of the oaths said at the moment of signing a contract – or other important civil promissory acts – named Sancus as guarantor, and called on him to protect and guard over the honour and integrity of the signatories' pledges.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

== Etymology ==
The place-name {{Lang|la|Sanguineto}} is related to the [[theonym]], through the proper name {{Lang|la|Sanquinius}}.<ref name=Palmer-1994/>{{rp|page=16}}<ref name=Norden-1939/>{{rp|page=215}}

''Sancus'' derives from a [[Latin language|Latin]]/[[Umbrian language|Umbrian]]/[[Sabine language|Sabine]] source (compare Umbrian ''sacra''/ '''sakra''' "sacred", and the Umbrian theonym ''Sansi''/'''Saçi'''), and is connected to [[Latin language|Latin]] {{Lang|la|sancire}} ('to hallow') and hence ''[[saint|sanctus]]'' ('hallowed') and [[English language|English]] ''saint'', ''sacred'', ''sanctuary'', ''sanctity'' and ''sanction''.

Outside Italic, Hittite has a number of words such as ''saklai'' "rites" and ''sankunnis'' "priest" that seem to be clear cognates, suggesting an [[Indo-European]] root *''sank-/*sak-'' "to sanctify".<ref>{{Cite web|title=sacred {{!}} Search Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=sacred|access-date=2023-12-07|website=www.etymonline.com}}</ref> It is possible, however, that the former was a loan from Akkadian ''sakku (m)'' 'cultic rites,'<ref>{{Cite book|last=Black|first=Jeremy A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&q=sakku+akkadian+'rites'/&pg=PA313|title=A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian|last2=George|first2=A. R.|last3=Postgate|first3=J. N.|date=2000|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-04264-2|language=en}}</ref> and the latter may be a loan word from [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ''sanga'' "administrative priest".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-09-19|title=Mesopotamian Priests and Priestesses|url=https://www.historyonthenet.com/mesopotamian-priests-and-priestesses|access-date=2023-12-07|website=History|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>ids online hittite dictionary https://ids.clld.org/units/208-911/</ref>

[[Roger D. Woodard|Woodard]]<ref name=Woodard-2006/> has interpreted Sancus as the Roman equivalent of Vedic god [[Indra]] (whose name is likely related to Sanskrit ''indu'' "rain drop"), who has to rely on the help of the [[Maruts]], in his view corresponding to the twelfth Roman {{Lang|la|semones}} of the [[carmen Arvale]], in his task of killing the dragon [[Vrtra]] thus freeing the waters and averting drought. He traces the etymology of ''Semo'' to [[Indo-European languages|PIE]] stem root *{{Lang|mis|sh₂e (w)-}}<!-- Indo-European --> bearing the meanings of 'to pour', 'ladle', 'flow', 'drop' related to rain and sowing.<ref name=Fowler-1899/>{{rp|page=140}}<ref name=Woodard-2006/>{{rp|pages=186{{nbs}}ff}} (See more below at "Mars and Semo")

== Worship ==
The temple dedicated to Sancus stood on the [[Quirinal Hill]], under the name '''{{Lang|la|Semo Sancus Dius Fidius}}'''.

[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]|title={{math|Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἀρχαιολογία}}|trans-title=Roman Antiquities|at=II 49, 2}}
</ref> writes that the worship of Semo Sancus was imported into Rome at a very early time by the [[Sabines]] who occupied the Quirinal Hill. According to tradition his cult was said to have been introduced by the Sabines and perhaps king [[Titus Tatius]] dedicated a small shrine.<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Ovid]]|title=[[Fasti]]|at=VI 217–218}} <br/>
Properce IV 9, 74; <br/>
{{cite book|author=[[Tertullian]]|title=Ad Nationes|at=II 9, 13}} <br/>
{{cite book|author=[[Varro]]|title=Lingua Latina|at=V 52}}</ref>{{efn|
Note that [[Varro]] does not mention Sancus in the list of gods at {{cite book|author=[[Varro]]|title=Lingua Latina|at=V 72}} to whom [[Titus Tatius|King Tatius]] dedicated shrines.
}} The actual construction of the temple is generally ascribed to [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus]], although it was dedicated by [[Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis (consul 466 BC)|Spurius Postumius]] on 5{{nbs}}June 466{{nbs}}BCE.<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]|title={{math|Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἀρχαιολογία}}|trans-title=Roman Antiquities|at=IX 60}} <br/>
{{cite book|author=[[Ovid]]|title=[[Fasti]]|at=VI 213}} <br/>
{{cite book|title=[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]]|volume=I|edition=2nd|id=319|page=220}}
</ref>
<ref name=Platner-Ashby-1929>
{{cite book|first1=S.B.|last1=Platner|first2=T.|last2=Ashby|year=1929|title=A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome|place=London, GB|pages=469–470}}
</ref>{{rp|pages=469–470}}

Sancus was considered the son of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], an opinion recorded by [[Varro]] and attributed to his teacher [[Aelius Stilo]].<ref name=Varro-Latin-lang>{{cite book|author=[[Varro]]|title=Lingua Latina|at=V 66}}</ref> He was the god of heavenly light, the avenger of dishonesty, the upholder of truth and good faith, the sanctifier of agreements. Hence his identification with [[Hercules]], who was likewise the guardian of the sanctity of oaths. His festival day occurred on the {{Lang|la|nonae}} of June (5{{nbs}}June).

=== Shrine on Quirinal ===
The shrine on the Quirinal was described by 19th{{nbs}}century archeologist R.A. Lanciani.<ref>
{{cite book|first=R.A.|last=Lanciani|year=1893|title=Pagan and Christian Rome|place=Boston, MA; New York, NY|pages=32–33}}
</ref> It was located near the {{Lang|la|Porta Sanqualis}} of the Servian walls,<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Sextus Pompeius Festus]]|title=s.v. Sanqualis Porta|page=345 L}}
</ref> not far from the modern church of [[San Silvestro al Quirinale]], precisely on the {{Lang|la|Collis Mucialis}}.<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Varro]]|title=Lingua Latina|at=V 52|quote=''Collis Mucialis: Quinticeps apud aedem Dei Fidi; in delubro ubi aeditumus habere solet''.}}
</ref> It was described by classical writers as having no roof so as oaths could be taken under the sky.

It had a chapel containing relics of the regal period: A bronze statue of [[Tanaquil]] or [[Gaia]] [[Caecilia]], her belt containing remedies that people came to collect, her distaff, spindle, and slippers,<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Plutarch]]|title=Quaestiones Romanae|at=30}} <br/>
{{cite book|author=[[Pliny the Elder]]|title=Natural History|at=VIII 94}}
</ref>{{efn|
''Praebia rursus Verrius vocari ait ea remedia quae Gaia Caecilia, uxor Tarquini Prisci, invenisse existimatur, et inmiscuisse zonae suae, qua praecincta statua eius est in aede Sancus, qui deus dius fidius vocatur; et qua zona periclitantes ramenta sumunt. Ea vocari ait praebia, quod mala prohibeant.''}}<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Sextus Pompeius Festus]]|title=''s.v.'' praebia|page=276 L}}
</ref> and after the capture of [[Priverno|Privernum]] in 329{{nbs}}BCE, brass medallions or bronze wheels (discs) made of the money confiscated from [[Vitruvius Vaccus]].<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Livy]]|title=[no title cited]|at=VIII 20, 8}}
</ref>

Dionysius of Halicarnassus records that the treaty between Rome and [[Gabii]] was preserved in this temple. This treaty was perhaps the first international treaty to be recorded and preserved in written form in ancient Rome. It was written on the skin of the ox sacrificed to the god upon its agreement and fixed onto a wooden frame or a shield.<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]|title={{math|Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἀρχαιολογία}}|trans-title=Roman Antiquities|at=IV 58, 4}}
</ref>

According to Lanciani the foundations of the temple were discovered in March{{nbs}}1881, under what was formerly the convent of [[San Silvestro al Quirinale]] (or {{Lang|it|degli Arcioni}}), later the headquarters of the (former) Royal Engineers. Lanciani relates the monument was a parallelogram in shape, thirty-five feet long by nineteen wide, with walls of [[travertine]] and decorations in white [[marble]]. It was surrounded by votive altars and the pedestal of statues. In Latin literature it is sometimes called [[Aedes (Roman religion)|aedes]], sometimes [[sacellum]], this last appellation probably connected to the fact it was a sacred space in the open air.<ref name=Platner-Ashby-1929/>{{rp|page=469}} Platner & Ashby (1929)<ref name=Platner-Ashby-1929/> though write that its foundations had already been detected in the 16th{{nbs}}century.

Lanciani supposes the statue depicted in this article might have been found on the site of the shrine on the [[Quirinal]] as it appeared in the antiquarian market of Rome at the time of the excavations at [[San Silvestro al Quirinale|San Silvestro]].

=== Statue and shrine on Tiber Island and others ===
Semo Sancus had a large sanctuary at Velitrae, now [[Velletri]], in [[Volscian language|Volscian]] territory.<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Livy]]|title=[no title cited]|at=XXXII 1, 10}}
</ref>

There was possibly another shrine or altar ({{Lang|la|ara}}) dedicated to Semo Sancus on the [[Isle of the Tiber]], near the temple of {{Lang|la|Iupiter Iurarius}}. This altar bears the inscription seen and misread by [[Justin Martyr|Justin]] ({{Lang|la|Semoni Sanco Deo}} read as {{Lang|la|Simoni Deo Sancto}}) and was discovered on the island in July{{nbs}}1574. It is preserved in the {{Lang|la|Galleria Lapidaria}} of the Vatican Museum, first compartment ({{Lang|la|Dii}} gallery). Lanciani advances the hypothesis that while the shrine on the Quirinal was of [[Sabines|Sabine]] origin that on the Tiber island was [[Latins|Latin]].
Claridge (1998) reports that the statue of Sancus (inscribed {{Lang|la|Semo Sancus Dius Fidus}}) was found on the [[Tiber Island]].<ref name=Claridge-1998>
{{cite book|last=Claridge|first=Amanda|year=1998|title=Rome: An Oxford archaeological guide|place=Oxford, GB|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=226}}
</ref>

The statue is life-sized and is of the [[kouros|archaic Apollo (kouros)]] type. The expression of the face and the modeling of the body however are realistic. Both hands are missing, so that it is impossible to say what were the attributes of the god, one being perhaps the club of Hercules and/or the ''[[ossifrage]]'', the augural bird proper to the god ({{Lang|la|avis sanqualis}}), hypotheses made by archaeologist Visconti and reported by [[Lanciani, Rodolfo Amadeo|Lanciani]]. Other scholars think he should have held lightning bolts in his left hand.

The inscription on the pedestal mentions a {{Lang|la|decuria sacerdot[um] bidentalium}}.<ref>
{{cite book|title=[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]]|volume=VI|id=568}}
</ref>
Lanciani makes reference to a glossa of [[Sextus Pompeius Festus]] s.v. {{Lang|la|bidentalia}} which states these were small shrines of lesser divinities, to whom {{Lang|la|hostiae bidentes}}, i.e. lambs two years old, were sacrificed. [[William Warde Fowler|Fowler]] (1899)<ref name=Fowler-1899/> says these priests should have been concerned with lightning bolts, {{Lang|la|bidental}} being both the technical term for the {{Lang|la|puteal}}, the hole (resembling a well) left by strikes onto the ground and for the victims used to placate the god and purify the site.<ref name=Fowler-1899/>{{rp|page=139}}

=== {{Lang|la|Sacerdotes bidentales}} – priests of Semo Sancus ===
For this reason the priests of Semo Sancus were called {{Lang|la|sacerdotes bidentales}}. They were organised, like a lay corporation, in a {{Lang|la|decuria}} under the presidency of a {{Lang|la|magister quinquennalis}}.

Their residence at the shrine on the Quirinal was located adjoining the chapel: it was ample and commodious, provided with a supply of water by means of a lead pipe.
The pipes have been removed to the [[Capitoline Museum]]. They bear the same inscription found on the base of the statue.<ref>
{{cite book|title=[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]]|volume=XV|id=7253}}
</ref>
The statue is now housed in the {{Lang|la|Galleria dei Candelabri}} of the Vatican Palace.
The foundations of the shrine on the [[Quirinal]] were destroyed.

=== Simon Magus ===
[[Justin Martyr]] records that [[Simon Magus]], a gnostic mentioned in the Christian Bible, performed such miracles by magic acts during the reign of [[Claudius]] that he was regarded as a god and honored with a statue on the island in the Tiber which the two bridges cross, with the inscription {{Lang|la|Simoni Deo Sancto}}, 'to Simon the Holy God'.<ref name=Justin>
{{cite book|author=[[Justin Martyr]]|chapter=Chapter{{nbs}}XXVI — Magicians not trusted by Christians|title=[[First Apology of Justin Martyr|The First Apology]]|chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.xxvi.html}}
</ref>
However, in 1574, the Semo Sancus statue was unearthed on the island in question, leading most scholars to believe that [[Justin Martyr|Justin]] confused {{Lang|la|Semoni Sanco}} with ''[[Simon Magus]]''.

== Origins and significance ==
{{Ancient Roman religion}}
Even in the ancient world, confusion surrounded this deity, as evidenced by the multiple and unstable forms of his name. [[Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus|Aelius Stilo]]<ref>
Preserved in {{cite book|author=[[Varro]]|title=[[De lingua latina]]|at=5.66}}
</ref>
identified him with [[Hercules]], and explained also that because the god was called by the Romans "[[Dius Fidius]]", he was a son of Jove by interpreting the expression ''Dius Fidius'' as ''Diovis Filius'' (son of Jove); and in order to further clarify the notion of Semo Sancus as a son of Jupiter, he explained the meaning of the expression "Diovis Filius" meaning "son of Jove" by comparing it as an example to the Greek word "[[Dioskouros]]" applied to Castor; and claimed that just as the Greeks call for example Castor a "Dioskouros" i.e. a "young boy" or "son" (kouros) of Zeus (Dios); the same way the Romans called Sancus a "Diovis Filius" - a "son of Jove". In [[late antiquity]], [[Martianus Capella]] places Sancus in region{{nbs}}12 of his cosmological system, which draws on Etruscan tradition in associating gods with specific parts of the sky.<ref name=Weinstock-1946>
{{cite journal|first=Stefan|last=Weinstock|year=1946|title=Martianus Capella and the cosmic system of the Etruscans|journal=Journal of Roman Studies|volume=36|page=105, esp. [note{{nbs}}19]|doi=10.2307/298044|jstor=298044|s2cid=161832349|postscript=:}}
[[Martianus Capella|Martianus]] is likely to have derived his system from [[Varro]], and through an intermediate source, from [[Nigidius Figulus]].
</ref>
On the Piacenza Liver the corresponding case bears the theonym ''[[Tluscv]]''.
The complexity of the theonym and the multiple relationships of the god with other divine figures shall be better examined in a systematic wise here below.

=== Sancus as {{Lang|la|Semo}} ===
The first part of the theonym defines the god as belonging to the category of the {{Lang|la|Semones}} or {{Lang|la|Semunes}}, divine entities of the ancient Romans and Italics.<ref>
[[Martianus Capella]], II 156
</ref><ref>
Fulgentius ''De Sermone Antiquorum'' 11
</ref>
In a fragment from [[Cato the Elder|Cato]], quoted in Dionysius of Halicarnassus (II 49 1–2), Sancus is referred to as {{math|δαίμων}} and not {{math|θεός}}.<ref>
[[Cato the Elder|Marcus Porcius Cato]], cited in {{cite book|author=[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]|title=[[Roman Antiquities]]|at=II 49 1-2}}
</ref>

In Rome this theonym is attested in the [[carmen Arvale]] (''semunis alternei advocapit conctos'' repeated thrice) and in two fragmentary inscriptions: CIL V 567 ''Semoni Sanco Deo Fidio ... decur (ia) bidentalis donum dedit'' and CIL V 568 ''Sanco Sancto Semoni Deo Fidio sacrum decuria sacerdotum bidentalium''
<ref>
{{cite book|title=[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]]|volume=I|edition=2nd|id=2436|quote=Se]''monibu''[s}} The reconstruction is uncertain.
</ref>

Outside Rome in Sabine, Umbrian and Pelignan territory:<ref name=Norden-1939/>{{rp|pages=205 ff}} An inscription from [[Corfinium]] in [[Umbrian]] reads: {{Lang|la|Çerfom sacaracicer Semunes sua[d}}, 'priest of the Çerfi and the Semones', placing side by side the two entities {{Lang|la|çerfi}} and {{Lang|la|semunes}}. The {{Lang|la|çerfi}} are mentioned in the [[Iguvine Tables]] in association with Mars e.g. in expressions as {{Lang|la|Çerfer Martier}}. Their interpretation remains obscure: an etymological and semantic relation to PIE root {{lang|mis|*ker-}}<!-- Indo-European -->, meaning 'growth', is possible though problematic and debated, since that root also means "horn, head" which would suggest a horned deity.

Also in [[Umbrian]], in the [[Iguvine Tables]], the b side of tablet II begins "'''seminies tekuries'''" which is interpreted to be a "decurial [festival] to Semo..." where a pig and goat sacrifice were performed, though the opening lines of this tablet are difficult to translate with certainty.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Poultney|first=James Wilson|url=http://archive.org/details/bronzetablesofig00poul|title=Bronze tables of Iguvium|date=1959|publisher=Baltimore: American Philological Association|others=George A. Smathers Libraries University of Florida}}</ref>

According to ancient Latin sources, the meaning of the term {{Lang|la|semones}} would denote {{Lang|la|semihomines}} (also explained as {{Lang|la|se-homines}}, men separated from ordinary ones, who have left their human condition: the prefix ''{{Not a typo|se-}}'' both in Latin and Greek may denote segregation), or the {{Lang|la|dii medioxumi}}, i.e. gods of the second rank, or semigods,<ref>
Festus s.v. ''medioxumi''.
</ref>
entities that belong to the intermediate sphere between gods and men.<ref name=Scheiffele-Pauly-sv-Semones>
Scheiffele in ''Pauly Real Encyclopaedie der Altertumwissenschaften'' s.v. ''Semones'' citing Priscianus p. 683.
</ref><ref>
Fulgentius ''De Sermone Antiquorum'' 11;
Festus s.v. ''hemona'';
Varro (unreferenced) from ''semideus'';
Hartung I. 41: from ''serere'' and Sabine ''Semones'' half-self, more like ''genii'';
also Gdywend ''Mythologie bei der Romer'' par. 261: in Sabine, godly people, maybe Lares. Besides all the ''dii medioxumi'' belong to this category.
</ref>
The relationship of these entities to {{Lang|la|Semo Sancus}} is comparable to that of the {{Lang|la|genii}} to {{Lang|la|Genius Iovialis}}: as among the {{Lang|la|genii}} there is a {{Lang|la|Genius Iovialis}}, thus similarly among the {{Lang|la|semones}} there is a {{Lang|la|Semo Sancus}}.<ref name=Scheiffele-Pauly-sv-Semones/> The {{Lang|la|semones}} would then be a class of semigods, i.e. people who did not share the destiny of ordinary mortals even though they were not admitted to Heaven, such as [[Faunus]], [[Priapus]], [[Picus]], the [[Silvani]].<ref>
cf. Ovid ''Metamorphoses'' I 193-195.
</ref>
However, some scholars opine such a definition is wrong and the {{Lang|la|semones}} are spirits of nature, representing the generative power hidden in seeds (Latin ''semina'').<ref>
Dahrenberg & Saglio ''Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines'' s.v. ''Semo Sancus''.
</ref>
In ancient times only offers of milk were allowed to the {{Lang|la|semones}}.{{efn|
"Rumam veteres dixerunt mammam. Varro ''Cato'' vel ''De liberis educandis'': dis Semonibus lacte fit, non vino; Cuninae propter cunis, Ruminae propter rumam, id est, prisco vocabulo, mammam{{nbs}}..."<ref>
U. Pestalozza ''Iuno Caprotina'' (1934) [in] "Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni", p 64, citing
[[Nonius Marcellus]] ''De Compendiosa Doctrina'' (Müller) I, p 245
</ref>
}}

The deity [[Semonia]] bears characters that link her to the group of the {{Lang|la|Semones}}, as is shown by [[Sextus Pompeius Festus|Festus]] s.v. {{Lang|la|supplicium}}: when a citizen was put to death the custom was to sacrifice a lamb of two years ({{Lang|la|bidentis}}) to Semonia to appease her and purify the community. Only thereafter could the head and property of the culprit be vowed to the appropriate god. That Semo Sancus received the same kind of cult and sacrifice is shown in the inscription (see figure in this article) now under the statue of the god reading {{Lang|la|decuria sacerdotum bidentalium}}.

{{anchor|Trita_Apya}}
The relationship between Sancus and the {{Lang|la|semones}} of the carmen Arvale remains obscure, even though some scholars opine that Semo Sancus and {{Lang|la|Salus Semonia}} or {{Lang|la|Dia Semonia}} would represent the core significance of this archaic theology. It has also been proposed to understand this relationship in the light of that between Vedic god [[Indra]] or his companion Trita Āpya and the [[Maruts]].<ref name=Pighi-1967>
{{cite book
|first=G.B.|last=Pighi
|year=1967
|article=La preghiera romana
|editor1=AA.|editor2=VV.
|title=La Preghiera
|place=Roma
|pages=605–606
}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2021|reason=Editors' names (if that's what AA VV mean)}}
</ref><ref name=Woodard-2006>
{{cite book
|first=Roger D.|last=Woodard|author-link=Roger D. Woodard
|year=2006
|title=Roman and Vedic Sacred Space
|place=Chicago
|pages=186{{nbs}}ff, 221{{nbs}}ff
}}
</ref>{{rp|pages=221 ff}}
[[Eduard Norden|Norden]] (1939) proposed a Greek origin.<ref name=Norden-1939/>

=== Sancus and Salus ===
The two gods were related in several ways. Their shrines ({{Lang|la|aedes}}) were very close to each other on two adjacent hilltops of the Quirinal, the {{Lang|la|Collis Mucialis}} and {{Lang|la|Salutaris}} respectively.<ref>
[[Varro]] ''[[Lingua Latina]]'' V 53
</ref>
Some scholars also claim some inscriptions to Sancus have been found on the {{Lang|la|Collis Salutaris}}.<ref>
Jesse B. Carter in ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics'' vol. 13 s.v. ''Salus''
</ref>
Moreover, Salus is the first of the series of deities mentioned by Macrobius<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Macrobius]]|title=Saturnalia|at=I 16,8}}
''See also'' [[Saturnalia]].
</ref> as related in their sacrality: {{Lang|la|Salus}}, {{Lang|la|Semonia}}, {{Lang|la|Seia}}, {{Lang|la|Segetia}}, ''[[Tutelina (mythology)|Tutilina]]'', who required the observance of a {{Lang|la|dies feriatus}} of the person who happened to utter their name. These deities were connected to the ancient agrarian cults of the valley of the [[Circus Maximus]] that remain quite mysterious.<ref name=Dumézil-1974-1977/>{{rp|at=vol{{nbs}}I}}<ref>
Chirassi Colombo in ''ANRW'' 1981 p.405
</ref><ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Tertullian]]|title=[[De Spectculis]]|at=VIII 3}}
</ref>

The statue of Tanaquil placed in the shrine of Sancus was famed for containing remedies in its girdle which people came to collect, named {{Lang|la|praebia}}.<ref>
[[Sextus Pompeius Festus|Festus]] s.v. ''praebia''
</ref><ref name=Palmer-1994>
{{cite book|first=R.E.A.|last=Palmer|author-link=Robert E. A. Palmer|year=1994|article=Locket gold, lizard green|editor-first=J.F.|editor-last=Hall|title=Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy|pages=16, 17 ff}}
</ref>
As numerous statues of boys wear the apotropaic golden {{Lang|la|bulla}}, 'bubble' or 'locket', which contained remedies against envy, or the ''evil eye'', [[Robert E. A. Palmer|Palmer]] (1994)<ref name=Palmer-1994/> remarked a connection between these and the {{Lang|la|praebia}} of the statue of Tanaquil in the {{Lang|la|sacellum}} of Sancus.<ref name=Palmer-1994/>{{rp|pages=17 ff}}

[[Georg Wissowa|Wissowa]],<ref name=Wissowa-1912/> [[Eduard Norden|Norden]],<ref name=Norden-1939/> and [[Kurt Latte|Latte]]<ref name=Latte-1960/> write of a deity named {{Lang|la|Salus Semonia}}<ref name=Wissowa-1912>
{{cite book|first=G.|last=Wissowa|author-link=Georg Wissowa|title=Roschers Lexicon|article=Sancus|series=Religion und Kultus der Roemer|place=Munich, DE|year=1912|pages=139 ff}}
</ref><ref name=Latte-1960>
{{cite book|first=K.|last=Latte|author-link=Kurt Latte|year=1960|title=Romanisches Religionsgechichte|place=Munich, DE|pages=49–51}}
</ref><ref name=Norden-1939/>{{rp|pages=205 ff}} who is though attested only in one inscription of year 1{{nbs}}CE mentioning a {{Lang|la|Salus Semonia}} in its last line (line seventeen). There is consensus among scholars that this line is a later addition and cannot be dated with certainty.<ref name=Palmer-1990>
{{cite book|first=R.E.A.|last=Palmer|author-link=Robert E. A. Palmer|year=1990|title=Studies of the northern Campus Martius in ancient Rome|quote=''Salus Semonia posuit populi Victoria''}}
</ref>
In other inscriptions Salus is never connected to Semonia.{{efn|
''Ara Salutus'' from a slab of an altar from Praeneste; ''Salutes pocolom'' on a pitcher from Horta; ''Salus Ma[gn]a'' on a ''cippus'' from Bagnacavallo; ''Salus'' on a ''cippus'' from the sacred grove of Pisaurum; ''Salus Publica'' from [[Ferentinum]].
}}

=== Sancus Dius Fidius and Jupiter ===
The relationship between the two gods is certain as both are in charge of oath, are connected with clear daylight sky and can wield lightning bolts. This overlap of functional characters has generated confusion about the identity of Sancus Dius Fidius either among ancient and modern scholars, as Dius Fidius has sometimes been considered another theonym for Iupiter.<ref name=Dumézil-1974-1977>
{{cite book|first=G.|last=Dumézil|author-link=Georges Dumézil|year=1974|title=La religion Roamaine archaïque|place=Paris, FR|language=fr}} Italian translation Milan (1977) p.{{nbs}}189.
</ref>
The autonomy of Semo Sancus from Jupiter and the fact that Dius Fidius is an alternate theonym designating Semo Sancus (and not Jupiter) is shown by the name of the correspondent Umbrian god ''Fisus Sansi'' which compounds the two constituent parts of ''Sancus'' and ''Dius Fidius'': in [[Umbrian]] and Sabine {{Lang|la|Fisus}} is the exact correspondent of {{Lang|la|Fidius}}, as e.g. Sabine Clausus of Latin Claudius.<ref name=Rosenzweig-1937/><ref name=Briquel-1979/>{{efn|

''Iupater Sancius'' is identical with ''Semo Sancus Dius Fidius'' of the Latins. Here we see ''Fisus Sancius'' who originally was an attribute of ''Iupater'' himself in his function of the guardian of ''Fides'', to develop into a separate god with a sphere of his own as preserver of oaths and treaties ... The Umbrian god ... with the combination of the two forms of the Roman god in his name performs a real service in establishing the unity of ''Dius Fidius'' and ''Semo Sancus'' as the one god ''Semo Sancus Dius Fidius''.<ref name=Norden-1939/>
}} But ''Sansi''/'''Saçi''' also occurs with ''Iupater'', as well as alone, and with the Umbrian theonyms ''Fisovius'' and ''Vesticius.''

The fact that Sancus as Iupiter is in charge of the observance of oaths, of the laws of hospitality and of loyalty (''Fides'') makes him a deity connected with the sphere and values of sovereignty, i.e. what [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil]] calls "the first function".<ref name=Dumézil-1974-1977/>

[[Georg Wissowa|Wissowa]] (1909,<ref name=Wissowa-1909/> 1912<ref name=Wissowa-1912/>{{rp|pages=131 ff}}) advanced the hypothesis that Semo Sancus is the [[Genius (mythology)|'genius']] of Jupiter. Fowler (1899)<ref name=Fowler-1899/> cautioned that this interpretation looks to be an anachronism, and it would only be acceptable to say that Sancus is a ''Genius Iovius'', as it appears from the [[Iguvine Tables]];<ref name=Fowler-1899/>{{rp|page=189}} the concept of a ''genius'' of a '''''deity''''' is attested only in the imperial period.

[[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]],{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} [[William Warde Fowler|Fowler]],<ref name=Fowler-1899/> and [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil]],<ref name=Dumézil-1974-1977/> among others, rejected the accountability of the tradition that ascribes a [[Sabine]] origin to the Roman cult of Semo Sancus Dius Fidius, partly on linguistic grounds since the theonym is Latin and no mention or evidence of a Sabine {{Lang|la|Semo}} is found near Rome, while the {{Lang|la|Semones}} are attested in Latin in the [[carmen Arvale]]. In their view Sancus would be a deity who was shared by all ancient Italic peoples, whether Osco-Umbrian or Latino-Faliscan.{{refn|
[[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil]] (1974, 1977)<ref name=Dumézil-1974-1977/>{{rp|page=80 [note{{nbs}}25]}}
cites Wissowa (1909);<ref name=Wissowa-1909/><br/>
Dumézil wholly rejects the tradition of the synecism of Rome.
<ref name=Dumézil-1974-1977/>
}}

The details of the cult of Fisus Sancius at Iguvium and those of Fides at Rome,<ref>
cf. [[Livy]] I 21, 4; [[Servius (grammarian)|Servius]] ''Aen.'' I 292 on this prescription of [[Numa Pompilius|Numa]]'s.
</ref>
such as the use of the {{Lang|la|mandraculum}}, a piece of linen fabric covering the right hand of the officiant, and of the {{Lang|la|urfeta}} ({{Lang|la|orbita}}) or {{Lang|la|orbes ahenei}}, sort of small bronze disc brought in the right hand by the offerant at Iguvium and also deposed in the temple of Semo Sancus in 329{{nbs}}BCE after an affair of treason{{refn|
{{cite book|author=[[Livy]]|title=[no title cited]|at=VIII 20, 8}} <br/>
Fowler (1899);<ref name=Fowler-1899/>{{rp|page=138}} <br/>
<ref name=Rosenzweig-1937/>{{rp|page=210}} <br/>
Briquel (1979)<ref name=Briquel-1979/>{{rp|page=136}}
}}
confirm the parallelism.

Some aspects of the ritual of the oath for Dius Fidius, such as the proceedings under the open sky and/or in the {{Lang|la|compluvium}} of private residences and the fact the temple of Sancus had no roof, have suggested to romanist O. Sacchi the idea that the oath by Dius Fidius predated that for {{Lang|la|Iuppiter Lapis}} or {{Lang|la|Iuppiter Feretrius}}, and should have its origin in prehistoric time rituals, when the {{Lang|la|templum}} was in the open air and defined by natural landmarks as e.g. the highest nearby tree.{{efn|
Sacchi (2001) cites [[Nonius Marcellus]] s.v. ''rituis'' (L p. 494): <br/>
:''Itaque domi rituis nostri, qui per dium Fidium iurare vult, prodire solet in compluvium.''
: ("thus according to our rites he who wishes to swear an oath by Dius Fidius he as a rule walks to the ''compluvium'' [an unroofed space within the house]").<ref name=Sacchi-2001>
{{cite journal|first=O.|last=Sacchi|title=Il trivaso del Quirinale|journal=Revue internationale de droit de l'Antiquité|year=2001|pages=309–311}}
</ref>
}}<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Macrobius]]|title=Saturnalia|at=III 11, 5}} discussed the use of the private ''mensa'' as an altar mentioned in the ''ius Papirianum''; <br/>
{{cite book|author=[[Granius Flaccus]]|title=Indigitamenta|at=8 (H. 109)}}
describes king [[Numa Pompilius|Numa]]'s vow, by which he asked for the divine punishment of perjury by all the gods.
</ref>
Supporting this interpretation is the explanation of the theonym Sancus as meaning ''sky'' in Sabine given by Johannes Lydus, etymology that however is rejected by [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil]] and Briquel<ref name=Briquel-1979/> among others.<ref>
{{cite book|author=[[Lydus]]|title=[[De Mensibus]]|at=IV 90}}</ref><ref name=Capdeville-1995>
{{cite journal|first=G.|last=Capdeville|year=1995|title=Les dieux de Martianus Capella|journal=Revue de l'histoire des religions|page=290}}
</ref> The claim is also contradicted by the fact that the first element of ''Ju-piter'' goes back to [Proto-Indo-European] *diēu- "bright (sky)," and that the cognate Indo-European deities of ''Jupiter'' (such as Old Norse ''Tyr'') are also connected with oath keeping.

All the known details concerning Sancus connect him to the sphere of the {{Lang|la|fides}}, of oaths, of the respect of compacts and of their sanction, i.e. divine guarantee against their breach. These values are all proper to sovereign gods and common with Iuppiter (and with [[Mitra]] in [[Vedic mythology|Vedic religion]]).

=== Sancus and Hercules ===
Aelius Stilo's interpretation of the theonym as {{Lang|la|Dius Filius}} is based partly on the interchangeability and alternation of letters ''d'' and ''l'' in Sabine, which might have rendered possible the reading of ''Dius Fidius'' as ''Dius Filius'', i.e. Dios Kouros, partly on the function of guarantor of oaths that Sancus shared with Hercules: [[Georg Wissowa|Wissowa]] called it a {{Lang|de|gelehrte Kombination}},<ref name=Wissowa-1909/><ref name=Wissowa-1912/> while interpreting him as the [[genius]] ({{Lang|la|semo}}) of Iupiter.<ref name=Fowler-1899/>{{rp|page=136}} who is rather critical of this interpretation of Wissowa's.
Stilo's interpretation in its linguistic aspect looks to be unsupported by the form of the theonym in the [[Iguvine Tables]], where it appears as ''Fisus'' or ''Fisovius Sancius'', a formula that includes the two component parts of the theonym.<ref name=Fowler-1899/>{{rp|page=137}}{{refn|
Rosenzweig (1937)<ref name=Rosenzweig-1937/>{{rp|page=275}}
quoted by Norden (1939):<ref name=Norden-1939/><ref name=Briquel-1979/>{{rp|pages=134–135}}
* ''Datives'' Ia 15 Fiso Saci, VI b 3 Fiso Sansie; vocative VI b 9, 10, 12, 14 , 15 Fisovie Sansie;
* ''accusative'' VI b 8 Fisovi Sansi;
* ''genitive'' VI b15 Fisovie Sansie;
* ''dative'' VI b 5,6, VII a 37 Fisovi Sansi; I a 17 Fisovi.
}}
This theonym is rooted in an ancient [[Indo-European languages|IE]] ''*''{{Lang|mis|bh (e)idh-tos}}<!-- Indo-European --> and is formed on the root stem ''*''{{Lang|mis|bheidh-}}<!-- Indo-European --> which is common to Latin {{Lang|la|Fides}}.

The connexion to Hercules looks to be much more substantial on theological grounds. Hercules, especially in ancient Italy, retained many archaic features of a founder deity and of a guarantor of good faith and loyalty. The relationship with Jupiter of the two characters could be considered analogous. Hence both some ancient scholars such as [[Varro]] and [[Macrobius]] and modern ones as Woodard (2006)<ref name=Woodard-2006/> consider them as one.

=== Sancus and Mars ===
At Iguvium Fisus, Sancius is associated to [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] in the ritual of the sacrifice at the {{Lang|la|Porta}} ('Gate') {{Lang|la|Tesenaca}} as one of the gods of the minor triad{{efn|
The major triad is composed of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Iove]], [[Mars (mythology)|Marte]], and [[Veiovis|Vofiune]], termed the ''Grabovii''; beside it there is minor one whose components are associated each with one of the ''Grabovii'': ''Trebus Iovius'' with Iove, ''Fisus Sancius'' with Marte and ''Tefer Iovius'' with Vofiune respectively. cf. Briquel (1979)<ref name=Briquel-1979/>{{rp|page=136}}
}} and this fact proves his military connection in Umbria. This might be explained by the military nature of the concept of ''sanction'' which implies the use of repression. The term {{Lang|la|sanctus}} too has in Roman law military implications: the walls of the city are {{Lang|la|sancti}}.<ref name=Briquel-1979>
{{cite book|first=D.|last=Briquel|year=1979|article=Sur les aspects militaires du dieu ombrien Fisus Sancius|title=Melanges de l'Ecole Francais de Rome Antiquite|pages=134–137}}
</ref>{{rp|pages=135–137}}

The martial aspect of Sancus is highlighted also in the instance of the Samnite {{Lang|la|legio linteata}}, a selected part of the army formed by noble soldiers bound by a set of particularly compelling oaths and put under the special protection of Iupiter. While ordinary soldiers dressed in a purple red [[paludamentum]] with golden paraphernalia, those of the {{Lang|la|legio}} dressed in white with silver paraphernalia, as an apparent show of their different allegiance and protector. This strict association of the ritual to Iupiter underlines the military aspect of the sovereign god that comes in to supplement the usual role of Mars on special occasions, i.e. when there is the need for the support of his power.<ref name=Briquel-1979/>

A prodigy related by Livy concerning an {{Lang|la|avis sanqualis}} who broke a rainstone or meteorite fallen into a grove sacred to Mars at [[Crustumerium]] in 177{{nbs}}BCE has also been seen by some scholars as a sign of a martial aspect of Sancus. [[Roger D. Woodard|Woodard]]<ref name=Woodard-2006/> has interpreted Sancus as the Roman equivalent of Vedic god [[Indra]], who has to rely on the help of the [[Maruts]], in his view corresponding to the twelfth Roman {{Lang|la|semones}} of the [[carmen Arvale]], in his task of killing the dragon [[Vrtra]] thus freeing the waters and averting draught. He traces the etymology of ''Semo'' to [[Indo-European languages|PIE]] root *{{Lang|mis|sh₂e (w)-}}<!-- Indo-European --> bearing the meanings of 'to pour', 'ladle', 'flow', 'drop' related to rain and sowing.<ref name=Fowler-1899/>{{rp|page=140}}<ref name=Woodard-2006/>{{rp|pages=186{{nbs}}ff}}
<nowiki> In Roman myth </nowiki>[[Hercules]] would represent this mythic character in his killing of the monster [[Cacus]]. Sancus would be identical to Hercules and strictly related, though not identical, to Mars as purported by the old cults of the [[Salii]] of [[Tibur]] related by Varro and other ancient authors cited by Macrobius. The tricephalous deity represented near Hercules in Etruscan tombs and reflected in the wise of the killing of [[Cacus]] would correspond to the features of the monster killed by Indra in association with Trita Āpya.<ref>
Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' III 12, 1-8
</ref><ref name=Woodard-2006/>{{rp|pages=220{{nbs}}ff}}

The connection between Sancus and Mars can be further explained by the fact that Semo Sancus could be considered identical with the god [[Enyalius]] son of Mars ([[Ares]]); but sometimes Enyalius served also as an epithet of Ares (Mars) himself thus the two came to be regarded as very similar in character and their identities could overlap at times. [[Pirro Ligorio]] in the ''Codice Torinese'' reports the tradition about this god (Sancus) as found in the city of [[Rieti]], populated by the Sabines and he writes as such: "[…] Hoggidì questa città chiamano Rieti, et delle sue antichità si trova questa base rotonda nel mezzo della sua piazza, sopra la quale fu già la statua di Sancte Sabinorum che è il Genio detto Sango et alcuni il chiamano Genio altri Enialio figliuolo di Marte, alcuni vogliono che sia Hercole, altri Apolline […]" which translates as: "Nowadays they call this city Rieti, and of its ancient artifacts this rounded base can be found in the center of its square, on top of which there was the statue of Sancte Sabinorum who is the Genius called Sangus and some call him Genius others Enyalios son of Mars, some claim he is Hercules, others [[Apollo]] […]".<ref>[https://www.persee.fr/doc/mefr_0223-5102_1985_num_97_1_5501<br>L'Ara di Lucius Munius a Rieti (article), Monika Verzar Bass – Mélanges de l'école française de Rome, Year: 1985 / 97-1  / pp. 295-323.]</ref>

== Sancus in Etruria ==
As for Etruscan religion, N. Thomas De Grummond has suggested to identify Sancus in the inscription {{Lang|la|Selvans Sanchuneta}} found on a {{Lang|la|[[cippus]]}} unearthed near Bolsena; however, other scholars connect this epithet to a local family {{Lang|la|gentilicium}}.<ref>N. T. De Grummond ''Etruscan Myth Sacred History and Legend'' 2006 p. 141; Peter F. Dorcey ''The Cult of Silvanus: a Study in Roman Folk Religion'' Brill Leyden 1992 p. 11 citing C. De Simone ''Etrusco Sanchuneta'' ''La Parola del Passato'' '''39''' (1984) pp. 49-53.</ref> The theonym {{Lang|la|Tec Sans}} found on bronze statues (one of a boy and that of the {{Lang|la|arringatore}}, 'public speaker') from the area near [[Cortona]] has been seen as an Etruscan form of the same theonym.<ref name=Palmer-1994/>{{rp|pages=17 ff}}

== Footnotes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|25em|refs=

<ref name=Fowler-1899>
{{cite book
|first=W.W.|last=Fowler|author-link=William Warde Fowler
|year=1899
|title=The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic
|place=London, GB
|pages=136–140, 189
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Latte-1967-1972>
{{cite book
| last = Latte| first = Kurt| author-link = Kurt Latte
| year = 1967
| publication-date = 1992
| chapter = Eidgötter| language = de
| editor-last = Bengtson| editor-first = Hermann
| title = Römische Religionsgeschichte
| series = Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft
| edition = 2nd| volume = 5| issue = 4| pages = 126–127
| place = Munich, DE
| publisher = C.H. Beck
| isbn = 9783406013744
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0w8Rsr3pT_sC
| access-date = 2016-06-04
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Norden-1939>
{{cite book
|first=E.|last=Norden|author-link=Eduard Norden
|year=1939
|title=Aus altroemischer Priesterbuchen|language=de, en
|place=Lund
|page=220
}}

</ref>

<ref name=Rosenzweig-1937>
{{cite book
|first=Irene|last=Rosenzweig
|year=1937
|title=Ritual and Cult in Pre-Roman Iguvium
|place=London, GB
|pages=210, 275
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Wissowa-1909>
{{cite book
|first=G.|last=Wissowa|author-link=Georg Wissowa
|year=1909
|article=Semo Sancus
|title=Roschers Lexicon
|volume=IV|id=col{{nbs}}3654
}}
</ref>

}}

== External links ==
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Semo Sancus}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060101152248/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3037.html Ancient Library article]}}

[[Category:Roman gods]]
[[Category:Commerce gods]]
[[Category:Deities of oaths]]