Editing Salamis, Cyprus

{{Short description|Ancient city-state and archaeological site on Cyprus}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Salamis
|native_name = {{lang|grc|Σαλαμίς}}<br/>{{lang|el|Σαλαμίνα}}
|alternate_name = Salamína
|image = Gymnasion und Therme aus Südwest.jpg
|alt =
|caption = The gymnasium at Salamis
|map_type = Cyprus
|map_alt =
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|coordinates = {{coord|35|11|N|33|54|E|display=inline,title}}
|location = [[Famagusta District]], [[Cyprus]]
|region =
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
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  |website = [https://salamis.city/ Virtual Tour of Salamis]
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'''Salamis''' ({{langx|grc|Σαλαμίς}}; {{langx|el|Σαλαμίνα}}; {{langx|tr|Salamis}}) was an ancient Greek [[city-state]] on the east coast of [[Cyprus]], at the mouth of the river [[Pedieos]], 6&nbsp;km north of modern [[Famagusta]]. According to tradition, the founder of Salamis was [[Teucer]], son of [[Telamon]], king of the Greek island of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], who could not return home after the [[Trojan War]] because he had failed to avenge his brother Ajax.

==History==

===Early history===
The earliest archaeological finds go back to the eleventh century BC (Late Bronze Age III). The copper ores of Cyprus made the island an essential node in the earliest trade networks, and Cyprus was a source of the [[Orientalizing Period|orientalizing cultural traits]] of mainland Greece at the end of the [[Greek Dark Ages]], hypothesized by [[Walter Burkert]] in 1992. Children's burials in Canaanite jars indicate a [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] presence. A harbour and a cemetery from this period have been excavated. The town is mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions as one of the kingdoms of ''Iadnana'' (Cyprus).<ref>S. Parpola, ''Neo-Assyrian Toponyms'' (1970), noted by Burkert (1992:13 n17), who instances an inscription that mentions both ''Iadnana'' and ''Iawan'' ("[[Ionia]]") "and keeps them distinct". The Greeks of Cyprus never called themselves "Ionians".</ref> In 877 BC, an Assyrian army reached the Mediterranean shores for the first time. In 708 BC, the city-kings of Cyprus paid homage to [[Sargon II]] of Assyria (Burkert). The first coins were minted in the 6th century BC, following Persian prototypes.
[[Image:Theater of Salamis, Cyprus.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|The theatre in Salamis]]
Cyprus was under the control of the [[ancient Assyrians|Assyrians]] at this time but the city-states of the island enjoyed a relative independence as long as they paid their tribute to the Assyrian king. This allowed the kings of the various cities to accumulate wealth and power. Certain burial customs observed in the "royal tombs" of Salamis relate directly to Homeric rites, such as the sacrifice of horses in honor of the dead and the offering of jars of olive oil. Some scholars have interpreted this phenomenon as the result of influence of the Homeric Epics in Cyprus. Most of the grave goods come from the Levant or Egypt.

According to the foundation myth, the founder of Salamis is said to be [[Teucer]], son of Telamon, who could not return home after the Trojan war because he had failed to avenge his brother [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]]. There is however some evidence that the area had been occupied long before the alleged arrival of Mycenaeans (at Enkomi) and the town of Salamis was developed as a replacement when Engkomi was isolated from the sea. There is otherwise little direct evidence to support the foundation myth.

===In the Greek period===
In the 11th century BC, the town was confined to a rather small area around the harbour but soon expanded westwards to occupy the area, which today is covered by forest. The cemetery of Salamis covers a large area from the western limits of the forest to the [[Monastery of St. Barnabas]] to the west, to the outskirts of the village of Ayios Serghios to the north, and to the outskirts of Enkomi village to the south. It contains tombs dating from the 9th century BC down to the [[Early Christian]] period. The earlier tombs are within the forest area, near the boundary of the early town.

Though Salamis maintained direct links with the Near East during the 8th and 7th centuries BC, there were  bonds with the Aegean as well. One royal tomb contained a large amount of Greek Geometric pottery and this has been explained as the dowry of a Greek princess who married into the royal family of Salamis. Greek pottery was also found in tombs of ordinary citizens. At this time the Greeks were embarking on an eastward expansion by founding colonies in [[Asia Minor]] and Syria; Salamis must have served as an intermediate station; it has even been suggested that Cypriots helped the [[Greeks]] in their venture.

===Resistance to Persian rule===
In 450 BC, Salamis was the site of a [[Battle of Salamis (in Cyprus)|simultaneous land and sea battle]] between [[Athens]] and the Persians. (This is not to be confused with the earlier [[Battle of Salamis]] in 480 BC between the Greeks and the Persians at [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] in [[Attica]].)

The history of Salamis during the early [[Archaic period in Greece|Archaic]] and [[Classical Greece|Classical]] periods is reflected in the narrations of the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] and the much later speeches of the Greek orator [[Isocrates]]. Salamis was afterwards besieged and conquered by [[Artaxerxes III]]. Under King [[Evagoras I]] (411-374 BC) Greek culture and art flourished in the city. A monument, which illustrates the end of the Classical period in Salamis, is the tumulus, which covered the cenotaph of [[Nicocreon]], one of the last kings of Salamis, who perished in 311 BC. On its monumental platform were found several clay heads, some of which are portraits, perhaps of members of the royal family who were honoured after their death on the pyre.

[[Marguerite Yon]] ([[archaeologist]]) claims that "Literary texts and inscriptions suggest that by the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]], [[Kition|Kition [in present-day Larnaca] ]]was one of the principal local powers, along with its neighbor Salamis."<ref>{{cite journal | title = Kition in the Tenth to Fourth Centuries B. C. | journal = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research | date = Nov 1997 | first = Marguerite | last = Yon |author2=William A. P.  | volume = 308 | issue = 308 | pages = 9–17 | doi = 10.2307/1357405 | jstor = 1357405 | s2cid = 156694103 }}</ref>

===Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire===
[[image:Chypriotische koninkrijken.PNG|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map showing the [[Ten city-kingdoms of Cyprus|ten ancient city Kingdoms of Cyprus]]]]
After [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the [[Persian Empire]], [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]] ruled the island of Cyprus. He forced [[Nicocreon]], who had been the Ptolemaic governor of the island, to commit suicide in 311 BC, because he did not trust him any more. In his place came king [[Menelaus, son of Lagus|Menelaus]], who was the brother of the first Ptolemy. Nicocreon is supposed to be buried in one of the big tumuli near [[Enkomi]]. Salamis remained the seat of the governor.

In 306 BC, Salamis was the site of a [[Battle of Salamis in Cyprus (306 BC)|naval battle]] between the fleets of [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] and [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]. Demetrius won the battle and captured the island.

In 58 BC, the [[Roman Republic]] annexed Cyprus; the Senate commissioned [[Cato the Younger]] to add Cyprus to the Republic's dominions. [[Ptolemy of Cyprus]], the last Cypriotic king, committed suicide rather than surrender to Rome.<ref>Strabo, xiv.; [[Dio Cassius]], xxxviii. 30, xxxix. 22; Livy, ''Epit.'' civ.; Plutarch, ''Cato Minor'', 34-36; Appian, ''B. C.'', ii. 23; [[Velleius Paterculus]] ii. 45; [[Cicero]], ''pro Sext.'', 26-28; [[Valerius Maximus]], ix. 4</ref>

In [[Roman Empire|Roman times]], Salamis was part of the [[ancient Rome|Roman]] province of [[Cilicia]]. The seat of the governor was relocated to [[Paphos]]. The town suffered heavily during the [[Diaspora revolt|Jewish uprising]] of AD 116–117. Although Salamis ceased to be the capital of Cyprus from the Hellenistic period onwards when it was replaced by Paphos, its wealth and importance did not diminish. The city was particularly favoured by the Roman emperors [[Trajan]] and [[Hadrian]], who restored and established its public buildings.

===In the Roman and Byzantine periods===
{{Multiple image
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| footer = Columns of the gymnasium
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The "cultural centre" of Salamis during the Roman period was situated at the northernmost part of the city, where a gymnasium, theatre, amphitheatre, stadium and public baths have been revealed.
There are baths, public latrines (for 44 users), various little bits of [[mosaic]], a harbour wall, a [[Hellenistic]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[agora]] and a temple of Zeus that had the right to grant asylum. Byzantine remains include the basilica of Bishop [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanos]] (AD 367–403). It served as the metropolitan church of Salamis. St. Epiphanios is buried at the southern apse. The church contains a [[baptistry]] heated by [[hypocaust]]s. The church was destroyed in the 7th century and replaced by a smaller building to the south.

There are very extensive ruins. The [[theatre]], and the [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] have been extensively restored. Numerous statues are displayed in the central court of the gymnasium most of which are headless. While a statue of [[Augustus]] originally belonged here, some columns and statues originally adorned the theatre and were only brought here after an [[earthquake]] in the 4th century. The theatre is of Augustean date. It could house up to 15.000 spectators but was destroyed in the 4th century.

The town was supplied with water by an aquaeduct from [[Kythrea]], destroyed in the 7th century. The water was collected in a large cistern near the [[Agora]]. The [[necropolis]] of Salamis covers ca. 7&nbsp;km² to the west of the town. It contains a museum showing some of the finds. Burials date from the geometric to the Hellenistic period. The best known burials are the so-called Royal-Tombs, containing chariots and extremely rich grave gifts, including imports from [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]]. A tomb excavated in 1965 by the French Mission of the [[University of Lyon]] brought to light an extraordinary wealth of tomb-gifts, which also attest trade relations with the [[Near East]].

===Christianity===
In what is known as the "First Missionary Journey", [[Paul the Apostle]] and the Cypriot-born [[Barnabas]] made Salamis their first destination, landing there after heading out from [[Antioch]] of [[Roman Syria|Syria]].  There they proclaimed Christ in the Jewish synagogues before proceeding through the rest of the island (Acts 13:1-5).  Tradition says that Barnabas preached in Alexandria and Rome, and was stoned to death at Salamis in about 61 CE. He is considered the founder of the [[Church of Cyprus]].  His bones are believed to be located in the nearby monastery named after him.

Several earthquakes led to the destruction of Salamis at the beginning of the 4th century. The town was rebuilt under the name of Constantia by [[Constantius II]] (337–361) and became an Episcopal seat, the most famous occupant of which was [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Saint Epiphanius]]. Emperor Constantius II helped the Salaminians not only for the reconstruction of their city but also he helped them by relieving them from paying taxes for a short period and thus the new city, rebuilt on a smaller scale, was named Constantia. The silting of the harbour led to a gradual decline of the town. Salamis was finally abandoned during the Arab invasions of the 7th century after destructions by [[Muawiyah I]] ( reigned 661-680 ). The inhabitants moved to Arsinoë ([[Famagusta]]).

==Excavations==
Archaeological excavations at the site began in the late nineteenth century under the auspices of the Cyprus Exploration Fund.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cyprus Exploration Fund (Biographical details) |publisher=[[The British Museum]] |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/term_details.aspx?bioId=97024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181213183722/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/term_details.aspx?bioId=97024 |archive-date=13 December 2018 |url-status=live |df=dmy}}</ref> Many of these finds are now in the [[British Museum]] in London.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?place=34936&plaA=34936-3-1|title=Collection &#124; British Museum}}</ref>

Excavations at Salamis started again in 1952 and were in progress until 1974. Before the Turkish invasion there was much archaeological activity there; one French Mission was excavating at Enkomi, another at Salamis and the Department of Antiquities was busy almost throughout the year with repairs and restorations of monuments and was engaged in excavations at Salamis. After the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|Turkish invasion]] the international embargo has prevented the continuation of the excavations. The site and the museums are maintained by the antiquities service. Important archaeological collections are kept in the St. Barnabas monastery. In the District Archaeological Museum there are marble statues from the gymnasium and the theatre of Salamis, Mycenaean pottery and jewellery from Enkomi and other objects representative of the rich archaeological heritage of the whole district.  Several of the statues and sculptures from antiquity are disfigured, headless or mutilated, likely by Christian zealots in late antiquity <ref>Troels Myrup Kristensen: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z5ufDwAAQBAJ&q=salamis&pg=PT26  Making and Breaking the Gods: Christian Responses to Pagan Sculpture in Late Antiquity]''</ref> during the [[persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire]].

The public buildings uncovered at the city site of Salamis date to the post-Classical period. The Temple of Zeus Salaminios, whose cult was established, according to tradition, by [[Teucer]] himself, must have existed since the foundation of the city; the extant remains date to the late Hellenistic period. Early excavators discovered in the [[esplanade]] of the Temple of Zeus an enormous marble capital carved on each side with a [[caryatid]] figure standing between the foreparts of winged [[bull]]s. Now in the [[British Museum]]'s collection,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=459569&partId=1|title=capital &#124; British Museum}}</ref> the function of the [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] remains unclear, although it does indicate influence from [[Achaemenid]] art and is consequently dated to between 300 and 250 BC.

==See also==
*[[List of ancient Greek cities]]

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* {{Cite book |last=Karageorghis |first=Vassos |author-link=Vassos Karageorghis |title=Salamis in Cyprus: Homeric, Hellenistic and Roman |date=1969 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-39006-1 |series=New aspects of antiquity |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |title=The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age |date=1992 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-64363-5 |series=Revealing Antiquity |location=Cambridge, Mass}}

==External links==
*[http://northcyprusdiscovery.com/the-ancient-ruins-of-salamis/ The ancient ruins of Salamis]
*[https://arcg.is/0zDHHy StoryMap about the cult practices at Salamis] (S. Fourrier, A. Rabot)

{{Commons|Salamis, Cyprus}}

{{First Journey of Paul of Tarsus}}
{{Ancient Cities of Cyprus}}{{Phoenician cities and colonies|state=collapsed}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Historic sites in Cyprus]]
[[Category:Cities in ancient Cyprus]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Northern Cyprus]]
[[Category:Gazimağusa District]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Cyprus]]
[[Category:New Testament cities]]
[[Category:Destroyed Greek temples]]
[[Category:Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Phoenician colonies in Cyprus]]