Editing Roman Kingdom

{{short description|Period of Roman history (c. 753 – c. 509 BC)}}
{{redirect|Regal period|the regal period in Athenian history|List of kings of Athens}}
{{for|the 5th-century "Roman kingdom" in Soissons ruled by Syagrius|Kingdom of Soissons}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = {{native phrase|la|Roma}}
| conventional_long_name = Roman Kingdom
| common_name            = Roman Kingdom (Kingdom of Rome)
| era                    = [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]]
| government_type        = [[Elective monarchy]]
| life_span              = {{circa|753|509 BC}}
| year_start             = 753 BC
| year_end               = 509 BC
| event_start            = [[Founding of Rome]]
| event_end              = [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|Monarchy overthrown]]
| p1                     = Latial culture
| p2                     = Alba Longa
| p3                     = Etruscan civilization
| s1                     = Roman Republic
| image_map              = Platner - Ancient Rome city growth.jpg
| image_map_caption      = The ancient quarters of Rome
| capital                = [[Rome]]
| common_languages       = [[Old Latin]]
| religion               = [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]]
| leader1                = [[Romulus]]
| leader2                = [[Numa Pompilius]]
| leader3                = [[Tullus Hostilius]]
| leader4                = [[Ancus Marcius]]
| leader5                = [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|L. Tarquinius Priscus]]
| leader6                = [[Servius Tullius]]
| leader7                = [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|L. Tarquinius Superbus]]
| year_leader1           = 753–716 BC
| year_leader2           = 715–672 BC
| year_leader3           = 672–640 BC
| year_leader4           = 640–616 BC
| year_leader5           = 616–578 BC
| year_leader6           = 578–534 BC
| year_leader7           = 534–509 BC
| title_leader           = [[King of Rome|King]]
| legislature            = {{plainlist|
*[[Senate of the Roman Kingdom|Senate]]
*[[Citizens' assemblies of the Roman Kingdom|Roman Assemblies]]}}
| today                  = {{plainlist|
*[[Italy]]
*[[Vatican City]]
| government = [[Elective monarchy|Elective]] [[absolute monarchy|absolute]] [[federal monarchy]]
}}
}}
{{History of Italy}}
The '''Roman Kingdom''', also referred to as the '''Roman monarchy''' or the '''regal period of ancient Rome''', was the earliest period of [[Ancient Rome|Roman history]] when the city and its territory were [[King of Rome|ruled by kings]]. According to tradition, the Roman Kingdom began with the [[Founding of Rome|city's founding]] {{circa|753&nbsp;BC}}, with settlements around the [[Palatine Hill]] along the river [[Tiber]] in central [[Italy]], and ended with the [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|overthrow of the kings]] and the establishment of the Republic {{circa|509&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}.

Little is certain about the kingdom's history as no records and few inscriptions from the time of the kings have survived. The accounts of this period written during the [[Roman Republic|Republic]] and the [[Roman Empire|Empire]] are thought largely to be based on [[oral tradition]].

==Origin==
{{Main|Founding of Rome}}
{{See also|Latial culture}}
[[File:135 Regia tessons etrusques.JPG|thumb|upright|Shards of [[terracotta]] decorative plaques, 6th century BC (Roman Kingdom and [[Etruscan art|Etruscan period]]), found in the [[Roman Forum]], now in the [[Baths of Diocletian|Diocletian Baths Museum]], Rome]]

The site of the founding of the Roman Kingdom (and eventual [[Roman Republic|Republic]] and [[Roman Empire|Empire]]) included a [[ford (crossing)|ford]] where one could cross the river [[Tiber]] in central [[Roman Italy|Italy]]. The [[Palatine Hill]] and hills surrounding it provided easily defensible positions in the wide fertile plain surrounding them. Each of these features contributed to the success of the city.<ref>{{cite web|title=Palatinus (Palatine Hill)|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Palatinus.html|website=www.penelope.uchicago.edu|access-date=17 April 2021}}</ref>

The traditional version of Roman history, which has come down principally through [[Livy]] (64 or 59 BC&nbsp;– AD 12 or 17), [[Plutarch]] (46–120), and [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] ({{circa}} 60 BC – after 7 BC), recounts that a series of seven kings ruled the settlement in Rome's first centuries. The traditional chronology, as codified by [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] (116 BC – 27 BC) and [[Quintus Fabius Pictor|Fabius Pictor]] ({{circa}} 270 – {{circa}} 200 BC), allows 243 years for their combined reigns, an average of almost 35 years. Since the work of [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr]], modern scholarship has generally discounted this schema. The [[Gauls]] destroyed many of Rome's historical records when they sacked the city after the [[Battle of the Allia]] in 390 BC (according to Varro; according to [[Polybius]], the battle occurred in 387–6), and what remained eventually fell prey to time or to theft. With no contemporary records of the kingdom surviving, all accounts of the Roman kings must be carefully questioned.<ref>{{cite book|last= Asimov |first= Isaac|title= Asimov's Chronology of the World|location= New York |publisher= HarperCollins|year= 1991 |isbn= 0-06-270036-7 |page= [https://archive.org/details/asimovschronolog00asim_0/page/69 69]|url= https://archive.org/details/asimovschronolog00asim_0|url-access= registration }}</ref><ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 12.</ref>

==Monarchy==
{{further|King of Rome|Constitution of the Roman Kingdom|Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom}}
The kings following [[Romulus]], the city's founder, were elected by the people of Rome to serve for life, and did not rely upon military force to gain or keep the throne.  The only king to break fully with this tradition was [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus]], the final king, who according to tradition seized power from his predecessor and ruled as a tyrant.

The insignia of the kings of Rome were twelve [[lictor]]s (attendants or servants) wielding the symbolic [[fasces]] bearing axes, the right to sit upon a [[curule seat]], the purple [[toga|''toga picta'']], red shoes, and a white [[diadem]] around the head. Of all these insignia, the most important was the purple ''toga picta''.

===Chief Executive===
The king was invested with supreme military, executive, and judicial authority through the use of ''[[imperium]]'', formally granted to the king by the [[Curiate Assembly]] with the passing of the ''[[Lex curiata de imperio]]'' at the beginning of each king's reign. The ''imperium'' of the king was held for life and protected him from ever being brought to trial for his actions. As the king was the sole owner of ''imperium'' in Rome at the time, he possessed ultimate [[executive power]] and unchecked military authority as the [[commander-in-chief]] of all of the [[Roman legion]]s. Also, the laws that kept citizens safe from magistrates' misuse of ''imperium'' did not exist during the monarchical period.

The king had the power to either appoint or nominate all officials to offices. He would appoint a [[Tribune|''tribunus celerum'']] to serve as both the tribune of the Ramnes tribe in Rome and as the commander of the king's personal bodyguard, the ''[[celeres]]''. The king was required to appoint the tribune upon entering office and the tribune left office upon the king's death. The tribune was second in rank to the king and also possessed the power to convene the Curiate Assembly and lay legislation before it.

Another officer appointed by the king was the ''[[praefectus urbi]]'', who acted as the warden of the city. When the king was absent from the city, the prefect held all of the king's powers and abilities, even to the point of being bestowed with ''imperium'' while inside the city.

The king also received the right to be the only person to appoint [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]] to the [[Senate of the Roman Kingdom|Senate]].

===Chief Priest===
What is known for certain is that the king alone possessed the right to the [[augury]] on behalf of Rome as its chief [[augur]], and no public business could be performed without the will of the gods made known through auspices. The people knew the king as a mediator between them and the gods (cf. Latin ''pontifex'', "bridge-builder", in this sense, between men and the gods) and thus viewed the king with religious awe. This made the king the head of the [[Religion in ancient Rome|national religion]] and its chief executive. Having the power to control the [[Roman calendar]], he conducted all religious ceremonies and appointed lower religious offices and officers. It is said that Romulus himself instituted the augurs and was believed to have been the best augur of all. Likewise, King [[Numa Pompilius]] instituted the [[pontiff]]s and through them developed the foundations of the religious dogma of Rome.

===Chief Legislator===
{{Main|Leges regiae}}
Under the kings, the Senate and Curiate Assembly had very little power and authority. They were not independent since they lacked the right to meet together and discuss questions of state at their own will. They could be called together only by the king (and the tribune in the case of the Curiate Assembly) and could discuss only the matters that the king laid before them. While the Curiate Assembly had the power to pass laws that had been submitted by the king, the Senate was effectively an honorary council. It could advise the king on his action but by no means could prevent him from acting. The only thing that the king could not do without the approval of the Senate and the Curiate Assembly was to declare war against a foreign nation.

===Chief Judge===
The king's ''imperium'' both granted him military powers and qualified him to pronounce legal judgement in all cases as the chief justice of Rome. Though he could assign pontiffs to act as minor judges in some cases, he had supreme authority in all cases brought before him, both civil and criminal. This made the king supreme in times of both war and peace. While some writers believed there was no appeal from the king's decisions, others believed that a proposal for appeal could be brought before the king by any [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] during a meeting of the Curiate Assembly.

To assist the king, a council advised him during all trials, but this council had no power to control his decisions. Also, two criminal detectives (''quaestores parricidi'') were appointed by him as well as a two-man criminal court (''duumviri perduellionis''), which oversaw cases of treason. According to [[Livy]], [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus]], the seventh and final king of Rome, judged capital criminal cases without the advice of counsellors, thereby creating fear amongst those who might think to oppose him.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#49|1.49]]</ref>

===Election of the kings===
Whenever a king died, Rome entered a period of [[interregnum]]. Supreme power of the state would devolve to the Senate, which was responsible for finding a new king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its own members—the [[interrex]]—to serve for a period of five days with the sole purpose of nominating the next king of Rome.  If no king were nominated at the end of five days, with the Senate's consent the interrex would appoint another Senator to succeed him for another five-day term.  This process would continue until a new king was elected.  Once the interrex found a suitable nominee to the kingship, he would bring the nominee before the Senate and the Senate would review him.  If the Senate passed the nominee, the interrex would convene the Curiate Assembly and preside over it during the election of the king. Once the nominee was proposed to the Curiate Assembly, the citizens of Rome could either accept or reject him.  If accepted, the king-elect did not immediately enter office. Two other acts still had to take place before he was invested with the full regal authority and power.

First, it was necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods respecting his appointment by means of the auspices, since the king would serve as high priest of Rome.  This ceremony was performed by an augur, who conducted the king-elect to the citadel, where he was placed on a stone seat as the people waited below.  If found worthy of the kingship, the augur announced that the gods had given favourable tokens, thus confirming the king's priestly character. The second act which had to be performed was the conferral of the ''imperium'' upon the king.  The Curiate Assembly's previous vote only determined who was to be king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary power of the king upon him.  Accordingly, the king himself proposed to the Curiate Assembly a law granting him ''imperium'', and the Curiate Assembly by voting in favor of the law would grant it. In theory, the people of Rome elected their leader, but the Senate had most of the control over the process.

===Senate===
{{Main|Senate of the Roman Kingdom|Citizens' assemblies of the Roman Kingdom}}
According to legend, Romulus established the Senate after he founded Rome by personally selecting the most noble men (wealthy men with legitimate wives and children) to serve as a council for the city. As such, the Senate was the King's advisory council as the [[Council of State]]. The Senate was composed of 300 senators, with 100 senators representing each of the three ancient tribes of Rome: the Ramnes ([[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]]), Tities ([[Sabines]]), and Luceres ([[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]]). Within each tribe, a senator was selected from each of the tribe's ten [[curia]]e. The king had the sole authority to appoint the senators, but this selection was done in accordance with ancient custom.

Under the monarchy, the Senate possessed very little power and authority as the king held most of the political power of the state and could exercise those powers without the Senate's consent. The chief function of the Senate was to serve as the king's council and be his legislative coordinator. Once legislation proposed by the king passed the Curiate Assembly, the Senate could either veto it or accept it as law. The king was, by custom, to seek the advice of the Senate on major issues. However, it was left to him to decide what issues, if any, were brought before them and he was free to accept or reject their advice as he saw fit. Only the king possessed the power to convene the Senate, except during the [[interregnum]], during which the Senate possessed the authority to convene itself.

==Military==
{{Main|Structural history of the Roman military}}

==Kings of Rome==

;''<small>Years [[Anno Domini|BC]]</small>''
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  from:-753 till:-716 text: [[Romulus]]
  from:-716 till:-673 text: [[Numa Pompilius|Numa]]
  from:-673 till:-642 text: [[Tullus Hostilius|Tullus]]
  from:-642 till:-616 text: [[Ancus Marcius|Ancus]]
  from:-616 till:-579 text: [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|Priscus]]
  from:-579 till:-535 text: [[Servius Tullius|Servius]]
  from:-535 till:-509 text: [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Superbus]]

</timeline>
:::''Dates follow [[Livy]]'s chronology of reign-lengths. Consult particular article for details of each king.''

{| style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;" border="0" width=700px class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! King !! Other notable information
|-
|width=111px| 753–716 BC ||[[Romulus]]||Myth of [[Romulus and Remus]]; founder of Rome; established Roman Senate, army, first religious institutions.
|-
|715–672 BC ||[[Numa Pompilius]]||Established many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions; introduced twelve-month solar calendar.
|-
|672–640 BC ||[[Tullus Hostilius]]||Defeated and destroyed [[Alba Longa]]; integrated the noble Alban families into the Roman aristocracy.
|-
|640–616 BC ||[[Ancus Marcius]]||Established port of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]]; defeated the [[Sabines]].
|-
|616–578 BC ||[[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|Tarquinius Priscus]]||Expanded Roman hegemony over Latium; doubled membership in the Senate to 200; drained the [[Roman Forum]], and constructed the [[Cloaca Maxima]] and the [[Circus Maximus]].
|-
|578–534 BC ||[[Servius Tullius]]||Established the [[Roman tribe|Servian Tribes]] and the [[Centuriate Assembly|centuries]]; built the [[Temple of Diana (Rome)|Temple of Diana]] and a [[Servian Wall|new wall]] around the city; instituted the [[Compitalia]].
|-
|534–509 BC ||[[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquinius Superbus]]||Last King of Rome; overthrew Servius; conquered various Latin cities and established colonies; built the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus]]; deposed and Roman Republic established.
|}

===Romulus===
[[File:Rome in 753 BC.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of Rome in 753 BC. Colours show topography, with green lowlands and brown highlands. The Latin names of hills are included in all caps.|alt=]]
Son of the [[Vestal Virgin]] [[Rhea Silvia]], ostensibly by the god [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], the legendary [[Romulus]] was Rome's founder and first king.  After he and his twin brother [[Romulus and Remus|Remus]] had deposed [[Amulius|King Amulius]] of Alba and reinstated the king's brother and their grandfather [[Numitor]] to the throne, they decided to build a city in the area where they had been [[Lupercal|abandoned as infants]]. After killing Remus in a dispute, Romulus began building the city on the [[Palatine Hill]].  His work began with fortifications. He permitted men of all classes to come to Rome as citizens, including slaves and freemen without distinction.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#8|1:8]]</ref> He is credited with establishing the city's religious, legal and political institutions. The kingdom was established by unanimous acclaim with him at the helm when Romulus called the citizenry to a council for the purposes of determining their government.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 1, chapter 8|url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0026%253Abook%253D1%253Achapter%253D8|website = www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date = 2015-12-09}}</ref><ref>Everitt 2012, p. {{Page needed|date=April 2021}}.</ref><ref>Everitt 2012, pp. 22–23.</ref><ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 17.</ref>

Romulus established the [[Senate of the Roman Kingdom|Senate]] as an advisory council with the appointment of 100 of the most noble men in the community. These men he called ''patres'' (from ''pater'', father, head), and their descendants became the [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]]. To project command, he surrounded himself with attendants, in particular the twelve lictors.<ref name=":0" /><ref>He may have chosen this number from the number of the birds who foretold his sovereignty</ref> He created three divisions of [[equites|horsemen (''equites'')]], called ''centuries'': ''Ramnes'' (Romans), ''Tities'' (after the Sabine king) and ''Luceres'' (Etruscans). He also divided the populace into 30 ''[[curia]]e'', named after 30 of the Sabine women who had intervened to end the war between Romulus and Tatius. The ''curiae'' formed the voting units in the [[Roman assemblies|popular assemblies]] (''Comitia Curiata'').<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#8|1:8]], [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#13|13]]</ref>

[[File:Platner - Ancient Rome city growth.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Growth of the city region during the kingdom]]
Romulus was behind one of the most notorious acts in Roman history, the incident commonly known as ''[[The Rape of the Sabine Women]]''. To provide his citizens with wives, Romulus invited the neighbouring tribes to a festival in Rome where the Romans committed a [[Bride kidnapping|mass abduction]] of young women from among the attendees. The accounts vary from 30 to 683 women taken, a significant number for a population of 3,000 Latins (and presumably for the Sabines as well). War broke out when Romulus refused to return the captives. After the Sabines made three unsuccessful attempts to invade the hill settlements of Rome, the women themselves intervened during the [[Battle of the Lacus Curtius]] to end the war. The two peoples were united in a joint kingdom, with Romulus and the Sabine king [[Titus Tatius]] sharing the throne.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#9|1:9–13]]</ref><ref>Matyszak 2003, pp. 19–20.</ref><ref>Everitt 2012, pp. 21–22.</ref> In addition to the war with the Sabines, Romulus [[Roman-Etruscan Wars#War with Fidenae and Veii under Romulus|waged war]] with the Fidenates and Veientes and others.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#14|1:14–15]]</ref>

He reigned for thirty-seven years.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|Ab urbe condita]]'', 1.21</ref><ref name="Plutarch Life of Romulus 29.7">Plutarch ''Life of Romulus'' 29.7</ref> According to the legend, Romulus vanished at age fifty-four<ref name="Plutarch Life of Romulus 29.7"/> while reviewing his troops on the Campus Martius. He was reported to have been taken up to Mt. Olympus in a whirlwind and made a god. After initial acceptance by the public, rumours and suspicions of foul play by the patricians began to grow. In particular, some thought that members of the nobility had murdered him, dismembered his body, and buried the pieces on their land.<ref>Livy ''Ab Urbe'' Book I ch. 16</ref> These were set aside after an [[Proculus Julius|esteemed nobleman]] testified that Romulus had come to him in a vision and told him that he was the god [[Quirinus]].<ref>Plutarch ''Life of Romulus'' Book I ch. 28</ref> He became not only one of the [[Capitoline Triad|three major gods of Rome]], but the very likeness of the city itself.<ref>Everitt 2012, pp. 24–25.</ref><ref>Matyszak 2003, pp. 20–21.</ref>

A replica of [[Casa Romuli|Romulus's hut]] was maintained in the centre of Rome until the end of the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Le Glay, Marcel.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/760889060|title=A history of Rome|date=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8327-7|oclc=760889060}}</ref>

===Numa Pompilius===
[[File:Numapisocng6371obverse.jpg|thumb|Numa depicted on a 48 BC ''[[denarius]]'']]
After Romulus died, there was an [[interregnum]] for one year, during which ten men chosen from the Senate governed Rome as successive ''[[interrex|interreges]]''. Under popular pressure, the Senate finally chose the Sabine [[Numa Pompilius]] to succeed Romulus, on account of his reputation for justice and piety. The choice was accepted by the Curiate Assembly.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#17|1:17–18]]</ref><ref>Everitt 2012, pp. 25–26.</ref><ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 22.</ref>

Numa's reign was marked by peace and religious reform. He constructed a new temple to [[Janus]] and, after establishing peace with Rome's neighbours, closed the doors of the temple to indicate a state of peace.  They remained closed for the rest of his reign.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#19|1:19]]</ref> He established the [[Vestal Virgins]] at Rome, as well as the [[Salii]], and the [[Flamen|flamines]] for [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Quirinus]].  He also established the office and duties of ''[[pontifex maximus]]''. Numa reigned for 43 years.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#20|1:20]]</ref><ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 25.</ref> He reformed the [[Roman calendar]] by adjusting it for the solar and lunar year, as well as by adding the months of January and February to bring the total number of months to twelve.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Tullus Hostilius===
[[Tullus Hostilius]] was as warlike as Romulus had been, completely unlike Numa as he lacked any respect for the gods. Tullus waged war against [[Alba Longa#Alban war with Rome|Alba Longa]], [[Roman-Etruscan Wars#Second War with Fidenae and Veii, under Tullus Hostilius|Fidenae and Veii]] and the [[Roman-Sabine wars#War with Tullus Hostilius|Sabines]]. During Tullus's reign, the city of Alba Longa was completely destroyed and Tullus integrated its population into Rome.<ref>Matyszak 2003, pp. 26–28.</ref> Tullus is attributed with constructing a new home for the Senate, the [[Curia Hostilia]], which survived for 562 years after his death.

According to Livy, Tullus neglected the worship of the gods until, towards the end of his reign, he fell ill and became superstitious. However, when Tullus called upon Jupiter and begged assistance, Jupiter responded with a bolt of lightning that burned the king and his house to ashes.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab urbe condita]]'', [[s:From the Founding of the City/Book 1#31|1:31]]</ref><ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 29.</ref> His reign lasted for 32 years.<ref name=":06">[[Livy]], ''[[ab urbe condita libri]]'', [[wikisource:From the Founding of the City/Book 1|I]]</ref>

===Ancus Marcius===
[[File:Ancusmarciuscng10300642obverse.jpg|thumb|Ancus Marcius depicted on a 57 BC ''[[denarius]]'']]
Following the mysterious death of Tullus, the Romans elected a peaceful and religious king in his place, Numa's grandson, [[Ancus Marcius]]. Much like his grandfather, Ancus did little to expand the borders of Rome and only fought wars to defend the territory. He also built Rome's first prison on the [[Capitoline Hill]].<ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 30.</ref>

Ancus further fortified the [[Janiculum]] Hill on the western bank, and built the first bridge across the [[Tiber River]]. He also founded the port of [[Ostia Antica]] on the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] and established Rome's first salt works, as well as the city's first [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]]. Rome grew, as Ancus used diplomacy to peacefully unite smaller surrounding cities into alliance with Rome. Thus, he completed the conquest of the Latins and relocated them to the [[Aventine Hill]], thus forming the [[plebeian]] class of Romans.<ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 31.</ref>

He died a natural death, like his grandfather, after 25 years as king, marking the end of Rome's Latin–Sabine kings.<ref name=":06"/>

===Lucius Tarquinius Priscus===
[[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus]] was the fifth king of Rome and the first of [[Etruria|Etruscan]] birth. After immigrating to Rome, he gained favor with Ancus, who later adopted him as son. Upon ascending the throne, he waged wars against the Sabines and Etruscans, doubling the size of Rome and bringing great treasures to the city. To accommodate the influx of population, the  [[Aventine Hill|Aventine]] and [[Caelian hill]]s were populated.<ref>Everitt 2012, p. 30</ref>

One of his first reforms was to add 100 new members to the Senate from the conquered Etruscan tribes, bringing the total number of senators to 200. He used the treasures Rome had acquired from the conquests to build great monuments for Rome. Among these were Rome's great sewer systems, the [[Cloaca Maxima]], which he used to drain the swamp-like area between the Seven Hills of Rome. In its place, he began construction on the [[Roman Forum]]. He also founded the Roman games.

Priscus initiated great building projects, including the city's first bridge, the [[Pons Sublicius]].<ref>Everitt 2012, p. 28</ref> The most famous is the [[Circus Maximus]], a giant stadium for [[chariot]] races. After that, he started the building of the temple-fortress to the god Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. However, before it was completed, he was killed by a son of Ancus Marcius, after 38 years as king.<ref name=":06"/> His reign is best remembered for introducing the Roman symbols of military and civil offices, and the [[Roman triumph]], being the first Roman to celebrate one.<ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 36.</ref>

===Servius Tullius===
[[File:Las cuatro regiones de Roma.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of the City of the Four Regions, roughly corresponding to the city limits during the later kingdom. The division is traditionally, though probably incorrectly, attributed to [[Roman Kingdom#Servius Tullius|Servius Tullius]]. The [[seven hills of Rome]] are shown in green, with Latin names.]]
Priscus was succeeded by his son-in-law [[Servius Tullius]], Rome's second king of Etruscan birth, and the son of a slave. Like his father-in-law, Servius fought successful wars against the Etruscans. He used the booty to build the first wall all around the Seven Hills of Rome, the ''[[pomerium]]''. He also reorganized the army.

Servius Tullius instituted a new constitution, further developing the [[Social class in ancient Rome|citizen classes]]. He instituted Rome's first [[census]], which divided the population into five economic classes, and formed the [[Roman assemblies|Centuriate Assembly]]. He used the census to divide the population into four urban tribes based on location, thus establishing the [[Roman assemblies|Tribal Assembly]]. He also oversaw the construction of the [[Temple of Diana (Rome)|Temple of Diana]] on the [[Aventine Hill]].

Servius' reforms made a big change in Roman life: voting rights based on socio-economic status, favouring elites. However, over time, Servius increasingly favoured the poor in order to gain support from [[plebeians]], often at the expense of patricians. After a 44-year reign,<ref name=":06"/> Servius was killed in a conspiracy by his daughter [[Tullia Minor|Tullia]] and her husband [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus]].<ref>Matyszak 2003, pp. 38–39.</ref>

===Lucius Tarquinius Superbus===
[[File:Map Italy around 500 b.C. - Touring Club Italiano CART-TRC-40.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|Map of Italy around 500 BC]]
The seventh and final king of Rome was [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus]]. He was the son of Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius, whom he and his wife had killed.<ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 40.</ref>

Tarquinius waged a number of wars against Rome's neighbours, including against the [[Volsci]], [[Gabii]] and the [[Rutuli]]. He also secured Rome's position as head of the [[Latin League|Latin]] cities. He also engaged in a series of public works, notably the completion of the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus]], and works on the [[Cloaca Maxima]] and the [[Circus Maximus]]. However, Tarquin's reign is remembered for his use of violence and intimidation to control Rome and his disrespect for Roman custom and the [[Roman Senate]].<ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 41.</ref>

Tensions came to a head when the king's son, [[Sextus Tarquinius]], raped [[Lucretia]], wife and daughter to powerful Roman nobles. Lucretia told her relatives about the attack, and committed suicide to avoid the dishonour of the episode. Four men, led by [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], and including [[Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus]], [[Publius Valerius Poplicola]], and [[Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus]] incited a revolution that [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|deposed and expelled]] Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC.<ref>Matyszak 2003, p. 42.</ref>

Tarquin was viewed so negatively that the word for king, ''[[Rex (king)|rex]]'', held a negative connotation in the Latin language until the fall of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tempest|first=Kathryn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FcfiAAAAQBAJ|title=Cicero: Politics and Persuasion in Ancient Rome|date=2011-01-20|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-5482-8|pages=10|language=en}}</ref>

[[Lucius Junius Brutus]] and [[Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus]] became Rome's first [[Roman consul|consuls]], marking the beginning of the [[Roman Republic]]. This new government would survive for the next 500 years until the rise of [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Augustus]], and would cover a period during which Rome's authority and area of control extended to cover vast areas of Europe, North Africa, and West Asia.<ref>Matyszak 2003, pp. 43–45.</ref> He ruled 25 years.<ref name=":06"/>

==Public offices after the monarchy==
{{Main|Roman Republic|Constitution of the Roman Republic|History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic}}
{{further|Elections in the Roman Republic}}
{{republicanism sidebar}}
The constitutional history of the [[Roman Republic]] began with the revolution that overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC and ended with constitutional reforms that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. The Roman Republic's constitution was a constantly evolving, unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, by which the government and its politics operated.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=161}}

===Senate===
{{Main|Senate of the Roman Republic}}
{{further|SPQR}}
[[File:04305 - Roma - Fori - Curia Iulia - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto - 18-Mar-2008.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Curia Julia]], the senate house started by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and completed by [[Octavian]] in 29 BC, replacing the [[Curia Cornelia]] as the meeting place of [[Roman Senate|the Senate]].]]

The senate's authority derived from the senators' esteem and prestige.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=96}} This esteem and prestige were based on both precedent and custom, as well as the senators' calibre and reputation. The senate passed decrees called {{lang|la|senatus consulta}}. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate, but in practice, the magistrates usually followed them.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=44}} Through the course of the middle republic and Rome's expansion, the senate became more dominant in the state: the only institution with the expertise to administer the empire effectively, it controlled state finances, assignment of magistrates, external affairs, and deployment of military forces. Also, a powerful religious body, it received reports of omens and directed Roman responses thereto.{{sfn|Momigliano|Cornell|2016}}

When its prerogatives started to be challenged in the 2nd century, the senate lost its customary preapproval for legislation. Moreover, after the precedent set in 121&nbsp;BC with the killing of Gaius Gracchus, the senate claimed to assume the power to issue a {{lang|la|[[senatus consultum ultimum]]}}: such decrees directed magistrates to take whatever actions were necessary to safeguard the state, irrespective of legality, and signalled the senate's willingness to support that magistrate if such actions were later challenged in the courts.{{sfnm|1a1=Momigliano|1a2=Lintott|1y=2012|2a1=Golden|2y=2013|2p=148}}

Its members were usually appointed by [[Roman censor|censor]]s, who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate, making the senate a partially elected body. Status was not hereditary and there were always some new men, though sons of former magistrates found it easier to be elected to the qualifying magistracies. During emergencies, a dictator could be appointed for the purpose of appointing senators (as was done after the [[Battle of Cannae]]). However, by the end of the republic men such as Caesar and the members of the Second Triumvirate usurped these powers for themselves.{{sfn|Momigliano|Cornell|2016}}

===Legislative assemblies===
{{Main|Citizens' assemblies of the Roman Republic}}
[[File:Forum Romanum through Arch of Septimius Severus Forum Romanum Rome.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Forum]], the commercial, cultural, religious, and political center of the city and the Republic which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government]]

The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights, such as the right to trial and appeal, marry, vote, hold office, enter binding contracts, and to special tax exemptions. An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called {{lang|la|optimo iure}} ({{lit|having the greatest rights}}). Citizens who were {{lang|la|optimo iure}} elected their assemblies, whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were two types of legislative assemblies: the {{lang|la|comitia}} ('committees'), which were assemblies of all citizens {{lang|la|optimo jure}}, and the {{lang|la|consilia}} ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of citizens {{lang|la|optimo jure}}.{{sfn|Abbott|2001|p=251}}

Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and [[Tribe of Rome|tribes]], which each gathered into their own assemblies. The {{lang|la|[[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic#Assembly of the Centuries|Comitia Centuriata]]}} ('Centuriate Assembly') was the assembly of the centuries (that is., soldiers). The Comitia Centuriata's president was usually a consul. The centuries voted, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority. The Comitia Centuriata elected magistrates who had {{lang|la|imperium}} (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war and ratify the results of a census.{{sfn|Abbott|2001|p=257}} It served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.

The assembly of the tribes, that is, the citizens of Rome, the [[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic#Assembly of the Tribes|Comitia Tributa]], was presided over by a consul, and composed of 35 tribes. Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, voting ended. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, [[Curule seat|curule]] [[aedile]]s, and military tribunes.{{sfn|Taylor|1966|p=7}} The Plebeian Council{{sfn|Abbott|2001|p=196}} was identical to the assembly of the tribes but excluded the [[patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]]. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually, a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws and could act as a court of appeal.

===Magistrates===
{{Main|Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic}}
Each republican magistrate held certain [[Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic#Powers|constitutional powers]]. Each was assigned a {{lang|la|provincia}} by the Senate. This was the scope of that particular office holder's authority. It could apply to a geographic area or to a particular responsibility or task.{{sfn|Lintott|1999a|p=101}} The powers of a magistrate came from the people of Rome (both plebeians and patricians).{{sfn|Lintott|1999a|p=95}} {{lang|la|Imperium}} was held by both consuls and praetors. Strictly speaking, it was the authority to command a military force, but in reality, it carried broad authority in other public spheres, such as diplomacy and the justice system. In extreme cases, those with the imperium power could sentence Roman Citizens to death. All magistrates also had the power of {{lang|la|coercitio}} (coercion). Magistrates used this to maintain public order by imposing punishment for crimes.{{sfn|Lintott|1999a|p=97}} Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power could also be used to obstruct political opponents.

One check on a magistrate's power was {{lang|la|collega}} ('collegiality'). Each magisterial office was held concurrently by at least two people. Another such check was {{lang|la|provocatio}}. While in Rome, all citizens were protected from coercion, by {{lang|la|provocatio}}, an early form of [[due process]]. It was a precursor to {{lang|la|[[habeas corpus]]}}. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the magistrate's decision to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to [[Cursus honorum|wait ten years]] before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates occasionally had their {{lang|la|imperium}} extended. In effect, they retained the powers of the office (as a [[promagistrate]]) without officially holding that office.{{sfn|Lintott|1999a|p=113}}

In times of military emergency, a [[Roman dictator|dictator]] was appointed for a term of six months.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=24}} Constitutional government was dissolved, and the dictator was the absolute master of the state. When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored.

The [[Roman censor|censor]] was a [[magistrate]] in [[ancient Rome]] who was responsible for maintaining the [[census]], supervising [[public morality]], and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.<ref>Suolahti, J. (1963) ''The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure'' (Helsinki)</ref> The power of the censor was absolute: no magistrate could oppose his decisions, and only another censor who succeeded him could cancel those decisions. The censor's regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words ''censor'' and ''censorship''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=censorship &#124; Etymology, origin and meaning of censorship |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/censorship |website=etymonline |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012204633/https://www.etymonline.com/word/censorship |archive-date= Oct 12, 2023 }}</ref> During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate or purge them from the senate.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=26}}

The [[Roman consul|consuls]] of the Roman Republic were the highest-ranking ordinary magistrates. Each served for one year.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=20}} Consular powers included the kings' former {{lang|la|imperium}} and appointment of new senators. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government. They presided over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul commanded an army.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=179}} His authority abroad was nearly absolute.

Since the tribunes were considered the embodiment of the plebeians, they were [[sacrosanct]]. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge the plebeians took to kill anyone who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. It was a capital offense to harm a tribune, disregard his veto, or otherwise interfere with him.{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=23}}

[[Praetor]]s administered civil law{{sfn|Byrd|1995|p=32}} and commanded provincial armies. [[Aediles]] were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The [[quaestor]]s usually assisted the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial.

==Notes and references==
{{Clear}}
{{Reflist|25em}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Frank Frost |year=2001 |orig-year=1901 |title=A history and description of Roman political institutions |publisher=Elibron Classics |isbn=0-543-92749-0 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Byrd |first=Robert |title=The Senate of the Roman Republic |date=1995 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] Senate Document 103-23 |author-link=Robert Byrd}}
* {{Cite book |last=Everitt |first=Anthony |title=The rise of Rome: the making of the world's greatest empire |publisher=[[Random House]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4000-6663-6 |edition=1st |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Golden |first=Gregory K |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/842919750 |title=Crisis management during the Roman republic |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-05590-2 |oclc=842919750}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford classical dictionary |year=2012 |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last1=Hornblower |display-editors=etal |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |edition=4th |oclc=959667246 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ |ref={{harvid|OCD<sup>4</sup>|2012}} }}
** {{harvc |last1=Momigliano |first1=Arnaldo |last2=Lintott |first2=Andrew |c=''senatus consultum ultimum'' |in=OCD<sup>4</sup> |year=2012 |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lintott |first=Andrew |title=The Constitution of the Roman Republic |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999a |isbn=978-0-19-926108-6 }}
* [[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita libri|Ab Urbe Condita]]''.
* {{Cite book |last=Matyszak |first=Philip |title=Chronicle of the Roman Republic: the rulers of Ancient Rome from Romulus to Augustus |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-500-05121-4 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book | last=Momigliano | first=Arnaldo | last2=Cornell | first2=Tim | title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics | chapter=senate, regal and republican period | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=2016-03-07 | isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 | doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5818 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Lily Ross |url=https://archive.org/details/romanvotingassem00tayl |title=Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-472-08125-7 }}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Roman Kingdom}}

* {{Cite book |last=Cornell |first=Tim |title=The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) |date=1995 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-01596-7 |series=Routledge history of the ancient world |location=London; New York |oclc=31515793}}
* {{Cite book |last=Forsythe |first=Gary |title=A critical history of early Rome: from prehistory to the first Punic War |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-94029-1 |location=Berkeley |oclc=70728478}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lomas |first=Kathryn |title=The rise of Rome: from the Iron Age to the Punic Wars |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-65965-0 |edition=First Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |oclc=1015274849}}

{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Italy topics}}
{{Kings of Rome}}
{{Roman Constitution}}
{{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}}
{{Authority control}}

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