Editing River Clyde

{{Short description|River in Scotland}}
{{About|the river which flows through Glasgow|other uses|Clyde River (disambiguation){{!}}Clyde River|the ship|SS River Clyde}}
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{{More citations needed|date=September 2022}}
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{{Use British English|date=November 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox river
| name               = River Clyde
| name_native        = {{Native name|gd|Abhainn Chluaidh}}
| name_native_lang   = 
| name_other         = 
| name_etymology     = 
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
| image              = River Clyde in Glasgow - aerial - 2025-04-17 01.jpg
| image_size         = 288
| image_caption      = The River Clyde running through the city of Glasgow
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| mapframe-zoom      = 7
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->
| subdivision_type1  = Country
| subdivision_name1  = [[Scotland]]
| subdivision_type2  = State
| subdivision_name2  = [[United Kingdom]]
| subdivision_type3  = Council areas
| subdivision_name3  = [[South Lanarkshire]], [[North Lanarkshire]], [[Glasgow]], [[Renfrewshire]], [[West Dunbartonshire]], [[Inverclyde]], [[Argyll and Bute]]
| subdivision_type4  = City
| subdivision_name4  = [[Glasgow]]
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
| length_mi = 110
| length_ref = <ref>{{cite encyclopedia  | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/River-Clyde | title = River Clyde | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] | access-date = 2019-05-30 }}</ref> 
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<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
| source1            = [[Lowther Hills]] in [[South Lanarkshire]]
| source1_location   = [[South Lanarkshire]], Scotland
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|55|24|23.8|N|3|39|8.9|W|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation  = 
| mouth              = [[Firth of Clyde]]
| mouth_location     = [[Tail of the Bank]], between [[Greenock]] and Ardmore Point near [[Helensburgh]], Scotland
| mouth_coordinates  = {{coord|55|58|12|N|4|45|15|W|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation    = 
| progression        = 
| river_system       = 
| basin_size_mi2 = 1545
| tributaries_left   = 
| tributaries_right  = 
| custom_label       = Designation
| custom_data        = {{Designation list
  | embed = yes
  | designation1 = Ramsar
  | designation1_offname = Inner Clyde Estuary
  | designation1_date = 5 September 2000
  | designation1_number = 1036<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inner Clyde Estuary |website=[[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1036 |access-date=25 April 2018 }}</ref>
  }}
}}
The '''River Clyde''' ({{langx|gd|Abhainn Chluaidh}}, {{IPA|gd|ˈavɪɲ ˈxl̪ˠuəj|pron}}) is a river that flows into the [[Firth of Clyde]], in the west of Scotland. It is the ninth-longest river in the United Kingdom, and the third longest in Scotland after the [[River Tay]] and the [[River Spey]]. It runs through the city of [[Glasgow]].  The River Clyde [[estuary]] has an upper [[tidal limit]] located at the tidal weir next to [[Glasgow Green#Tidal Weir|Glasgow Green]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://canmore.org.uk/site/103494/glasgow-glasgow-green-tidal-weir|title=Glasgow, Glasgow Green, Tidal Weir &#124; Canmore|website=canmore.org.uk}}</ref>

Historically, it was important to the [[British Empire]] because of its role in [[shipbuilding]] and trade.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.historyhit.com/history-of-scottish-shipbuilding/|title=Clyde Built: How Scotland Became a Global Shipbuilding Hub|website=History Hit}}</ref>  To the [[Roman Britain|Romans]], it was {{lang|la|Clota}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trismegistos.org/place/19609|title=TM Places|website=www.trismegistos.org}}</ref> and in the early medieval [[Cumbric language]], it was known as {{lang|xcb|Clud}} or {{lang|xcb|Clut}}. It was central to the [[Kingdom of Strathclyde]] ({{lang|cy|Teyrnas Ystrad Clut}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Strathclyde|title=Strathclyde &#124; Celtic kingdom, Scotland, Britons &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The exact etymology of the river's name is unclear, though it is known that the name is ancient. In 50AD, the Egyptian mathematician, astronomer and geographer [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] wrote of the river as "Klōta",<ref>{{cite book |last1=McClure |first1=Edmund |title=British Place-names in Their Historical Setting |date=1910 |publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge |location=London |page=92 |language=en}}</ref> It was called {{lang|xcb|Clut}} or {{Lang|xcb|Clud}} by the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] and {{lang|la|Clota}} by the Romans. It is therefore likely that the name comes from a Celtic language—most likely [[Brittonic languages|Old British]]. But there is more than one old Celtic word that the river's name could plausibly derive from. One possible root is the [[Common Brittonic]] {{lang|cel|Clywwd}}, meaning 'loud' or 'loudly'.{{cn|date=December 2023}} More likely, the river was named after a local Celtic goddess, ''[[Clota|Clōta]]''. The goddess's name in turn derives from an older, [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] word meaning 'the strongly flowing one' or 'the holy cleanser'.

== History ==
[[File:Source of the River Clyde - geograph.org.uk - 5291765.jpg|thumb|The confluence of the Daer and Potrail Waters, which marks the beginning of the Clyde proper]]
[[File:Corra Linn in spate, 4 November.jpg|thumb|The [[Falls of Clyde (waterfalls)|Falls of Clyde]]]]
[[File:New Lanark (45324811821).jpg|thumb|The Clyde flowing past [[New Lanark]]]]
=== Prehistory ===
Humans have settled along the Clyde since the [[Paleolithic]] era. Artifacts dating from 12,000 BC have been found near [[Biggar, South Lanarkshire|Biggar]], a rural town close to the river. Biggar is home to an archeological site at which Britain's most ancient artifacts have been unearthed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Scotland's oldest home found at 14,000 years old|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/scotlands-most-ancient-home-found-14000-years-old-2509577|website=The Scotsman}}</ref> Prehistoric [[canoe]]s, used by ancient peoples for transport or trade, have been found in the river.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 December 2020|title=The Glasgow Story|url=https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSE00196}}</ref> There are a number of [[Mesolithic]] sites along the Clyde, especially in the Upper Clyde Valley.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vol 14 (2005): People and their monuments in the Upper Clyde Valley:a programme of survey, field walking and trial excavation in the environs of the Blackshouse Burn Neolithic enclosure, South Lanarkshire, 1989--99 {{!}} Scottish Archaeological Internet Reports|url=http://journals.socantscot.org/index.php/sair/issue/view/30|access-date=2021-07-28|website=journals.socantscot.org}}</ref> Permanent settlements and structures, including what is believed to be a temple to [[Lunar deity|moon gods]] in [[Govan]], were constructed in the area during the [[Neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]]s. [[Celts|Celtic]] art, language, and other aspects of culture began spreading to the area from the south during this period, and prehistoric artifacts suggest that, by around 1000 BCE, they had become the dominant cultural influences there.

=== Ancient history ===
Before the [[Roman legions|legions]] of the [[Roman Empire]] arrived in southern Scotland, the river and the area surrounding it had been settled by the Brythonic-speaking [[Damnonii]] tribe. It has been suggested that a Damnonii town called ''Cathures'' was located there and was the precursor to modern Glasgow.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 December 2020|title=The British Damnonii Tribe|url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainStrathclyde.htm}}</ref> The Damnonii tribe originally likely distributed power among individual chiefdoms, but at some point before 500 AD the political framework was a British culture of Welsh speakers that was politically unified and formed a centralised [[Realm|kingdom]] known as Alt Clut, representing the power centre at Dunbarton Rock.

None of the documentary or archaeological evidence from the period when the Roman legions arrived suggests that battles took place in the area. Therefore the Roman legions and Damnonii tribespeople are assumed to have been on good terms and to have co-operated by means of trade and the exchange of military information. The Romans did, however, construct several [[Roman fort|forts]] ({{lang|la|castra}}) in the area, notably on the banks of the Clyde. These include Castledykes, [[Bothwellhaugh Roman Fort|Bothwellhaugh]], and [[Old Kilpatrick]] and [[Bishopton, Renfrewshire|Bishopton]]. The Romans also constructed several roads along the river, both small ones and larger ones designed to be used as trade routes and to carry entire legions. The [[Antonine Wall]], which lies only a few miles from the river, was constructed later by the Romans as a means of defending the area against invasion by the [[Picts]]. Despite the strategic location and flat terrain of Glasgow and the surrounding Clyde basin, no Roman civilian settlement was ever constructed. Instead, the region may have functioned as a frontier zone between the Roman province known as [[Britannia Inferior]] and the [[Caledonians]], an indigenous group that was hostile to the Romans.

=== Kingdom of Strathclyde ===
Strathclyde was founded as an independent unified British kingdom, quite some centuries after the [[Roman occupation of Britain]]. The kingdom's core territory and much of its arable land was located around the Clyde basin in the area traditionally associated with Alt Clut. The kingdom was ruled from its original capital, the near impenetrable [[Alt Clut (fortress)|Alt Clut fortress]] (Dumbarton Rock), which was situated on the river and overlooked much of the estuary. This fortress was noteworthy enough to have been referred to at the time in several letters and poems about [[Sub-Roman Britain]], written by [[Gildas]] and others. Strathclyde remained a powerful kingdom during the early medieval period in Britain. It was also a reservoir of native [[Welsh culture]]: Its territory expanded along the Clyde Vae Southern Uplands and Ayrshire, and eventually southwards into Cumbria. 

In the [[7th century]], [[Saint Mungo]] established a new Christian community on the banks of the Clyde, potentially replacing Cathures if this is assumed to have occupied the same locus. This community was the beginnings of what would become the city of Glasgow. Several villages along the Clyde that were founded in or before this period have endured to this day, and have grown to become towns, including ''Llanerc'' ([[Lanark]]), ''Cadzow'' ([[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire|Hamilton]]), and ''Rhynfrwd'' ([[Renfrew]]). The fortress of Altclut fell in the [[Siege of Dumbarton]] of 870 AD, when a force of [[Norse-Irish]] raiders from the [[Kingdom of Dublin]] sacked it. After that, the kingdom, now politically weakened, possibly moved its capital to [[Govan]]. However, it never fully recovered, and in the [[11th century]] it was annexed by the [[Kingdom of Alba]]. It did however retain some autonomy under the Church of Glasgow, which became the secular successors of much of the territory when it was treated as a Principality of the Scottish Crown.

=== Medieval and early modern history ===
In the 13th century, Glasgow, then still a small town, built its first bridge over the river Clyde. This was an important step in its ability to eventually grow into a city. The establishment, in the 15th century, of both the [[University of Glasgow]] and the [[Archdiocese of Glasgow]], vastly increased the importance of the town within Scotland. From the [[early modern period]] onwards, the Clyde began to be used commercially as a trade route; trade between Glasgow and the rest of Europe became commonplace. In the centuries that followed, the Clyde became increasingly vital to both Scotland and Britain as a major trade route for exporting and importing resources.

===Port authority===
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title           = Clyde Navigation Act 1840
| type                  = Act
| parliament            = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title            = An Act for further deepening and improving the River Clyde, and enlarging the Harbour of Glasgow, and for constructing a Wet Dock in connexion with the said River and Harbour.
| year                  = 1840
| citation              = [[3 & 4 Vict.]] c. cxviii
| introduced_commons    = 
| introduced_lords      = 
| territorial_extent    = 
| royal_assent          = 4 August 1840
| commencement          = 
| expiry_date           = 
| repeal_date           = 
| amends                = 
| replaces              = 
| amendments            = 
| repealing_legislation = Clyde Navigation Consolidation Act 1858
| related_legislation   = 
| status                = repealed
| legislation_history   = 
| theyworkforyou        = 
| millbankhansard       = 
| original_text         = 
| revised_text          = 
| use_new_UK-LEG        = 
| UK-LEG_title          = 
| collapsed             = yes
}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title           = Clyde Navigation Consolidation Act 1858
| type                  = Act
| parliament            = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title            = 
| year                  = 1858
| citation              = [[21 & 22 Vict.]] c. cxlix
| introduced_commons    = 
| introduced_lords      = 
| territorial_extent    = 
| royal_assent          = 
| commencement          = 
| expiry_date           = 
| repeal_date           = 
| amends                = 
| replaces              = 
| amendments            = 
| repealing_legislation = 
| related_legislation   = 
| status                = 
| legislation_history   = 
| theyworkforyou        = 
| millbankhansard       = 
| original_text         = 
| revised_text          = 
| use_new_UK-LEG        = 
| UK-LEG_title          = 
| collapsed             = yes
}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title           = Clyde Port Authority Confirmation Act 1965
| type                  = Act
| parliament            = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title            = An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to the Clyde Port Authority.
| year                  = 1965
| citation              = [[List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1965|1965]] c. xlv
| introduced_commons    = 
| introduced_lords      = 
| territorial_extent    = 
| royal_assent          = 22 December 1965
| commencement          = 
| expiry_date           = 
| repeal_date           = 
| amends                = 
| replaces              = 
| amendments            = 
| repealing_legislation = 
| related_legislation   = 
| status                = 
| legislation_history   = 
| theyworkforyou        = 
| millbankhansard       = 
| original_text         = https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/1965/45/pdfs/ukla_19650045_en.pdf
| revised_text          = 
| use_new_UK-LEG        = 
| UK-LEG_title          = 
| collapsed             = yes
}}
The {{visible anchor|Clyde Navigation Trust}} was initially formed in 1840 by the '''{{visible anchor|Clyde Navigation Act 1840}}''' ([[3 & 4 Vict.]] c. cxviii), and then reconstituted under the '''{{visible anchor|Clyde Navigation Consolidation Act 1858}}''' ([[21 & 22 Vict.]] c. cxlix). The '''{{visible anchor|Clyde Port Authority Confirmation Act 1965}}''' (c. xlv) replaced the Clyde Navigation Trust with the [[Clyde Port Authority]] from 1 January 1966, which has since been renamed to 'Clydeport', and was privatisated in 1992. In 2003 it was acquired by [[Peel Holdings]].

== Course ==
[[File:Pendolino crossing the River Clyde at Lamington, 2005.jpg|thumb|A [[Pendolino]] train passing over the Clyde on the [[West Coast Main Line]]]]
[[File:Glasgow Tidal Weir - geograph.org.uk - 761267.jpg|thumb|right|The tidal weir at [[Glasgow Green]], which marks the upper limit of tidal water]]
The Clyde is formed by the confluence of two streams, the [[Daer Water]] (the headwaters of which are dammed to form the [[Daer Reservoir]]) and the Potrail Water. The [[Southern Upland Way]] crosses both streams before they meet at Watermeetings ({{gbmapping|NS953131}}) to form the River Clyde proper. At this point, the Clyde is only {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on|0}} from Tweed's Well, the source of the [[River Tweed]], and is about the same distance from [[Annanhead Hill]], the source of the [[River Annan]].<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-tweed-take-a-trip-on-a-river-flowing-with-history-5332911.html The Tweed: Take a trip on a river flowing with history], The Independent, 21 April 2007</ref> From there, it meanders northeastward before turning to the west, where its [[flood plain]] serve as the site of many major roads in the area, then reaches the town of [[Lanark]], where the late 17th- and early 18th-century industrialists [[David Dale]] and [[Robert Owen]] built mills and the model settlement of [[New Lanark]] on the banks of the Clyde. The mills harnessed the power of the [[Falls of Clyde (waterfalls)|Falls of Clyde]], the most spectacular of which is Cora Linn. A [[hydroelectric]] power station still generates 11MW of electricity there today, although the mills have now become a museum and [[World Heritage Site]].

The river then makes its way northwest, past  the towns of [[Wishaw]] to the east of it and [[Larkhall]] to the west of it. The river's surroundings here become increasingly suburban. Between the towns of [[Motherwell]] and [[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire|Hamilton]], the course of the river has been altered to create an artificial loch within [[Strathclyde Park]]. Part of the original course can still be seen: It lies between the island and the eastern shore of the loch. The river then flows through [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre]] and [[Bothwell]], where the ruined [[Bothwell Castle]] stands on a defensible [[promontory]].

As it flows past [[Uddingston]] and into the southeastern part of Glasgow, the river begins to widen, meandering  through [[Cambuslang]], [[Rutherglen]], and [[Dalmarnock]], and past [[Glasgow Green]]. From the [[Glasgow Green#Tidal Weir|Tidal Weir]] westwards, the river is [[tide|tidal]]: a mix of fresh and salt water.<ref name="Glasgow Tidal Wei">{{cite web | url = https://glasgow.gov.uk/tidalweir | title = Tidal Weir  | date =2017  | publisher = Glasgow City Council  | access-date = 2020-08-09}}</ref>

Over three centuries the river has been engineered and widened where it passes through [[Glasgow]] city centre and onwards towards [[Dumbarton]] and [[Greenock]] and the open sea.  Shipping and shipbuilding grow in Glasgow and its neighbouring industrial burghs of [[Govan]] and [[Partick]]; with the Clyde, including is lower reaches, becoming the centre of world shipbuilding. 

The river then flows west, out of Glasgow, past [[Renfrew]], under the [[Erskine Bridge]], and past [[Dumbarton]] on the northern shore and the sandbank at Ardmore Point between [[Cardross, Argyll|Cardross]] and [[Helensburgh]]. Opposite, on the southern shore, is the last remaining Lower Clyde shipyard, at [[Port Glasgow]]. The river continues on to [[Greenock]], where it reaches the [[Tail of the Bank]] as the river merges into the [[Firth of Clyde]]. Here at the mouth of the Clyde, there is currently a significant ecological problem of oxygen depletion in the water column.<ref>C.Michael Hogan. 2011. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Irish_Sea?topic=49523 ''Irish Sea''. eds. P.Saundry & C.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC]</ref>

== Industrial growth ==
[[File:John Atkinson Grimshaw - Shipping on the Clyde (1881).jpg|thumb|''Shipping on the Clyde'' in Glasgow, by [[John Atkinson Grimshaw]], 1881]]
[[File:Erskine Bridge from the air.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Clyde estuary]]
[[File:F930 BNS Leopold I (29611421284).jpg|thumb|A frigate passing under the [[Erskine Bridge]]]]
The economic prosperity that the Clyde made possible at the beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]] was due to the location of Glasgow, as a port facing the Americas. Tobacco and cotton trade began to drive this economic engine in the early 18th century. However, an obstacle to further economic growth soon became evident: the Clyde was too shallow for the largest ocean-going ships to navigate into it, so cargo had to be transferred, at [[Greenock]] or [[Port Glasgow]], to smaller ships that could sail upstream into Glasgow itself.

=== Deepening the Upper Clyde ===
In 1768, [[John Golborne]] advised that the river should be made narrower and the [[tidal scour|scour]] increased by constructing rubble jetties and dredging sandbanks and [[shoal]]s. Another obstacle to navigation that had to be solved was that the river divided into two shallow channels by the [[Milton Island#Dumbuck Ford|Dumbuck]] shoal near [[Dumbarton]]. After [[James Watt]]'s 1769 report describing this problem, a jetty was constructed at [[Longhaugh Point]] to block off the southern channel. This turned out to be insufficient to solve the problem, so in 1773, a training wall called the [[Lang Dyke]] was built on the Dumbuck shoal to stop water flowing over into the southern channel of the river.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, hundreds of jetties were built out from the banks of the river between Dumbuck and the [[Broomielaw]] quay in Glasgow proper. In some cases, this construction had the effect of deepening the river, because the increased flow of the newly constrained water wore away the river bottom. In other cases, [[dredging]] was required to deepen the river.<ref>{{cite EB1911 | wstitle = Glasgow | volume = 12 | pages = 84}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Riddell | first=John F | editor= Goodman, David| title= The European Cities and Technology Reader | year=1999 | publisher=Routledge in association with the Open University | location=London | isbn=0-415-20082-2 | pages=57–63 |chapter= Improving the Clyde: the eighteenth century phase
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Making the Clyde | work =Best Laid Schemes | url =http://www.bestlaidschemes.com/river/river-clyde/glasgow-made-the-clyde/clip-1/ | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20060118051129/http://www.bestlaidschemes.com/river/river-clyde/glasgow-made-the-clyde/clip-1/ | url-status =dead | archive-date =18 January 2006 | access-date =10 May 2007 | df =dmy-all }}</ref>

In the mid-19th century, engineers took on the task of dredging the Clyde much more extensively. They removed millions of cubic feet of [[silt]] to deepen and widen the channel. The major stumbling block encountered by that project was a massive [[intrusive rock|geological intrusion]] known as [[Elderslie Rock]].<ref name="EveningTimes1886">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2MI-AAAAIBAJ&sjid=eUwMAAAAIBAJ&pg=4013%2C5210378|title=Removal of Elderslie Rock|date=11 March 1886|work=The Glasgow Herald|access-date=8 April 2016}}</ref> Because that rock increased the project's difficulty, the work was not completed until the 1880s. Around this time, the Clyde became an important source of inspiration for artists, such as [[John Atkinson Grimshaw]] and [[James Kay (artist)|James Kay]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Macmillan|first=Duncan|title=Scottish Art in the 20th Century|year=1994|publisher=Mainstream Publishing|location=Edinburgh|pages=31–32|isbn=1-85158-630-X}}</ref> who were interested in painting scenes that depicted the new industrial era and the modern world.

=== Shipbuilding and marine engineering ===
[[File:Glasgow Shipyard- Shipbuilding in Wartime, Glasgow, Lanarkshire, Scotland, UK, 1944 D20847.jpg|thumbnail|A Glasgow shipyard in 1944]]
The completion of the dredging was well-timed, because the channel finally became navigable all the way from Greenock to Glasgow just when the steelwork industry had begun to grow in the city.   Shipbuilding replaced trade as the major activity on the river, and shipbuilding companies started rapidly establishing themselves there.  The Clyde soon gained a reputation for being the best location for shipbuilding in the [[British Empire]], and grew to become the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre. The term ''Clydebuilt'' became an industry symbol of high quality, and the river's shipyards were given contracts to build prestigious ocean-going liners, as well as warships. The [[RMS Queen Mary|''Queen Mary'']] and, in later years, the ''[[Queen Elizabeth 2]]'' were built in the town of [[Clydebank]].

Between 1712, when the [[Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company|Scott family's]] shipyard was built at Greenock, and the present day, over 25,000 ships have been built on the River Clyde, its firth, and its [[tributary|tributaries]], the [[River Kelvin]] and the [[River Cart]], by many boatyards, including those at [[Maryhill]] and [[Kirkintilloch]] on the [[Forth & Clyde Canal]], and [[Blackhill, Glasgow|Blackhill]] on the [[Monkland Canal]]. Over the same time period, it is estimated that more than 300 firms have engaged in shipbuilding on Clydeside, although probably at most 30 to 40 firms were operating at any given time.

The shipbuilding firms became household names on Clydeside, and even around the world to some extent. These included, among many others, [[John Brown & Company]] of Clydebank, [[William Denny and Brothers|Denny]] of Dumbarton, Scott of Greenock, [[Lithgows]] of Port Glasgow, Simon and [[Lobnitz]] of Renfrew, [[Alexander Stephen & Sons]] of Linthouse, [[Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company|Fairfield]] of Govan, [[A. & J. Inglis|Inglis]] of Pointhouse, [[Barclay Curle]] of Whiteinch, [[Charles Connell and Company|Connell]] and [[Yarrow Shipbuilders|Yarrow]] of Scotstoun. Almost as famous were the engineering firms that supplied the machinery needed to drive these vessels, including the boilers, pumps, and steering gear, including [[Rankin & Blackmore]], Hastie's and [[John G. Kincaid & Company|Kincaid]]'s of Greenock, Rowan's of Finnieston, [[Weir Group|Weir's]] of Cathcart, Howden's of Tradeston, and [[Doosan Babcock|Babcock & Wilcox]] of Renfrew.

One shipyard that was known as a 'Clyde' shipyard was not actually located on any of the Clyde's waterways: [[Alley & MacLellan]]'s Sentinel Works in Jessie Street at [[Polmadie]] is around half a mile distant from the Clyde. It is said to have constructed over 500 vessels, many of which were assembled and then 'knocked down' to kit form for despatch to a remote location, such as [[MV Chauncy Maples|''Chauncy Maples'']]. Clyde shipbuilding reached its peak in the years just before World War I: It is estimated that, in the year 1913 alone, over 370 ships were completed.

== Yachting and yachtbuilding ==
The first recorded Clyde racing yacht, a 46-ton cutter, was built by [[Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company|Scotts]] of Greenock in 1803.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shipbuilding |first1=Scotts' |title=Two Centuries of Shipbuilding by the Scotts at Greenock |date=2 June 2022 |publisher=DigiCat |page=67 |language=en}}</ref> The pre-eminent Scottish yacht designer William Fyfe did not start designing yachts until 1807. The first yacht club on the Clyde was the [[Northern Yacht Club]], which was established in 1824 and received its [[royal charter]] in 1831. The club was founded to organise and encourage the sport of yacht racing. By 1825, Scottish and Irish clubs were racing against each other on the Clyde. By the mid-19th century, yachting and yacht building had become widely popular.

The Clyde became famous worldwide for its significant contribution to yachting and yachtbuilding, and was the home of many notable designers: [[William Fife|William Fife III]], [[Alfred Mylne]], [[George Lennox Watson|G. L. Watson]], E. McGruer, and David Boyd. It was also home to many famous yacht yards.

[[Alexander Robertson & Sons|Robertson's Yard]] started repairing boats in a small workshop at Sandbank in 1876, and went on to become one of the foremost wooden boat builders on the Clyde. The 'golden years' of Robertson's yard were in the early 20th century, when they started building classic {{convert|12|and|15|m|ft|adj=on}} racing yachts. More than 55 boats were built by Robertson's in preparation for World War I, and the yard remained busy even during the Great Depression in the 1930s, as many wealthy businessmen developed a passion for yacht racing on the Clyde. During World War II, the yard was devoted to Admiralty work, producing large, high-speed [[Fairmile Marine]] motor boats (motor torpedo boats and motor gun boats). After the war, the yard built the successful one-class Loch Longs and two {{cvt|12|m}} challengers for the [[America's Cup]], designed by David Boyd: [[Sceptre (yacht)|''Sceptre'']] (1958)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishclassicyachtclub.org/register/Sceptre.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414170811/http://www.britishclassicyachtclub.org/register/Sceptre.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 April 2005 |title=Sceptre |publisher=britishclassicyachtclub.org |access-date=3 October 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and [[Sovereign (yacht)|''Sovereign'']] (1964). Because of difficult business conditions in 1965, the yard turned to doing GRP production work (mainly building Pipers and Etchells), and it closed in 1980. During its 104-year history, Robertson's Yard built 500 boats, many of which are still sailing today.

Two other notable boatyards on the Clyde were Silvers, which operated from 1910 to 1970, and McGruers, which operated from 1910 to 1973. They were situated on the [[Rosneath peninsula]] on the banks of the [[Gare Loch]], within half a mile of each other. McGruers built over 700 boats. Both yards built many widely-known and classic yachts, some of which are still sailing today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.silversmarine.co.uk/history.htm|website=Silvers marine|title=A brief history of Silvers Marine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clydeships.co.uk/list.php?a1PageSize=100&vessel=&official_number=&imo=&builder=185&builder_eng=&year_built=&launch_after=&launch_before=&role=&propulsion=&category=&owner=&port=&flag=&disposal=&lost=&a1Page=3|website=Clydeships.co.uk|title=Register of Scottish-built ships}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.helensburgh-heritage.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1269:colourful-history-of-mcgruers&catid=80:events&Itemid=515|website=Helensburgh heritage|title=Colourful history of McGruers}}</ref>

== Glasgow Humane Society ==
[[File:GHS lifeboat.jpg|thumb|Glasgow Humane Society patrols the River Clyde]]
The [[Glasgow Humane Society]] is responsible for the safety and preservation of life on Glasgow's waterways. Founded in 1790, it is the oldest lifesaving organisation in the world.

== Shipbuilding decline ==
[[File:HMS Daring at Scotstoun.JPG|thumb|Although diminished from its early 20th-century heights, [[shipbuilding]] remains an important industry on Clydeside. Shown is {{HMS|Daring|D32|6}} after launching]]

During and immediately after [[World War II]], the Clyde's  importance as a major industrial centre rapidly declined. During the war, the [[Luftwaffe]] singled out [[Clydebank Blitz|Clydebank for bombing]], and its buildings sustained heavy damage. In the immediate postwar period, the sharp reduction in warship orders was initially balanced by a prolonged boom in merchant shipbuilding. But by the end of the 1950s, other countries had begun to establish well-capitalised and highly productive shipbuilding centres that were able to outcompete many of the European shipbuilding yards. Several Clydeside yards booked a series of loss-making contracts in the hope of weathering the storm, but their unprofitable circumstances continued for too long, and by the mid-1960s they faced potential collapse.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Harris|first1=Hilary|title=Seaward the Great Ships|url=https://movingimage.nls.uk/film/2230|website=Moving Image Archive|publisher=National Library of Scotland|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref> [[Harland and Wolff]]'s Linthouse yard went under, and Fairfields of Govan faced bankruptcy. The government tried to limit the decline by creating the [[Upper Clyde Shipbuilders]] consortium, but the consortium became mired in controversy and collapsed in 1971. After that, [[James Callaghan]]'s Labour government implemented the [[Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act 1977]] (c. 3), which nationalised most of the Clyde's shipyards and grouped them with other major British shipyards, such as the firm [[British Shipbuilders]].

Today, two major shipyards on the Upper Clyde remain in operation. They are both owned by a naval defence contractor, [[BAE Systems Surface Ships]], which specialises in the design and construction of technologically advanced warships for the Royal Navy and other navies around the world. The two yards are the former [[Yarrow Shipbuilders|Yarrow]] yard at [[Scotstoun]], and [[Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company|Fairfields]] at Govan. In addition, the [[King George V Dock, Glasgow|King George V Dock]] is operated by the [[Clyde Port Authority]].  [[Ferguson Shipbuilders]], at Port Glasgow on the Lower Clyde, is now owned by the Scottish government. It is the last survivor of the many shipyards that once dominated Port Glasgow and Greenock. Its core business is now the construction of [[RORO|car ferries]].

== Regeneration ==
Major regeneration schemes include those in the 1970s  of forming [[Strathclyde Country Park]], lying between Hamilton and Motherwell, as part of motorway developments; the establishment of the Glasgow Garden Festival 1988 as part of the re-use of city docklands and associated industrial uses led by the Scottish Development Agency in the 1980s and early 90s. 
The [[Clyde Waterfront Regeneration]] project from 2008 aims to continue this approach of finding new uses  and attracting new investment, from Glasgow Green to Dumbarton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clydewaterfront.com/home.aspx |title=Clyde Waterfront Regeneration |date=16 June 2008 |publisher=Clyde Waterfront |accessdate=2008-09-25}}</ref> Residents and tourists come back to the riverside, especially in Glasgow, where vast former docklands have given way to housing and amenities on the banks in the city. Examples of public amenities and attractions include the [[Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre]], the [[Glasgow Science Centre]], and the [[Riverside Museum]].  Merchant shipping has largely moved west, closer to deeper water at Greenock, and 20 miles beyond that, south, to Hunterston. The river's water is increasingly used for recreation now that industrial uses have diminished.

The [[Clyde Walkway]], originating at Glasgow's Custom House Quay in the 1970s, and completed eastward in 2005, is a foot-and mountain-bike path that follows the course of the Clyde between Glasgow and [[New Lanark]]. [[Scottish Natural Heritage]] has designated it one of [[Scotland's Great Trails]].<ref name=sgt>{{cite web|url=http://www.scotlandsgreattrails.com/trails/|title=Trails|publisher=Scotland's Great Trails|access-date=2018-08-18}}</ref>

== Pollution ==
The British Geological Survey has identified and evaluated organic chemical pollutants in the sediment of the Clyde estuary.<ref name="Assessment of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in surface sediments of the Inner Clyde Estuary, UK">{{Cite journal |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/990/|title= Assessment of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in surface sediments of the Inner Clyde Estuary, U.K.|last1= Vane |first1=C.H. |last2=Harrison |first2=I. |last3=Kim |first3=A.W.|date= 2007|journal= Marine Pollution Bulletin|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.04.005|volume=54|issue= 8|pages=1301–1306|pmid= 17553529}}</ref><ref name="Chemical Signatures of the Anthropocene in the Clyde Estuary, UK: Sediment hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Pollution Records.">{{Cite journal |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/13301/1/Vane_et_al__Clyde_Anthropocene_2011.pdf | title= Chemical Signatures of the Anthropocene in the Clyde Estuary, UK: Sediment hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Pollution Records.| author= Vane, C.H., Chenery, S.R., Harrison, I., Kim, A.W., Moss-Hayes, V., Jones, D.G | date= 2011 |journal= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | doi=10.1098/rsta.2010.0298 | pmid=21282161 | volume=369 | issue= 1938| pages=1085–111| s2cid= 1480181}}</ref><ref name="Inventory of Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments of the Clyde Estuary, U.K.">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24258695 | title= Inventory of Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments of the Clyde Estuary, U.K.| author= Vane, C.H., Yun-Juan Ma, She-Jun Chen and Bi-Xian Mai. | date= 2010 |journal= Environmental Geochemistry & Health | volume= 32| issue= 1| pages= 13–21| doi= 10.1007/s10653-009-9261-6| pmid= 19347590| s2cid= 102768}}</ref> Surface sediments from the Glasgow reaches of the Clyde and [[Cuningar Loop|Cuningar]] to [[Milton, West Dunbartonshire|Milton]], were previously found to contain [[polyaromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAH) from 630&nbsp;μg/kg to 23,711&nbsp;μg/kg and [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] (PCB) in the range of 5 to 130.5&nbsp;μg/kg, which puts these sediments in the range classified as "non-toxic."<ref name="Assessment of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in surface sediments of the Inner Clyde Estuary, UK" /> However, a later study showed PCB concentrations as high as 5,797&nbsp;μg/kg, which is above published threshold levels for such  chlorinated compounds.<ref name="Chemical Signatures of the Anthropocene in the Clyde Estuary, UK: Sediment hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Pollution Records."/> A comparison between individual PAH compounds that have different thermal stabilities shows that the source of PAH pollution in the Clyde is different in different parts of the river. PAH in the inner Clyde (Cuningar to Milton) are from combustion sources (vehicle exhaust, coal burning), whereas PAH in the outer Clyde are from petroleum spills.<ref name="Assessment of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in surface sediments of the Inner Clyde Estuary, UK" /><ref name="Chemical Signatures of the Anthropocene in the Clyde Estuary, UK: Sediment hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Pollution Records."/>

The amount and type of sedimentary pollution in the Clyde reflects the area's industrial history.<ref name="Chemical Signatures of the Anthropocene in the Clyde Estuary, UK: Sediment hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Pollution Records."/> In order to assess how the nature of the pollutants has changed over time, from 1750 to 2002, seven sediment cores of one metre's depth were collected, and dated using lead concentrations and changing lead isotope ratios. The sediments showed a long but declining history of coal usage and, beginning around the 1950s, an increasing reliance on petroleum fuels. The decline of hydrocarbon pollution was followed by the appearance of PCB concentrations in the 1950s. Total PCB concentration levels peaked in the period 1965 to 1977, and declined beginning in the 1990s.<ref name="Chemical Signatures of the Anthropocene in the Clyde Estuary, UK: Sediment hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Pollution Records."/> The [[Polmadie]] [[Burn (landform)|Burn]], which flows into the Clyde at [[Richmond Park, Glasgow|Richmond Park]], remains heavily contaminated by [[hexavalent chromium]], to the extent it turned bright green in 2019,<ref name=flushed>{{cite web | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-47295613 | title = Harmful chemicals in green Glasgow burn to be flushed|work=BBC News |date=19 February 2019 |access-date=27 April 2021}}</ref> and yellow in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last=Suter |first=Ruth |date=April 26, 2021 |title=SEPA called to investigate 'toxic' Glasgow burn |url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/19260608.sepa-called-investigate-toxic-glasgow-burn/ |work=The Glasgow Times |location= |access-date=April 27, 2021}}</ref>

Although pollution from heavy industry and power generation has been decreasing, there is evidence that human-made pollution from new synthetic compounds in electrical products and textiles has been increasing.<ref name="Inventory of Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments of the Clyde Estuary, U.K."/> The amounts of 16 [[polybrominated diphenyl ether]] (PBDE) compounds used as flame retardants in televisions, computers, and furniture upholstery were measured in sediment cores collected from six sites between Princes Dock and Greenock. Comparison of the amounts of PBDE compounds revealed a decline in certain compounds, in line with the European ban on production of mixtures containing environmentally harmful PBDE with eight and nine [[bromine]] atoms. At the same time, there was an increase in the amounts of the less harmful mixture, composed of ten bromine atoms.<ref name="Inventory of Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments of the Clyde Estuary, U.K."/>

== Heat pumps ==
[[File:Heat Pump-QQ.jpg|thumb|Heat Pump-QQ]]
[[File:Energy Centre-QQ.jpg|thumb|Energy Centre]]
The River Clyde, or more accurately the Clyde Estuary, has significant potential as a heat source. The flow rate downstream alone is around 50 m<sup>3</sup>/s.<ref>{{cite web |title=NRFA Station Mean Flow Data for 84013 - Clyde at Daldowie |url=https://nrfa.ceh.ac.uk/data/station/meanflow/84013}}</ref> Reducing this temperature by 3&nbsp;°C would enable river heat pumps to extract 188.1 MW of heat. Since river heat pumps typically have an efficiency of 3.0, the heat deliverable is 1.5 times the river component. As a result, the estuary could deliver 282 MW of heat. The temperature of industrial heat pump delivery is typically 80&nbsp;°C. {{Citation needed|reason= Above citation makes no mention of river temperature|date=March 2023}}

In 2020, West Dunbartonshire Council deployed a [[heat pump#Water-source heat pump|river source heat pump]] scheme in the area called Queens Quay. It is the first large heat pump scheme in Britain to deliver at 80&nbsp;°C. The heat pumps were supplied by Star Refrigeration Ltd, who manufactured them in their Glasgow factory. The project was delivered by Vital Energi. 

== See also ==
* [[List of crossings of the River Clyde]]
* [[Bodinbo Island]]
* [[Bonnington Pavilion]]
* [[HMNB Clyde]]
* [[Red Clydeside]]
* [[Rivers of Great Britain]]
* [[Donald's Quay]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Millar, William John. ''The Clyde: from its source to the sea, its development as a navigable river....'' (1888) [https://archive.org/details/clydefromitssou00millgoog The Clyde: From Its Source to the Sea, Its Development as a Navigable River ...]
* Shields, John. ''Clyde built: a history of ship-building on the River Clyde'' (1949)
* Walker, Fred M. ''Song of the Clyde: a history of Clyde shipbuilding'' (1984), 233 pages
* Williamson, James. ''The Clyde passenger steamer'' (1904) [https://books.google.com/books?id=1UIEAAAAMAAJ full text]

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.clydeships.co.uk/  The data base of ships built on the Clyde and in the rest of Scotland – lists over 22,000 ships built on the Clyde]
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/27903472@N07/3120309164/ Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection on loan to Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, ''Shipping on the Clyde'' in Glasgow from Grimshaw, on Flickr.com]
* [http://www.clydewaterfront.com// Clyde Waterfront - Website]
* [http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/Residents/Environment/Rivers/RiverClyde River Clyde waterfront regeneration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051018103319/http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/Residents/Environment/Rivers/RiverClyde |date=18 October 2005 }}
* [http://www.erskine-bridge.blogspot.com/ Gallery of pictures of the River Clyde from the Erskine Bridge]
* [http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/airgli/airgli0102.htm Glasgow Digital Library: Glimpses of old Glasgow]
* [http://www.inglasgow.com/inglaig/gallery.asp?categoryid=18 In Glasgow Photo Gallery of pictures of the River Clyde] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223033535/http://www.inglasgow.com/inglaig/gallery.asp?categoryid=18 |date=23 February 2007 }}
* [http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/Residents/Parks_Outdoors/HeritageTrails/ClydeBridges/ Clyde Bridges Heritage Trail] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070919204347/http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/Residents/Parks_Outdoors/HeritageTrails/ClydeBridges/ |date=19 September 2007 }}
* [https://clydebankrestoration.blogspot.com// Clydebank Restoration Trust - Website]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8PK8VTj0mE Video footage and history of Bodinbo or Bottombow Island at Erskine]

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[[Category:River Clyde| ]]
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