Editing Rifle

{{More citations needed|date=May 2024}}
{{Short description|Common long range firearm}}
{{About|the long gun}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[File:Rifles at the National Firearms Museum.jpg|thumb|Common rifles from the mid-to-late 20th century of various types and configurations, displayed at the [[National Firearms Museum]] in [[Virginia]], United States. From top to bottom: [[FAMAS]], [[vz. 52 rifle]], [[CAR-15]], [[M40 rifle|M40]], [[SVD (rifle)|SVD rifle]], [[RK 62]], and [[Type 56]].]]
A '''rifle''' is a [[long gun|long-barreled]] [[firearm]] designed for accurate [[shooting]] and higher [[stopping power]], with a [[gun barrel|barrel]] that has a helical or spiralling pattern of grooves ([[rifling]]) cut into the bore wall.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Friedrich Engels. The History of the Rifle. Ende Oktober 1860 bis 18. Januar 1861 |date=1984-12-31 |work=Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels: Werke, Artikel, Entwürfe, Oktober 1859 bis Dezember 1860 |pages=1008–1010 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783050076119-127 |access-date=2024-05-25 |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783050076119-127 |isbn=978-3-05-007611-9}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Friedrich Engels. On Rifled Cannon. 1. Hälfte März 1860 |date=1984-12-31 |work=Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels: Werke, Artikel, Entwürfe, Oktober 1859 bis Dezember 1860 |pages=898–901 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783050076119-093 |access-date=2024-05-25 |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783050076119-093 |isbn=978-3-05-007611-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shafer |first=Matt |date=2023 |title=Rifle Theory: Engels and the History of Technology |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00905917231155277 |journal=Political Theory |language=en |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=597–617 |doi=10.1177/00905917231155277 |issn=0090-5917}}</ref> In keeping with their focus on accuracy,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hardcastle |first=J. H. |date=1912 |title=The Rifle: A Weapon of Precision |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03071841209420035 |journal=Royal United Services Institution. Journal |language=en |volume=56 |issue=413 |pages=973–984 |doi=10.1080/03071841209420035 |issn=0035-9289}}</ref> rifles are typically designed to be held with both hands and braced firmly against the shooter's shoulder via a [[buttstock]] for stability during shooting.  Rifles are used in [[war]]fare, [[law enforcement]], [[hunting]] and [[shooting sports|target shooting sports]].

The invention of rifling separated such firearms from the earlier [[smoothbore]] weapons (e.g., [[arquebus]]es, [[musket]]s, and other [[long guns]]), greatly elevating their accuracy and general effectiveness. The raised areas of a barrel's rifling are called ''lands''; they make contact with and exert [[torque]] on the projectile as it moves down the bore, imparting a spin.  When the projectile leaves the barrel, this spin persists and lends [[gyroscopic]] stability to the projectile due to [[conservation of angular momentum]], increasing accuracy and hence effective range. The class of firearm was originally termed the '''''rifled gun''''', with the [[verb]] ''to rifle'' referring to the early modern [[machining]] process of creating grooves with cutting tools. By the 20th century, the weapon had become so common that the modern noun ''rifle'' is now often used for any log-shaped handheld ranged weapon designed for well-aimed discharge activated by a [[trigger (firearms)|trigger]].

Like all typical firearms, a rifle's [[projectile]] ([[bullet]]) is propelled by the contained [[deflagration]] of a combustible [[propellant]] compound (originally [[black powder]] and now [[nitrocellulose]] and other [[smokeless powder]]s), although other propulsive means are used, such as [[compressed air]] in [[air rifle]]s, which are popular for [[pest control|vermin control]], [[game (hunting)|small game]] hunting, [[shooting at the Summer Olympics|competitive target shooting]] and casual [[shooting sport|sport shooting]] (''[[plinking]]'').

==Terminology==

[[File:Garandparts.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Names of parts of the [[M1 Garand]] rifle, World War II era, from US Army field manual]]
Historically, rifles only fired a single projectile with each squeeze of the trigger. Modern rifles are commonly classified as single-shot, bolt-action, semi-automatic, or automatic.  Single-shot, bolt-action, and semi-automatic rifles are limited by their designs to fire a single shot for each trigger pull.  Only automatic rifles are capable of firing more than one round per trigger squeeze; however, some automatic rifles are limited to fixed bursts of two, three, or more rounds per squeeze.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Modern [[automatic rifle]]s overlap to some extent in design and function with [[machine gun]]s. In fact, many light machine guns are adaptations of existing automatic rifle designs, such as the [[RPK]] and [[M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle]]. A military's light machine guns are typically chambered for the same caliber ammunition as its service rifles. Generally, the difference between an automatic rifle and a machine gun comes down to weight, cooling system, and ammunition feed system.  Rifles, with their relatively lighter components (which overheat quickly) and smaller capacity [[Magazine (firearms)|magazines]], are incapable of sustained automatic fire in the way that machine guns are; they trade this capability in favor of increased mobility. Modern military rifles are fed by magazines, while machine guns are generally [[Belt (firearms)|belt-fed]]. Many machine guns allow the operator to quickly exchange barrels in order to prevent overheating, whereas rifles generally do not. Most machine guns fire from an [[open bolt]] in order to reduce the danger of "[[Cooking off|cook-off]]", while almost all rifles fire from a [[closed bolt]] for accuracy. Machine guns are often crewed by more than one soldier; the rifle is an individual weapon.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

The term "rifle" is sometimes used to describe larger rifled [[crew-served weapon]]s firing explosive shells, for example, [[recoilless rifle]]s and [[naval rifle]]s.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

In many works of fiction "rifle" refers to any weapon that has a [[stock (firearm)|stock]] and is shouldered before firing, even if the weapon is not rifled or does not fire solid projectiles (e.g. "laser rifle").{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

==Historical overview==
[[File:Marlin 35 rem 2.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Rifling in a [[.35 Remington]] microgroove rifled barrel]]
[[File:Girdled bullet and twin rifle groove.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Girdled bullet and twin rifle groove of the [[Brunswick rifle]], mid-19th century]]
The origins of rifling are difficult to trace, but some of the earliest European experiments seem to have been carried out during the 15th century. [[Archery|Archers]] had long realized that a twist added to the tail feathers of their arrows gave them greater accuracy.<ref name=":2" /> Early [[musket]]s produced large quantities of smoke and soot, which had to be cleaned from the action and bore of the musket frequently, either through the action of repeated bore scrubbing, or a deliberate attempt to create "soot grooves" that would allow for more shots to be fired from the firearm. 

Some of the earliest examples of European grooved gun barrels were reportedly manufactured during 1440, and further developed by [[Gaspard Kollner]] of Vienna {{Circa|1498}}, although other scholars allege they were a joint effort between Kollner and Augustus Kotter of [[Nuremberg]] {{Circa|1520}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finedictionary.com/rifle.html |title=Rifle Definition, Meaning & Usage |publisher=FineDictionary.com |date=2012-02-09 |accessdate=2022-03-03}}</ref><ref>Greener, William Wellington (1885). ''The Gun and Its Development: With Notes on Shooting'', pp. 50 and 620. Cassell Books.</ref> Military commanders preferred smoothbore weapons for [[infantry]] use because rifles were much more prone to problems due to powder fouling the barrel and because they took longer to reload and fire than muskets.{{citation needed|date = June 2015}}

Rifles were created as an improvement in the accuracy of smoothbore muskets. In the early 18th century, [[Benjamin Robins]], an English mathematician, realized that an elongated bullet would retain the momentum and kinetic energy of a musket ball, but would slice through the air with greater ease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=<!--No by-line.--> |date=April 1860 |title=The How and Why of Long Shots and Straight Shots |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/68317/pg68317-images.html#The_How_and_Why_of_Long_Shots_and_Straight_Shots |journal=[[Cornhill Magazine]] |publisher=United Kingdom: Smith, Elder and Co. |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=505–512 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104021518/http://www.researchpress.co.uk/longrange/longshots.htm |archive-date=4 November 2010 |via=Updated URL provided for Project Gutenberg}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> The black powder used in early muzzle-loading rifles quickly fouled the barrel, making loading slower and more difficult. The greater range of the rifle was considered to be of little practical use since the smoke from black powder quickly obscured the battlefield and made it almost impossible to aim the weapon from a distance. Since musketeers could not afford to take the time to stop and clean their barrels in the middle of a battle, rifles were limited to use by [[Marksman|sharpshooters]] and non-military uses like hunting.{{citation needed|date = June 2015}}

[[Musket]]s were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using spherical ammunition fired at relatively low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of precision manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle, the musket ball was a loose fit in the barrel. Consequently, on firing the ball bounced off the sides of the barrel when fired and the final direction on leaving the muzzle was unpredictable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stanage|first=Justin|date=2000|title=The Rifle-Musket vs. The Smoothbore Musket, a Comparison of the Effectiveness of the Two Types of Weapons Primarily at Short Ranges.|url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/iusburj/article/view/19841|journal=IU South Bend Undergraduate Research Journal|volume=3|pages=84–89}}</ref>

The performance of early muskets defined the style of warfare at the time.  Due to the lack of accuracy, soldiers were deployed in long lines (thus [[line infantry]]) to fire at the opposing forces. Precise aim was thus not necessary to hit an opponent. Muskets were used for comparatively rapid, imprecisely aimed volley fire, and the average soldier could be easily trained to use them.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

In the [[Province of Pennsylvania]] USA, one of the most successful early rifles, the [[long rifle]], was developed over the course of the 18th century.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Reichmann |first=Felix |date=1945 |title=The Pennsylvania Rifle: A Social Interpretation of Changing Military Techniques |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20087726 |journal=The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=3–14 |jstor=20087726 |issn=0031-4587}}</ref> Compared to the more common [[Brown Bess]], these Pennsylvania and Kentucky rifles had a tighter bore with no space between bullet and barrel, and still used balls instead of conical bullets. The balls the long rifle used were smaller, allowing the production of more rounds for a given amount of lead. These rifles also had longer barrels, allowing more accuracy, which were rifled with a [[helix|helical]] groove. These first started appearing sometime before 1740, one early example being made by Jacob Dickert, a German immigrant. By 1750 there were a number of such manufacturers in the area. The longer barrel was a departure by local gunsmiths from their German roots, allowing bullets to achieve a higher speed (as the burning gunpowder was contained longer) before emerging from the barrel.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Clark |first1=Brandon Louis |date=2011 |title=Effect of Barrel Length on the Muzzle Velocity and Report from a ''Mosin-Nagant'' 7.62x54R Rifle |type=Undergraduate honors thesis |publisher=University of South Florida |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/honors_et/8 |access-date=2023-04-16}}</ref>

During the 1700s (18th century), colonial settlers, particularly those immigrating from Germany and Switzerland, adapted and improved upon their European rifles.<ref name=":3" /> The improved long rifles were used for precise shooting, aiming, and firing at individual targets, instead of the musket's use for imprecise fire.<ref name="npr.org">{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=98578531|title=Book Explores History of the American Rifle|newspaper=NPR.org|access-date=2017-02-11}}</ref>  During the American Revolution, the colonist troops favoured these more accurate rifles while their use was resisted by the British and Hessian troops.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reichmann |first=Felix |date=1945 |title=The Pennsylvania Rifle: A Social Interpretation of Changing Military Techniques. |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20087726 |journal=The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=3–14 |doi= 10.5215/pennmaghistbio.141.1.0069|jstor=20087726 |issn=0031-4587 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525000000/http://www.jstor.org/stable/20087726 |archive-date=May 25, 2024 |via=Newly Available and Processed Collections at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania}} [http://dx.doi.org/10.5215/pennmaghistbio.141.1.0069 Alt URL]</ref>

[[File:Henry_Rifle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A [[Henry rifle]], the first successful [[lever action]] [[repeating rifle]]]]

By the time of the [[American Revolutionary War]], these rifles were commonly used by frontiersmen, and Congress authorized the establishment of ten companies of riflemen. One of the most critical units was [[Morgan's Riflemen]], led by [[Daniel Morgan]]. This sharpshooting unit eventually proved itself integral to the [[Battle of Saratoga]], and in the southern states where General Morgan commanded as well. Taking advantage of the rifle's improved accuracy, Morgan's sharpshooters picked off cannoneers and officers, reducing the impact of enemy artillery.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.revolutionarywararchives.org/longrifle.html| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070329165816/http://www.revolutionarywararchives.org/longrifle.html| url-status = usurped| archive-date = 29 March 2007| title = Those Tall American Patriots and Their Long Rifles}}</ref> This kind of advantage was considered pivotal in many battles, such as [[The Battle of Cowpens|the battles of Cowpens]], Saratoga, and [[Battle of King's Mountain|King's Mountain]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.breathittcounty.com/01-08023.html| title = A Short History Of The Kentucky Long Rifle}}</ref>

Later during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British [[Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)|95th Regiment (Green Jackets)]] and [[60th Regiment of Foot|60th Regiment, (Royal American)]], as well as sharpshooters and riflemen during the [[War of 1812]], used the rifle to great effect during skirmishing.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} Because of a slower loading time than a musket, they were not adopted by the whole army. Since rifles were used by sharpshooters who did not routinely fire over other men's shoulders, long length was not required to avoid the forward line. A shorter length made a handier weapon in which tight-fitting balls did not have to be rammed so far down the barrel.<ref>{{cite web|title=Round Balls In Fast Twist Rifles {{!}} White Muzzleloading|url=http://whitemuzzleloading.com/article.php?id=27&title=Round+Balls+In+Fast+Twist+Rifles|access-date=2021-03-15|website=whitemuzzleloading.com}}</ref>

The invention of the [[Minié ball]] in the 1840s solved the slow loading problem, and in the 1850s and 1860s rifles quickly replaced muskets on the battlefield. Many rifles, often referred to as [[rifled musket]]s, were very similar to the muskets they replaced, but the military also experimented with other designs. [[Breech-loading weapon]]s proved to have a much faster rate of fire than muzzleloaders, causing military forces to abandon muzzle loaders in favor of breech-loading designs in the late 1860s. In the later part of the 19th century, rifles were generally single-shot, breech-loading guns, designed for aimed, discretionary fire by individual soldiers. Then, as now, rifles had a stock, either fixed or folding, to be braced against the shoulder when firing.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

The adoption of [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridges]] and breech-loading in the 19th century was concurrent with the general adoption of rifles. In the early part of the 20th century, soldiers were trained to shoot accurately over long ranges with high-powered cartridges. World War I [[Lee–Enfield]] rifles (among others) were equipped with long-range 'volley sights' for massed firing at ranges of up to {{convert|1.6|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}. Individual shots were unlikely to hit, but a platoon firing repeatedly could produce a 'beaten ground' effect similar to light artillery or machine guns.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mull |first=Teresa |title=Setting the Sights on the British Lee Metford and Lee Enfield Volley Sight |url=https://gunpowdermagazine.com/setting-the-sights-on-the-british-lee-metford-and-lee-enfield-volley-sight/ |access-date=2025-01-06 |website=Gunpowder Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

Currently, rifles are the most common firearm in general use for [[hunting]] (with the exception of bird hunting, where [[shotguns]] are favored). Rifles derived from military designs have long been popular with civilian shooters.<ref>{{cite book|title=Shooter's Bible Guide to Tactical Firearms: A Comprehensive Guide to Precision Rifles and Long-Range Shooting Gear| first= Robert A. |last=Sadowski|publisher=Skyhorse |year= 2015|isbn =9781632209351}}</ref>

==19th century==

{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header_align = left/right/center | header= | footer = (left) "Premier Consul" model [[flintlock]] [[carbine]] made by [[Jean Lepage]] and named for the [[French Consulate|First Consul]] [[Napoléon Bonaparte]], {{Circa|1800}}; (right) rifling of the Lepage carbine.| footer_align = left | image1 = Lepage silex gun dite du Premier Consul circa 1800.jpg | width1 = 350| caption1 = |  image2 =Rifling of Lepage carbine circa 1800.jpg | width2 = 69 | caption2 = }}
During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] the British army established several experimental units known as "Rifles", armed with the [[Baker rifle]]. These Rifle Regiments were deployed as skirmishers during the [[Peninsular War]] of 1807 to 1814 in Spain and Portugal, and proved more effective than skirmishers armed with muskets due to their accuracy and long range.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

In Central Asia, Uzbeks, Kazakhs and Tadjiks in the course of the 19th century adopted a form of large-calibre rifle: the ''{{ill|karamultuk|ru|karamultuk}}'' or ''karamultyk''.<ref>
{{cite web
|last1                = Brovin
|first1               = Vladimir
|date                 = 7 February 2017
|title                = Karamul'tuk i dzhezajl - dikarskie mushkety, kotorye pobedili Britaniju
|script-title         = ru:Карамультук и джезайл — дикарские мушкеты, которые победили Британию
|url                = https://disgustingmen.com/history/jezail-musket-karamultuk
|archive-url          = https://web.archive.org/web/20190921194305/https://disgustingmen.com/history/jezail-musket-karamultuk
|url-status           = dead
|archive-date         = 2019-09-21
|language             = ru
|publisher            = Disgusting Men
|access-date          = 12 January 2025
|quote                = Карамультук и близкий ему джезайл — это конкретный и некогда очень эффективный вид мушкетов. Британские имперские войска вряд ли посчитали бы такие ружья в руках врага «нелепыми» или забавными.
}}
</ref>

===Muzzle-loading===

{{Main article|Muzzleloader|Muzzle-loading rifle}}

Gradually, rifles appeared with cylindrical barrels cut with helical grooves, the surfaces between the grooves being "lands". The innovation was shortly followed by the mass adoption of [[breech-loading weapon]]s, as it was not practical to push an overbore bullet down through a rifled barrel. The dirt and grime from prior shots were pushed down ahead of a tight bullet or ball (which may have been a looser fit in the clean barrel before the first shot), and loading was far more difficult, as the lead had to be deformed to go down in the first place, reducing the accuracy due to deformation. Several systems were tried to deal with the problem, usually by resorting to an under-bore bullet that expanded upon firing.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/bullet
 |title=Bullet |date=April 9, 2020 |publisher=Britannica |access-date=September 17, 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Delvigne system.jpg|thumb|The method developed by [[Henri-Gustave Delvigne|Delvigne]] for his rifles, with the lead bullet being supported by a wooden sabot at its base.]]

The original muzzle-loading rifle, with a closely fitting ball to take the rifling grooves, was loaded with difficulty, particularly when foul, and for this reason was not generally used for military purposes. With the advent of rifling, the bullet itself did not initially change but was wrapped in a greased, cloth patch to grip the rifling grooves.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2010/05/rifling-expanding-bullets-and-minie.html|date=16 May 2010|title=Rifling: Expanding Bullets and the Minie Rifle|publisher=Firearms History, Technology & Development|access-date=23 October 2021|quote=The solution for hundreds of years was to wrap the bullet in a greased cloth patch and ram it down the barrel}}</ref>

The first half of the 19th century saw a distinct change in the shape and function of the bullet. In 1826 [[Henri-Gustave Delvigne]], a French [[infantry]] officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which a spherical bullet was rammed down until it caught the rifling grooves. Delvigne's method, however, deformed the bullet and was inaccurate.<ref>{{cite web|first=Tom |last=McHale |date=2017-02-03|title=Reloading: Bullet Materials and Shapes|url=https://www.gunsamerica.com/digest/reloading-bullet-materials-shapes/|access-date=2021-03-15|website=GunsAmerica Digest}}</ref>

Soon after, [[Louis-Etienne de Thouvenin]] invented the [[Carabine à tige]], which had a stem at the bottom of the barrel that would deform and expand the base of the bullet when rammed, therefore enabling accurate contact with the rifling. However, the area around the stem clogged and got dirty easily.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

====Minié system – the "rifled musket"====

{{Main article|Minié ball|Minié rifle}}
[[File:Japanese Minie rifle(Mirror).jpg|300px|thumb|British-made [[Minié rifle]] used in Japan during the [[Boshin war]] (1868–1869).]]

The famous Minié system, invented by French Army Captain [[Claude-Étienne Minié]], relied on a conical bullet (known as a Minié ball) with a hollow skirt at the base of the bullet.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} When fired, the skirt would expand from the pressure of the exploding charge and grip the rifling as the round was fired. The better seal gave more power, as less gas escaped past the bullet. Also, for the same [[gauge (bore diameter)|bore]] ([[caliber]]) diameter a long bullet was heavier than a round ball. The extra grip also spun the bullet more consistently, which increased the range from about 50 yards for a smoothbore musket to about 300 yards for a rifle using the Minié system. The expanding skirt of the Minié ball also solved the problem that earlier tight-fitting bullets were difficult to load as black powder residue fouled the inside of the barrel. The Minié system allowed conical bullets to be loaded into rifles just as quickly as round balls in smooth bores, which allowed [[rifled musket|rifle muskets]] to replace muskets on the battlefield.

Minié system rifles, notably the [[Springfield Model 1861|U.S. Springfield]] and the [[Pattern 1853 Enfield|British Enfield]] of the early 1860s featured prominently in the [[U.S. Civil War]] of 1861-1865, due to their enhanced power and accuracy.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} At the time of the [[Crimean War]] (1853-1856) the Minié rifle was considered the "best in military use".<ref name=":2" />

Over the 19th century, bullet design continued to evolve, the bullets becoming gradually smaller and lighter. By 1910 the standard blunt-nosed bullet had been replaced by the pointed, [[Spitzer (bullet)|'spitzer' bullet]], an innovation that increased range and penetration. [[Cartridge (weaponry)|Cartridge]] design evolved from simple paper tubes containing [[black powder]] and shot, to sealed brass cases with integral [[Primer (firearm)|primers]] for ignition, and black powder was replaced by [[cordite]], and then by other nitro-cellulose-based [[smokeless powder]] mixtures, propelling bullets to higher velocities than before.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The increased velocity meant that new problems arose, and so bullets went from using soft lead to harder lead, then to [[full metal jacket bullet|copper-jacketed]], in order to better engage the spiral grooves without "stripping" them in the same way that a screw or bolt thread would be stripped if subjected to extreme forces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Soft Cast Bullets, Jacketed Bullets & Copper Coated Bullets {{!}} Shop Black Powder Cast Bullets at Buffalo Arms |url=https://www.buffaloarms.com/reloading-supplies-accessories/jacketed-44-lead-copper-coated-bullets.html |access-date=2021-03-15|website=www.buffaloarms.com}}</ref>

===Breech loading===

{{Main article|Breechloader}}
[[File:Chassepot-p1000739.jpg|thumb|Loading mechanism of the [[Chassepot]]]]

From 1836, breech-loading rifles were introduced with the German Dreyse [[Needle gun]], followed by the French [[Tabatière rifle|Tabatière]] in 1857, by the British Calisher and Terry carbine made in Birmingham and later in 1864 by the better known British [[Snider–Enfield]]. Primitive chamber-locking mechanisms were soon replaced by [[bolt-action]] mechanisms, exemplified by the French [[Chassepot]] in 1866. Breech-loading was to have a major impact on warfare, as breech-loading rifles can be fired at a rate many times faster than muzzle-loaded rifles and - significantly - can be loaded from a prone rather than standing position. Firing prone (i.e., lying down) is more accurate than firing from a standing position, and a prone rifleman presents a much smaller target than a standing soldier. The higher accuracy and range, combined with reduced vulnerability generally benefited defense, while making the traditional battle between lines of standing and volleying infantrymen obsolete.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

===Repeating rifle===
{{main|Repeating rifle}}

The mid-century drive for increased rates of fire led to the development of the first [[repeating rifle]]s, a type of breechloader that can load multiple cartridges ahead of time to be stored on the weapon itself. This allowed for a continuous burst of fire during which the user could mechanically cycle in unused rounds without stopping to reload. Various enduring mechanisms would be invented, including [[bolt action]], [[List of pump action rifles|pump action]], [[lever action]], and [[revolver|revolving]].

====Magazine-fed rifle====
Bolt, lever, and pump actions all allowed for the incorporation of a [[magazine (firearms)|magazine]] to store pre-loaded shells. The [[Spencer repeating rifle]] was a breech-loading, manually-operated lever action rifle that was adopted by the United States. Over 20,000 were used during the American Civil War. It was the first adoption of a removable [[magazine (firearms)|magazine]]-fed infantry rifle. The design was completed by [[Christopher Miner Spencer|Christopher Spencer]] in 1860.<ref>{{cite book |title=Almanac of American Military History | author= Spencer Tucker |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year= 2013 |page= 1028 |isbn=978-1598845303}}</ref> It used copper [[rimfire ammunition|rimfire cartridges]] stored in a removable seven-round tube magazine, enabling the rounds to be fired one after another. A rifleman could exchange an emptied magazine for another.<ref>
{{cite web |title=Back to Basics: Center-fire Cartridge Cases |url=https://www.americanrifleman.org/articles/2017/11/1/back-to-basics-center-fire-cartridge-cases/ |access-date=2021-03-15 |website=www.americanrifleman.org}}</ref>
The [[Winchester rifle|Winchester repeating rifle]] was invented in 1866 as a lever action.<ref name="npr.org"/>

====Revolving rifle====
{{further information|Revolver|Repeating rifle#Revolver action}}

[[File:Colt Roots British Carbine.JPG|thumb|300px|Colt Model 1855 Carbine]]
Revolving rifles were an attempt to increase the rate of fire of rifles by combining them with the revolving firing mechanism that had been developed earlier for revolving pistols. Colt began experimenting with revolving rifles in the early-19th century, and other manufacturers like Remington later experimented with them as well. The [[Colt revolving rifle|Colt Revolving Rifle Model 1855]], an early repeating rifle, became the first to be used by the U.S. Government and saw some limited action during the [[American Civil War]]. Revolvers, both rifles and pistols, tend to spray fragments of metal from the front of the cylinder.<ref>{{cite web |title=Revolving Rifles |url=https://www.forgottenweapons.com/category/rifles/revolving-rifle/ |access-date=2021-03-15|website=Forgotten Weapons}}</ref>

==Modern==

[[File:Vz24.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Czechoslovak rifle vz. 24]]

In the [[Russo-Japanese War]] of 1904–1905, military observers from Europe and the United States witnessed a major conflict fought with high velocity [[Bolt action|bolt-action rifles]] firing [[smokeless powder]].<ref name=Keegan1999/>{{rp|179,229,230}}<ref name=Menning1992/>{{rp|104,105}} The [[Battle of Mukden]] fought in 1905 consisted of nearly 343,000 Russian troops against over 281,000 Japanese troops. The Russian [[Mosin–Nagant]] Model 1891 in 7.62&nbsp;mm was pitted against the Japanese [[Type 30 rifle|Arisaka Type 30]] bolt-action rifle in 6.5&nbsp;mm;<ref name=Menning1992/>{{rp|104,105,155}} both had velocities well over {{convert|2,000|ft/s|m/s}}.<ref name=Menning1992/>{{rp|187}}<ref name=MRJapan2006/>{{rp|28,29}}

Until the late 19th century rifles tended to be very long, some [[long rifle]]s reaching approximately {{cvt|2|m|ft|0}} in length to maximize accuracy, making early rifles impractical for use by cavalry. However, following the advent of more powerful smokeless powder, a shorter barrel did not impair accuracy as much. As a result, cavalry saw limited, but noteworthy, usage in 20th-century conflicts.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

The advent of the massed, rapid firepower of the [[machine gun]], [[submachine gun]] and rifled [[artillery]] was so quick as to outstrip the development of any way to attack a [[Trench warfare|trench]] defended by riflemen and machine gunners. The carnage of World War I was perhaps the greatest vindication and vilification of the rifle as a military weapon.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

The [[M1 Garand]] was a semi-automatic rapid-fire rifle developed for modern warfare use in World War II.<ref name="npr.org"/>

[[File:Hunting rifle 02.png|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Remington Model 700]] in [[.30-06 Springfield]] with mounted [[telescopic sight]] and [[suppressor]]]]

During and after World War II it became accepted that most infantry engagements occurred at ranges of less than 300&nbsp;m; the range and power of the large full-powered rifle cartridges were "overkill", requiring weapons heavier than otherwise necessary. This led to Germany's development of the [[7.92×33mm|7.92×33mm {{lang|de|cat=no|Kurz}}]] (short) round, the [[Sturmgewehr 44|MKb-42]], and ultimately, the [[assault rifle]]. Today, an infantryman's rifle is optimized for ranges of 300&nbsp;m or less, and soldiers are trained to deliver individual rounds or bursts of fire within these distances. Typically, the application of accurate, long-range fire is the domain of the [[Designated marksman|marksman]] and the [[sniper]] in warfare, and of enthusiastic target shooters in peacetime. The modern [[marksman rifle]] and [[sniper rifle]] are usually capable of accuracy better than 0.3 [[Radian#SI multiples|mrad]] at 100 yards (1 [[minute of arc|arcminute]]).{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

==3D printed rifle==

{{Main article|Grizzly (.22-caliber rifle)}}

The [[Grizzly (.22-caliber rifle)|Grizzly]] is a 3D printed .22-caliber rifle created around August 2013. It was created using a [[Stratasys]] Dimension 1200es printer.<ref name="nbcnews.com"/> It was created by a Canadian only known by the pseudonym "Matthew" who told The Verge that he was in his late 20s, and his main job was making tools for the construction industry.<ref name="nbcnews.com">[http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/first-3-d-printed-rifle-fires-bullet-then-breaks-f8C10752930 First 3-D printed rifle fires bullet, then breaks], NBC News, 26 July 2013. ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910200002/http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/first-3-d-printed-rifle-fires-bullet-then-breaks-f8C10752930 |date=10 September 2014 }})</ref><ref name="theverge.com">[https://www.theverge.com/2013/8/4/4588162/worlds-first-3d-printed-rifle-the-grizzly-updated World's first 3D-printed rifle gets update, fires 14 shots], The Verge, 4 August 2013.({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006110005/http://www.theverge.com/2013/8/4/4588162/worlds-first-3d-printed-rifle-the-grizzly-updated |date=6 October 2014 }})</ref>

The original Grizzly fired a single shot before breaking.<ref name="nbcnews.com"/> Grizzly 2.0 fired fourteen bullets before getting damaged due to the strain.<ref name="theverge.com"/>

In October 2020, another 3D-printed 9mm rifle known as the "FGC-9mm" was created. It is reported that it can be made in 2 weeks with $500 of tools. A second model was later made in April 2021.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-05-14|title=ATF's Proposed Rules Threaten a Legal Mess but No End to Ghost Guns|url=https://reason.com/2021/05/14/atfs-proposed-rules-threaten-a-legal-mess-but-no-end-to-ghost-guns/|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Reason.com}}</ref>

==Youth rifle==

A youth rifle is a rifle designed or modified for fitting children or other small-framed shooters. A youth rifle is often a single-shot [[.22 caliber]] rifle, or a [[bolt-action]] rifle, although some youth rifles are semi-automatic. They are usually very light, with a greatly shortened length of pull, which is necessary to accommodate children.  Youth stocks are available for many popular rifles, such as the [[Ruger 10/22]], a semi-automatic .22 LR rifle, allowing a youth rifle to be made from a standard rifle by simply changing the stock.  The typical ages of shooters for such rifles vary from about age 5+.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

==Technical aspects==

===Rifling===

{{Main article|Rifling}}

The usual form of rifling was helical grooves in a round bore.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Some early rifled firearms had barrels with a twisted polygonal bore. The [[Whitworth rifle]] was the first such type designed to spin the round for accuracy. Bullets for these guns were made to match the shape of the bore so the bullet would grip the rifle bore and take a spin that way. These were generally large caliber weapons, and the ammunition still did not fit tightly in the barrel. Many different shapes and degrees of spiraling were used in experimental designs. One widely produced example was the Metford rifling in the Pattern 1888 [[Lee–Metford]] service rifle. Although uncommon, [[polygonal rifling]] is still used in some weapons today, one example being the [[Glock]] line of pistols (which fire standard bullets). Many of the early designs were prone to dangerous backfiring, which could lead to the destruction of the weapon and serious injury to the person firing it.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

===Barrel wear===

[[File:Benchrest mauser rifle.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Benchrest shooting]] with a Mauser rifle]]

As the bullet enters the barrel, it inserts itself into the rifling, a process that gradually wears down the barrel, and also causes the barrel to heat up more rapidly. Therefore, some [[machine gun]]s are equipped with quick-change barrels that can be swapped every few thousand rounds, or in earlier designs, were water-cooled. Unlike older carbon [[steel]] barrels, which were limited to around 1,000 shots before the extreme heat caused accuracy to fade, modern [[stainless steel]] barrels for target rifles are much more resistant to wear, allowing many thousands of rounds to be fired before accuracy drops. (Many shotguns and small arms have [[Chrome plating|chrome]]-lined barrels to reduce wear and enhance corrosion resistance. This is rare on rifles designed for extreme accuracy, as the plating process is difficult and liable to reduce the effect of the rifling.) Modern ammunition has a hardened lead core with a softer outer cladding or jacket, typically of an alloy of copper and nickel – [[cupro-nickel]]. Some ammunition is coated with [[molybdenum disulfide]] to further reduce internal friction – the so-called 'moly-coated' bullet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.6mmbr.com/bulletcoating.html|title=GUIDE to Bullet Coating|website=www.6mmbr.com|access-date=2017-01-12}}</ref>

===Rate of fire===

{{Main article|Rate of fire}}

Rifles were initially single-shot, muzzle-loading weapons. During the 18th century, breech-loading weapons were designed, which allowed the rifleman to reload while under cover, but defects in manufacturing and the difficulty in forming a reliable gas-tight seal prevented widespread adoption. During the 19th century, multi-shot [[repeating rifle]]s using [[lever-action|lever]], [[pump-action|pump]] or linear [[bolt action]]s became standard, further increasing the rate of fire and minimizing the fuss involved in loading a firearm. The problem of proper seal creation had been solved with the use of brass cartridge cases, which expanded in an [[elastic (solid mechanics)|elastic]] fashion at the point of firing and effectively sealed the breech while the pressure remained high, then relaxed back enough to allow for easy removal. By the end of the 19th century, the leading bolt-action design was that of [[Paul Mauser]], whose action—wedded to a reliable design possessing a five-shot magazine<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Rifle |volume=23 |page=329 |first1=Henry |last1=Seton-Karr |first2=Charles |last2=Atkinson}}</ref>—became a world standard through two world wars and beyond. The [[Mauser rifle]] was paralleled by Britain's ten-shot [[Lee–Enfield]]<ref name=EB1911/> and America's 1903 [[M1903 Springfield rifle|Springfield Rifle]] models. The American M1903 closely copied Mauser's original design.

===Range===

Barrel [[rifling]] dramatically increased the range and accuracy of the musket. Indeed, throughout its development, the rifle's history has been marked by increases in range and accuracy. From the [[Minié rifle]] and beyond, the rifle has become ever more potent at long-range strikes.

In recent decades, large-caliber anti-materiel rifles, typically firing between 12.7&nbsp;mm and 20&nbsp;mm caliber cartridges, have been developed. The US [[M82 Barrett rifle|Barrett M82A1]] is probably the best-known such rifle. A second example is the [[Accuracy International AX50|AX50]] by [[Accuracy International]]. These weapons are typically used to strike critical, vulnerable targets such as computerized command and control vehicles, radio trucks, radar antennae, vehicle engine blocks and the jet engines of enemy aircraft. Anti-materiel rifles can be used against human targets, but the much higher weight of rifle and ammunition, and the massive recoil and muzzle blast, usually make them less than practical for such use. The Barrett M82 is designed with a maximum effective range of {{convert|1800|m|mi|abbr=on}}, although it has a confirmed kill distance of {{convert|2430|m|mi|abbr=on}} in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Anaconda]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.macleans.ca/canada/national/article.jsp?content=20060515_126689_126689 | author-link = Michael Friscolanti | last=Friscolanti|first=Michael|title=We were abandoned|journal=[[Maclean's]]|publisher=[[Rogers Communications|Rogers Publishing]]|date=2006-05-15|pages=18–25}}</ref> The [[longest recorded sniper kills|record for the longest confirmed kill shot]] stands at {{convert|3540|m|ft|abbr=on}}, set by an unnamed soldier with Canada's elite special operations unit [[Joint Task Force 2]] using a [[McMillan TAC-50]] sniper rifle.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/canadian-elite-special-forces-sniper-sets-record-breaking-kill-shot-in-iraq/article35415651/ |title=Canadian elite special forces sniper makes record-breaking kill shot in Iraq |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |first=Robert |last=Fife |date=21 June 2017 |access-date=28 February 2018}}</ref>

===Bullet rotational speed (RPM)===

Bullets leaving a rifled barrel can spin at a [[rotational speed]] of over 100,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) (or over about 1.67 kilohertz, since 1 RPM = 1/60&nbsp;Hz). The rotational speed depends both on the [[muzzle velocity]] of the bullet and the [[Twist rate|pitch]] of the rifling. Excessive rotational speed can exceed the bullet's designed limits and the inadequate centripetal force will fail to keep the bullet from disintegrating in a radial fashion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Topic of the Month: July 2001 – Twist Rate |url=http://www.loadammo.com/Topics/July01.htm |work=Load From A Disk |access-date=26 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512015023/http://www.loadammo.com/Topics/July01.htm |archive-date=12 May 2013 }}</ref> The rotational speed of the bullet can be calculated by using the formula below.

*MV/ twist rate = rotational speed

Using metric units, the formula divides the number of millimeters in a meter (1000) by the barrel twist in millimeters (the length of travel along the barrel per full rotation). This number is then multiplied by the muzzle velocity in meters per second (m/s) and the number of seconds in a minute (60).
*MV (in m/s) × (1000&nbsp;mm /twist) × 60 s/min = Bullet RPM
For example, using a barrel that has a twist rate of 190&nbsp;mm with a muzzle velocity of 900&nbsp;m/s:
*900&nbsp;m/s × (1000&nbsp;mm /(190&nbsp;mm)) × 60 s/min = 284&nbsp;210 RPM

Using imperial units, the formula divides the number of inches in a foot (12) by the rate of twist that the barrel has. This number is multiplied by the muzzle velocity (MV) and the number of seconds in a minute (60). For example, a bullet with a muzzle velocity of {{convert|3000|ft/s|m/s}} leaving a barrel that twists once per foot (1/12") would rotate at 180,000rpm.<ref>{{cite web|title=Calculating Bullet RPM – Spin Rates and Stability|url=http://accurateshooter.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/calculating-bullet-rpm-spin-rates-and-stability/|work=AccurateShooter.com|access-date=26 August 2010}}</ref>
*MV (in fps) × (12 in. /twist rate) × 60 s/min. = Bullet RPM
For example, using a barrel that has a twist rate of 1 turn in 8" with a muzzle velocity of 3000&nbsp;ft/s:
*3000 fps × (12"/(8"/rotation)) × 60 s/min. = 270,000 RPM

===Caliber===

Rifles may be chambered in a variety of [[caliber]]s (bullet or barrel diameters), from as low as 4.4&nbsp;mm ([[.17 HMR|.17]] inch) [[Varmint rifle|varmint]] calibers to as high as [[20 mm caliber|20 mm]] (.80 caliber) in the case of the largest anti-tank rifles. The term [[caliber]] essentially refers to the width of the bullet fired through a rifle's barrel. Armies have consistently attempted to find and procure the most lethal and accurate caliber for their firearms.

The standard calibers used by the world's militaries tend to follow worldwide trends. These trends have significantly changed during the centuries of firearm design and re-design. Muskets were normally chambered for large calibers, such as .50 or .59 (12.7&nbsp;mm or 15&nbsp;mm), with the theory that these large bullets caused the most damage.

During World War I and II, most rifles were chambered in .30 caliber (7.62&nbsp;mm), a combination of power and speed. Examples would be the [[.303 British]] [[Lee–Enfield]], the American [[M1903 Springfield|M1903]] [[.30-06 Springfield|.30-06]], and the German [[Karabiner 98k|8mm Mauser K98]].

An exception was the Italian [[Carcano|Modello 91]] rifle, which used the [[6.5×52mm Mannlicher–Carcano]] cartridge.

Detailed study of infantry combat during and after World War II revealed that most small-arms engagements occurred within 100 meters, meaning that the power and range of the traditional .30-caliber weapons (designed for engagements at 500 meters and beyond) were essentially wasted. The single greatest predictor of an individual soldier's combat effectiveness was the number of rounds he fired. Weapons designers and strategists realized that service rifles firing smaller-caliber projectiles would allow troops to carry far more ammunition for the same weight. The lower recoil and more generous magazine capacities of small-caliber weapons also allow troops a much greater volume of fire, compared to historical [[battle rifles]]. Smaller, faster traveling, less stable projectiles have also demonstrated greater terminal ballistics and therein, a greater lethality than traditional .30-caliber rounds. Most modern service rifles fire a projectile of approximately 5.56&nbsp;mm. Examples of firearms in this range are the American [[5.56×45mm NATO|5.56&nbsp;mm]] [[M16 rifle|M16]] and the Russian [[5.45×39mm]] [[AK-74]].

===Types of rifle===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

====By mechanism====

* [[Air gun]]
** Spring-piston
*** Break barrel
*** Fixed barrel
**** Underlever
**** Sidelever
**** Overlever
** Pneumatic (internal pressure reservoir)
*** Pump pneumatic, either single-stroke or multi-stroke
*** Pre-charged pneumatic (PCP)
** Compressed gas (external pressure reservoir)
*** CO<sub>2</sub>
*** High pressure air (HPA)
* [[Firearm]]
** [[Single-shot]]
*** [[Muzzle-loading rifle]], some [[flintlock]] and mostly [[caplock]]
*** [[Breech-loading weapon|Breech-loading rifle]]
**** [[Breechblock]] rifle, either [[trapdoor mechanism|trapdoor]], [[rolling block|rolling]], [[falling block|dropping]], [[Tilting block actions|tilting]] or [[Ferguson rifle|screwed]]
**** [[Break action|Break-action]] rifle
**** [[Double rifle]] ([[List of multiple barrel firearms#Rifles|list]])
** [[Repeating rifle|Repeating]]
*** Manual
**** [[Colt revolving rifle|Revolving rifle]]
**** [[Lever-action rifle]], e.g. [[Winchester rifle]], [[Spencer rifle]]
**** [[Pump action|Pump-action]] rifle, e.g. [[Colt Lightning Carbine]]
**** [[Bolt action|Bolt-action rifle]]
***** Turn-pull, e.g. [[Gewehr 98|Mauser G98]], [[Lee–Enfield]], [[Mosin-Nagant]]
***** Straight-pull, e.g. [[Ross rifle]], [[K31]], [[Mannlicher M1895]], [[Blaser R93]]/[[Blaser R8|R8]]
**** Bolt-release rifle, also known as lever-release rifle, e.g. [[Verney-Carron]] SpeedLine
*** Self-loading
**** [[Semi-automatic rifle]]
**** [[Automatic rifle]]
***** [[Selective-fire]] rifle
{{col-2}}

====By usage====

*[[Military]] and [[law enforcement]]
**[[Anti-materiel rifle]]
**[[Anti-tank rifle]]
**[[Long rifle]]
**[[Personal defense weapon]]
**Precision rifle
***[[Designated marksman rifle]] 
***[[Sniper rifle]] ([[List of sniper rifles|list]])
**[[Scout rifle]]
**[[Service rifle]]
***[[Assault rifle]] ([[List of assault rifles|list]])
***[[Battle rifle]] ([[List of battle rifles|list]])
***[[Carbine]] ([[List of carbines|list]])
*[[Civilian]]
**[[Hunting weapon#Rifles|Hunting rifle]]
***[[Buffalo rifle]]
***[[Elephant rifle]]
***[[Express rifle]]
***[[Punt gun]]
***[[Varmint rifle]]
**[[Shooting sport|Match/target]] rifle
***[[Benchrest rifle]]
**[[Modern sporting rifle]]
**[[Short-barreled rifle]]
**[[Varmint rifle]]
{{col-end}}

==See also==

{{colbegin|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Advanced Combat Rifle]]/[[Project Abakan]]
*[[Antique firearms]]
*[[British military rifles]]
*[[Gun safety]]
*[[Handgun]]
*[[List of assault rifles]]
*[[List of battle rifles]]
*[[List of multiple-barrel firearms#Rifles|List of multiple barrel rifles]]
*[[List of rifle cartridges]]
*[[List of sniper rifles]]
*[[Objective Individual Combat Weapon]]
*[[Rifle grenade]]
*[[Rifling]]
*[[Rifled musket]]
*[[Service rifle]]
*[[Shooting]]
*[[Shooting at the Summer Olympics]]
*[[Shooting range]]
*[[Shooting sport]]
*[[Shotgun]]
*[[Silencer (firearms)]]
*[[Telescopic sight]]
*[[Precision-guided firearm]]
{{colend}}

==References==

{{Reflist|
refs=
<ref name=MRJapan2006>{{cite book |last1=Honeycutt |first1=Fred L. |last2=Anthony |first2=F. Patt |year=2006 |edition=Fifth |title=Military Rifles of Japan |location=Monticello, Iowa |publisher=Julin |isbn=0-9623208-7-0 }}</ref>
<ref name=Keegan1999>{{cite book |last=Keegan |first=John |year=1999 |title=The First World War |url=https://archive.org/details/firstworldwar00keeg_0 |location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=0-375-40052-4 |url-access=registration }}</ref>
<ref name=Menning1992>{{cite book |last=Menning |first=Bruce W. |year=1992 |title=Bayonets Before Bullets; The Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University |isbn=0-253-33745-3 }}</ref>
|30em}}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Rifles}}
* Mick Bennett, ''[https://archive.org/details/storyoftherifle The Story of the Rifle]'', a booklet from 1945 in [[PDF]] format
* Friedrich Engels, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100713065737/http://www.ringmar.net/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=814:engels-qof-rifled-cannonq-1860&catid=98:wonders-of-technology&Itemid=142 "On Rifled Cannon"], articles from the New York ''Tribune'', April, May and June, 1860, reprinted in ''Military Affairs'' 21, no. 4 (Winter 1957) ed. Morton Borden, 193–198.

{{Firearms}}
{{Hunting topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hunting equipment]]
[[Category:Infantry]]
[[Category:Rifles| ]]