Editing Red-throated loon

{{short description|Migratory aquatic bird found in the northern hemisphere}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2014}}
{{speciesbox
| image = Gavia Stellata Ölfusá 20090606.jpg
| image_caption = Adult in breeding plumage and young
| image2 = Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata) (W GAVIA STELLATA R3 C8).ogg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="IUCN"/>
| genus = Gavia
| species = stellata
| authority = ([[Erik Pontoppidan|Pontoppidan]], 1763)
| range_map = Gavia stellata map.png
| range_map_alt = Red-throated loons breed in the northern regions of North America and Eurasia.
| range_map_caption = <div style="text-align:left;">{{Legend2|#FFFF00|Breeding summer visitor|border=1px solid #aaa}}</div>
<div style="text-align:left;">{{Legend2|#2E2EFE|Winters at sea or [[Great Lakes]]|border=1px solid #aaa}}</div>
| synonyms = *''Colymbus stellatus'' <small>Pontoppidan,&nbsp;1763</small>
* ''Colymbus lumme'' <small>Brünnich,&nbsp;1764</small>
* ''Colymbus septentrionalis'' <small>Linnaeus,&nbsp;1766</small>
* ''Gavia lumme'' <small>Forster,&nbsp;1788</small>
* ''Colymbus mulleri'' <small>Brehm,&nbsp;1826</small>
* ''Urinator lumme'' <small>Stejneger,&nbsp;1882</small>
}}

The '''red-throated loon''' (North America) or '''red-throated diver''' (Britain and Ireland) ('''''Gavia stellata''''') is a [[bird migration|migratory]] [[aquatic bird]] found in the [[Northern Hemisphere|northern hemisphere]]. The most widely distributed member of the [[loon]] or diver family, it breeds primarily in Arctic regions, and winters in northern coastal waters. Ranging from {{convert|55|to|67|cm|in}} in length, the red-throated loon is the smallest and lightest of the world's loons. In winter, it is a nondescript bird, greyish above fading to white below. During the breeding season, it acquires the distinctive reddish throat patch which is the basis for its common name. Fish form the bulk of its diet, though amphibians, [[invertebrate]]s, and plant material are sometimes eaten as well. A [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]] species, red-throated loons form long-term [[pair bond]]s. Both members of the pair help to build the nest, incubate the eggs (generally two per [[clutch (eggs)|clutch]]), and feed the hatched young.

The red-throated loon has a large global population and a significant global range, though some populations are declining. Oil spills, habitat degradation, pollution, and fishing nets are among the major threats this species faces. Natural predators—including various [[gull]] species, and both [[Red fox|red]] and [[Arctic fox]]es, will take eggs and young. The species is protected by international treaties.

==Taxonomy and etymology==
First described by Danish naturalist [[Erik Pontoppidan]] in 1763, the red-throated loon is a [[monotypic species]] with no distinctive subspecies despite its large [[Holarctic]] range.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=162}} Pontoppidan initially placed the species in the now-defunct genus ''Colymbus'', which contained [[grebe]]s as well as loons. By 1788, German naturalist [[Johann Reinhold Forster]] realized that grebes and loons were different enough to warrant separate genera, and moved the red-throated loon (along with all other loon species) to its present genus.{{sfn|Allen|1897}} Its relationship to the four other loons is complex; although all belong to the same genus, it differs from the others in terms of [[morphology (biology)|morphology]], behaviour, ecology and breeding biology{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=162}} and may be the basal lineage of the genus.{{sfn|Boertmann|1990}} It is thought to have [[evolution|evolved]] in the [[Palearctic]], and then to have expanded into the [[Nearctic]].{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=162}} Analysis of molecular data together with the fossil record suggests the lineage of the red-throated loon diverged from that giving rise to the other loon species around 21.4 million years ago in the [[Miocene]], and that it may be most closely related to the fossil Pliocene species ''[[Gavia howardae]]''.{{sfn|Sprengelmeyer|2014}}

The genus name ''Gavia'' comes from the [[Latin]] for "sea mew", as used by ancient Roman naturalist [[Pliny the Elder]].{{sfn|Johnsgard|1987|p=265}} The [[specific name (zoology)|specific epithet]] ''stellata'' is Latin for "set with stars" or "starry",{{sfn|Simpson|1979|p=883}} and refers to the bird's speckled back in its non-breeding [[plumage]].{{sfn|Johnsgard|1987|p=265}} Members of the family [[Gavidae]] are known as ''loons'' in North America and ''divers'' in Great Britain and Ireland.{{sfn|Cocker|Mabey|2005|p=4}} The [[International Ornithological Congress]] uses the name ''red-throated loon'' for this species.<ref name = "IOC"/> "Diver" refers to the family's underwater method of hunting for prey, while "red-throated" is a straightforward reference to the bird's most distinctive breeding plumage feature. The word "loon" is thought to have derived from the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] {{lang|sv|lom}}, the [[Old Norse]] or [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] {{lang|is|lómr}}, or the [[Old Dutch]] {{lang|odt|loen}}, all of which mean "lame" or "clumsy", and is a probable reference to the difficulty that all loons have in moving about on land.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=169}} A local name from Willapa Harbor, Washington, was ''Quaker loon''.{{sfn|M'Atee|1917}}

==Description==
[[File:Gavia stellata -New Jersey -USA-26Feb2009.jpg|thumb|left|An adult in non-breeding plumage shows the speckled back which gives the bird its [[specific name (zoology)|specific name]].|alt=A grey and white bird swims in water.]]

Like the other members of its genus, the red-throated loon is well adapted to its [[aquatic environment]]: its dense [[bone]]s help it to submerge, its legs—in their set-back position—provide excellent propulsion, and its body is long and streamlined. Even its sharply pointed bill may help its underwater streamlining. Its feet are large, its front three toes are fully webbed, and its [[tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is flattened, which reduces drag and allows the leg to move easily through the water.{{sfn|Sibley|Elphick|Dunning|2001|pp=124–25}}

The red-throated loon is the smallest and lightest of the world's loon species, ranging from {{convert|53|to|69|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length{{efn|By convention, length is measured from the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail on a dead bird (or skin) laid on its back.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=3}}}}<ref name= "Cornell"/> with a {{convert|91|-|120|cm|in|abbr=on}} [[wingspan]],<ref name = "Cornell"/>{{sfn|Svensson|Grant|1999|p=12}} and weighing {{convert|1|-|2.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= "Cornell"/> Like all loons, it is long-bodied and short-necked, with its legs set far back on its body.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=42}} The sexes are similar in appearance, although males tend to be slightly larger and heavier than females.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=162}} In breeding plumage, the adult has a dark grey head and neck (with narrow black and white stripes on the back of the neck), a triangular red throat patch, white underparts, and a dark grey-brown [[bird anatomy|mantle]].{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=43}} It is the only loon with an all-dark back in breeding plumage.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=163}} The non-breeding [[plumage]] is drabber with the chin, foreneck, and much of the face white, the top of the head and back of the neck grey, and considerable white speckling on the dark mantle.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=43}} Its [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] is carmine-red to burgundy in colour, its legs are black on the outer half and pale on the inner half, and the webs of its feet are pinkish-brown, with darker margins.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=171}}

Its bill is thin, straight, and sharp, and often held at an uptilted angle.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=43}} One of the bird's North American [[folk name]]s is pegging-awl loon, a reference to its sharply pointed bill, which resembles a sailmaker's [[stitching awl|awl]] (a tool also known as a "pegging awl" in [[New England]]).{{sfn|Cassidy|Hall|2002|p=84}} Though the colour of the bill changes from black in summer to pale grey in winter, the timing of the colour change does not necessarily correspond to that of the bird's overall plumage change. The [[nostrils]] are narrow slits located near the base of the bill.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=42}}

[[File:Gavia stellata -Iceland -swimming-8.jpg|right|thumb|In breeding plumage, the adult shows the red throat that gives the species its common name.]]
[[File:Red-Throated Loon Juvenile.jpg|thumb|Very young birds are covered with dark brown or grey [[down feather]]s.|alt=Dark grey fuzzy-looking chick floats on water.]]
When it first emerges from its egg, the young red-throated loon is covered with fine soft [[down feather]]s. Primarily dark brown to dark grey above, it is slightly paler on the sides of its head and neck, as well as on its throat, chest, and flanks, with a pale grey lower breast and belly. Within weeks, this first down is replaced by a second, paler set of down feathers, which are in turn replaced by developing juvenile feathers.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=49}} The juvenile's plumage is similar to that of the adult, though with a few distinguishing features. It has a darker forehead and neck, with heavy speckling on the sides of the neck and the throat. Its back is browner and less speckled, and its underparts are tinged with brown. Its eyes are reddish-brown, and its beak is a pale grey. Though some young birds hold this plumage until mid-winter, many quickly become virtually indistinguishable from adults, except for their paler bills.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=43}}

[[File:Plongeon catmarin en vol vectorisé.svg|thumb|In flight, the hunchbacked profile of the red-throated loon is distinctive.|alt=diagram of silhouette of red-throated loon in flight]]
In flight, the red-throated loon has a distinctive profile; its small feet do not project far past the end of its body, its head and neck droop below the horizontal (giving the flying bird a distinctly hunchbacked shape) and its thin wings are angled back. It has a quicker, deeper wingbeat than do other loons.{{sfn|Sibley|2000|p=23}}

===Voice===
The adult red-throated loon has a number of [[bird vocalization|vocalisations]], which are used in different circumstances. In flight, when passing [[conspecific]]s or circling its own pond, it gives a series of rapid yet rhythmic [[goose]]-like cackles—''kaa-kaa-kaa'' or ''kak-kak-kak'', at roughly five calls per second. Its warning call, if disturbed by humans or onshore [[predator]]s, is a short croaking bark. A low-pitched moaning call, used primarily as a contact call between mates and between parents and young, but also during [[animal sexual behavior|copulation]], is made with the bill closed. The species also has a short wailing call—''aarOOao...aarOOao...''—which descends slightly in [[pitch (music)|pitch]] and lasts about a second; due to strong [[harmonic]]s surrounding the primary pitch, this meowing call is more musical than its other calls. Another call—a harsh, pulsed cooing that rises and falls in pitch, and is typically repeated up to 10&nbsp;times in a row—is used in territorial encounters and pair-bonding, and by parent birds encouraging their young to move on land between bodies of water.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=48}} Known as the "long call", it is often given in duet, which is unusual among the loons;{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=164}} the female's contribution is longer and softer than her mate's.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=48}}

Young have a shrill closed-bill call, which they use in begging and to contact their parents. They also have a long call used in response to (and similar to that of) the long call of adults.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=48}}

===Similar species===
At medium to close range, an adult red-throated loon in either breeding or non-breeding plumage is usually easily recognised. However, in certain light conditions, at certain times in its moulting cycle, or at greater distances, it may be mistaken for another species—most commonly the [[black-throated loon]], but also occasionally the [[great crested grebe]]. It shows more white on the head and neck than does the black-throated loon, and—provided it is not sitting low in the water—tends to show more white on the flanks as well. If it is sitting lower in the water, so that the white on the flanks is reduced to a patch on the rear flank (thus resembling the pattern of the black-throated loon), that patch tends to be less clearly defined than the comparative patch on the black-throated.{{sfn|Appleby|Madge|Mullarney|1986}}

==Habitat and distribution==
[[File:Alaska -tundra landscape-11Aug2008.jpg|right|thumb|The red-throated loon breeds primarily in coastal [[tundra]], often on very small lakes.|alt=aerial view of tundra, with numerous small lakes dotting the ground]] In contrast to other loons its main fishing grounds are not the breeding lake, but larger lakes or the sea. Several nests close to each other may occur in the same breeding lake.
The red-throated loon breeds primarily in the [[Arctic]] regions of northern [[Palearctic|Eurasia]] and North America (generally north of 50°N latitude), and winters in northern coastal waters,{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=171}} sometimes in groups of considerable size. More than 4,400 spend the winter in a loose concentration on the eastern part of the [[German Bight]], for example.{{sfn|von Nordheim|Boedeker|Krause|2006|p=85}} Unlike other loons, it regularly uses very small freshwater lakes as breeding sites. Its small size renders it more versatile, but it is less able to feed on deeper prey. The increase in size and diversity of the remaining species of loons suggests that the benefits of larger size outweigh the limitations.{{sfn|Sprengelmeyer|2014}}

In North America, it winters regularly along both coasts, ranging as far south as the [[Baja California Peninsula]] and the [[Gulf of California]] in north-western Mexico; it has been recorded as a [[vagrancy (biology)|vagrant]] in the interior Mexican state of [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]].{{sfn|Howell|Webb|1995|p=92}} Some of its folk names in north-eastern North America—including cape race, cape brace, cape drake and cape racer, as well as [[corruption (linguistics)|corruptions]] such as scapegrace—originated from its abundance around [[Cape Race|Cape Race, Newfoundland]].{{sfn|Cassidy|Hall|1985|p=539}} In Europe, it breeds in Iceland, northern Scotland, north-western Ireland (only a few pairs), Scandinavia and northern Russia, and winters along the coast as far south as parts of Spain; it also regularly occurs along major inland waterways, including the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and [[Black Sea]]s, as well as large rivers, lakes and reservoirs.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=45}} It has occurred as a vagrant as far south as [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia]] and [[the Gambia]].<ref name="IUCN"/> In Asia, it breeds in the northern stretches of [[Siberia]], and winters along the Pacific coast as far south as [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Taiwan]]. It has occurred as a vagrant in [[Mongolia]].<ref name="IUCN"/>

==Behaviour==
[[File:Red-Throated Loon Iceland.jpg|thumb|Among the loons, the red-throated loon is exceptional in its ability to take off from very small bodies of water.|alt=Adult loon in breeding plumage, reared up on the water with its wings spread.]]
Because its feet are located so far back on its body, the red-throated loon is quite clumsy walking on land, but it can use its feet to shove itself forward on its breast.{{sfn|Sibley|2000|p=23}} Young use this method of covering ground when moving from their breeding pools to larger bodies of water, including rivers and the sea.{{sfn|Haviland|1915}} It is the only species of loon able to take off directly from land.{{sfn|Mead-Waldo|1922}} If frightened, it may submerge until only its head or bill shows above the surface of the water.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=44}} It differs from other loons by nesting in small lakes but feeding in larger lakes or the sea. The nesting lake may host several nests, close to another, with much agonistic behavior among pairs. This territorial behavior is performed pairwise, with vocalisation (long call, plesiosur race).

The red-throated loon is a [[diurnality|diurnal]] [[bird migration|migrant]], which travels singly or in loose groups, often high above the water.{{sfn|Sibley|2000|p=23}} In eastern North America (and possibly elsewhere), it tends to migrate near the coast rather than farther offshore;{{sfn|Powers|Cherry|1983}} Siberian populations travel for hundreds of miles over land en route to their southern European wintering grounds.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=168}} It is a strong flier, and has been clocked at speeds between {{convert|75|and|78|km/h|mph}}.{{sfn|Davis|1971}} Like all members of its family, the red-throated loon goes through a simultaneous wing [[moult]], losing all its [[flight feather]]s at once and becoming flightless for a period of three to four weeks. Unlike other loons—which undergo this moult in late winter—the red-throated loon loses its ability to fly sometime between late summer and late autumn.{{sfn|Wolfenden|1967}}

===Food and feeding===
[[File:Red-Throated Loon juvenile eating fish.jpg|thumb|right|Once they are 3–4&nbsp;days old, the young are fed fish—which can be quite large compared to the size of the chick.|alt=Two small fuzzy blackish chicks—one swallowing a silver fish—float on water beside a larger bird with a black back and grey neck.]]
Like all members of its family, the red-throated loon is primarily a [[Piscivore|fish-eater]], though it sometimes feeds on [[mollusc]]s, [[crustacean]]s, [[frog]]s, aquatic [[invertebrate]]s, [[insect]]s, fish [[spawn (biology)|spawn]] or even plant material.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=171}} It seizes rather than spears its prey, which is generally captured underwater.{{sfn|Ehrlich|Dobkin|Wheye|Pimm|1994|p=2}} Though it normally dives and swims using only its feet for propulsion, it may use its wings as well if it needs to turn or accelerate quickly.{{sfn|Townsend|1909}} Pursuit dives range from {{convert|2|-|9|m|ft|abbr=on}} in depth, with an average underwater time of about a minute.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=171}} Its fish diet increases the red-throated loon's vulnerability to [[persistent organic pollutant]]s and [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]], both of which [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]], thus potentially causing greater problems for long-lived species (such as the loon) at or near the top of the [[food chain]].{{sfn|Dickson|Gilchrist|2002}} Its main diet has also led to several of the loon's British folk names, including "[[sprat]] borer" and "spratoon".{{sfn|Cocker|Mabey|2005|p=3}}

For the first few days after hatching, young red-throated loons are fed aquatic insects and small crustaceans by both parents. After 3–4&nbsp;days, the parents switch to fish small enough for the young birds to swallow whole. By four weeks of age, the young can eat the same food—of the same size—as their parents do.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=46}} Young birds may be fed for some time after [[fledging]]; adults have been seen feeding fish to juveniles at sea and on inland lakes in the United Kingdom, hundreds of kilometres from any breeding areas.{{sfn|Hart|Jardine|Colin|1998}}{{sfn|Barber|2002}}

===Breeding and survival===
[[File:Gavia stellata MWNH 0489.JPG|left|thumb|Eggs, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
[[File:Plongeon catmarin oisillon.jpg|thumb|right|Chicks are competent swimmers, able to accompany their parents soon after hatching.|alt=Small fuzzy black chick floats beside a larger bird on calm water with a muddy bank and tall grass in the background]]
The red-throated loon is a [[Animal sexual behavior#Mating systems|monogamous]] species which forms long-term pair bonds. Both sexes build the [[bird nest|nest]], which is a shallow [[bird nest#Scrape|scrape]] (or occasionally a [[bird nest#Platform|platform]] of mud and vegetation) lined with vegetation and sometimes a few feathers, and placed within a {{convert|0.5|m|in}} of the edge of a small pond. The female lays two [[bird egg|eggs]] (though [[clutch (eggs)|clutches]] of one and three have also been recorded); they are [[avian incubation|incubated]] for 24–29&nbsp;days, primarily by the female. The eggs, which are greenish or olive-brownish spotted with black, measure {{convert|75|x|46|mm|in|abbr=on}} and have a mass of {{convert|83|g|oz|abbr=on}}, of which 8% is shell.{{sfn|Ehrlich|Dobkin|Wheye|Pimm|1994|p=2}}<ref name=BTO/> Incubation is begun as soon as the first egg is laid, so they hatch asynchronously. If a clutch is lost (to predation or flooding, for example) before the young hatch, the red-throated loon usually lays a second clutch, generally in a new nest.{{sfn|Schamel|Tracy|1985}} The young birds are [[precocial]]: upon hatching, they are downy and mobile, with open eyes. Both parents feed them small aquatic invertebrates initially, then small fish for 38–48&nbsp;days. Parents will perform [[distraction display]]s to lure predators away from the nest and young.{{sfn|Ehrlich|Dobkin|Wheye|Pimm|1994|p=2}} [[Ornithology|Ornithologists]] disagree as to whether adults carry young on their backs while swimming with some maintaining that they do{{sfn|Ehrlich|Dobkin|Wheye|Pimm|1994|p=2}} and others the opposite.<ref name="Cornell"/>

In the wild, the oldest known red-throated loon lived for more than two decades.{{sfn|Carboneras|1992|p=171}} It was found, oiled and dead, on a beach in Sweden 23&nbsp;years and 7&nbsp;months after it had been [[bird ringing|ringed]] (banded).<ref>{{cite web |author1=Staav, Roland |author2=Fransson, Thor |year=2008 |publisher=EURING: The European Union for Bird Ringing |url=http://www.euring.org/data_and_codes/longevity-voous.htm |title=European longevity records |access-date=14 July 2009}}</ref>

==Conservation status and threats==
Although the red-throated loon is not a globally threatened species, as it has a large population and a significant range, there are populations which appear to be declining. Numbers counted in [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] surveys in Alaska show a 53% population decline between 1971 and 1993, for example,{{sfn|Groves|Conant|King|Hodges|1996}} and survey count numbers have dropped in continental Europe as well.<ref name=BBC/> In [[Scotland]], on the other hand, the population increased by some 16% between 1994 and 2006, according to surveys done by the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] and [[Scottish Natural Heritage]].<ref name=BBC/> In 2002, [[Wetlands International]] estimated a global population of 490,000 to 1,500,000&nbsp;individuals; global population trends have not been quantified.<ref name="IUCN"/>

The red-throated loon is one of the [[species]] to which the ''[[Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds]]'' (AEWA) applies;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unep-aewa.org/en/species |title=Species |publisher=Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds |access-date=29 December 2015}}</ref> in the [[Americas]], it is protected by the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/RegulationsPolicies/mbta/taxolst.html |title=Birds protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act |publisher=[[US Fish and Wildlife Service]] |access-date=29 June 2008}}</ref> [[Oil spill]]s, [[habitat degradation]], and [[fishing net]]s are among the main threats this species faces.<ref name="Cornell"/> Because it tends to migrate close to shore—generally within {{convert|20|km|mi}} of land—it may be detrimentally affected by the construction of near-shore [[wind farm]]s;{{sfn|Stienen|Waeyenberge|Kuijken|Seys|2007|pp=71–80}} studies indicate a high level of avoidance of wind farm areas, though deaths due to direct strikes with the turbines appear to be uncommon.{{sfn|Halley|Hopshaug|2007}} High levels of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in the environment have led to reproductive failures in some areas, including parts of Sweden.{{sfn|Eriksson|Johansson|Ahlgren|1992}} Studies in Sweden have also shown that they may be adversely impacted by the [[Freshwater acidification|acidification of lakes]], as the fish on which they prey are susceptible to low [[pH]].{{sfn|Eriksson|1994}}}  On the breeding grounds, [[Arctic fox|Arctic]] and [[red fox]]es are major [[predator]]s of eggs,{{sfn|Schamel|Tracy|1985}} while [[great skua]]s, [[Arctic skua]]s and various species of ''[[Larus]]'' gulls (including [[great black-backed gull]]s and [[glaucous gull]]s){{sfn|Serle|1936}}{{sfn|Eberl|Picman|1993}} are predators of both eggs and young.{{sfn|Booth|1978}}

The species is known to serve as host for at least 51&nbsp;species of [[parasitism|parasites]], most of which are [[nematode|roundworms]] (nematodes), [[digenean|flatworms]] (digeneans) and [[cestode|tapeworms]] (cestodes) carried internally; a single species of [[louse]] is its only known external parasite.{{sfn|Storer|2002|p=37}} It is also known to sometimes carry significant populations of [[diatom]]s (microscopic phytoplankton) on its contour feathers.{{sfn|Croll|Holmes|1982}} The red-throated loon is susceptible to [[avian influenza]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/red-throated-loon-gavia-stellata |title=Red-throated Loon – BirdLife Species Factsheet |publisher=BirdLife International |access-date=12 January 2017}}</ref> and Type E [[botulism]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Leighton |first=F. A. |year=2000 |title=Type E botulism in birds |publisher=Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre |url=http://fr.cwhc-rcsf.ca/wildlife_health_topics/botulism/botulisme_orginal.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116150709/http://fr.cwhc-rcsf.ca/wildlife_health_topics/botulism/botulisme_orginal.php |archive-date=Jan 16, 2017}}</ref> and is regularly killed by the ingestion of [[neurotoxin]]s produced by "[[red tide]]" algal blooms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/publications/quarterly_reports/2007_qtr_2.jsp |title=Quarterly Wildlife Mortality Report |year=2007 |publisher=[[USGS]] |access-date=14 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506235201/http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/publications/quarterly_reports/2007_qtr_2.jsp |archive-date=6 May 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> During a 2007 [[algal bloom|bloom]], large numbers of the birds also died of [[hypothermia]], after their plumages became matted by a protein byproduct of the [[algae]], which reduced the insulating properties of their feathers.{{sfn|Jessup|Miller|Ryan|Nevins|2009}}

==In human culture==
[[File:Juvenile red throated diver.jpg|thumb|right|Juveniles have darker necks and fewer speckles on their backs than adults do.|alt=Greyish bird with white speckles on its back and a sharply pointed grey bill floats on water]]
Used as a food source since prehistoric times,{{sfn|Gordon|Savage|1974}}{{sfn|Tagliacozzo|Gala|2002}} the red-throated loon is still hunted by [[indigenous peoples]] in some parts of the world today.{{sfn|Bird|Brown|2005|p=27}} Eggs as well as birds are taken, sometimes in significant numbers; during one study on northern [[Canada]]'s [[Igloolik Island]], 73% of all red-throated loon eggs laid within the {{convert|10|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} study site over two breeding seasons were collected by indigenous inhabitants of the island.{{sfn|Forbes|Robertson|Ogilvie|Seddon|1992}} In some parts of Russia, red-throated loon skins were traditionally used to make caps and various clothing decorations, including collars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/513/articles/conservation |publisher=[[Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology]] and the [[American Ornithologists' Union]] |work=Birds of North America Online |title=Red-throated Loon |access-date=27 March 2008}} (Registration required)</ref> The species was also central to the [[creation myth]]ologies of indigenous groups throughout the [[Holarctic]].{{sfn|Köngäs|1960}} According to the myth—which varies only slightly between versions, despite the sometimes-vast distances that separated the groups who believed it—the loon was asked by a great [[shaman]] to bring up earth from the bottom of the sea. That earth was then used to build the world's dry land.{{sfn|Lutwack|1994|p=82}}

As recently as the 1800s, the behaviour of the red-throated loon was used to forecast the weather; according to the conventional wisdom of the time, birds flying inland or giving short cries predicted good weather, while those flying out to sea or giving long, wailing cries predicted rain.<ref name="BTO"/><ref name=BBC/> In the [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] islands of Scotland, the species is still known as the "rain goose" in deference to its supposed weather-predicting capabilities.<ref name=BBC/> The people of the [[Faroe Islands]] believed that if the red-throated loon miaowed like a cat, then rain was imminent, while a call of ''{{not a typo|gaa-gaa-gaa}}'' or ''{{not a typo|turkatrae-turkatrae}}'' predicted fine weather.{{sfn|Armstrong|1970|pp=62–63}}

Bhutan, Japan, [[Åland]] (an autonomous region of Finland), and the [[Union of the Comoros]] have issued stamps featuring the red-throated loon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdtheme.org/mainlyimages/index.php?spec=1458 |title=Stamps showing Red-throated Loon ''Gavia stellata'' |author=Scharning, Kjell |publisher=Theme Birds on Stamps |access-date=23 July 2016}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em|refs=
<ref name="Cornell">{{cite web
 |title=All About Birds: Red-throated Loon Life History
 |access-date=20 October 2011
 |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology
 |url=http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Red-throated_Loon/lifehistory
}}</ref>
<ref name="IOC">{{cite web
 |title=IOC World Bird List: Loons, penguins, petrels
 |editor1-first=Frank |editor1-last=Gill
 |editor2-first=David |editor2-last=Donsker
 |access-date=10 January 2017
 |publisher=[[International Ornithological Congress]]
 |url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/loons/
}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCN">{{cite iucn
 |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International
 |year=2018
 |title=Red-throated Loon: ''Gavia stellata''
 |page=e.T22697829A131942584
 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697829A131942584.en
 |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697829/131942584
 |access-date=22 March 2021
}}</ref>
<ref name="BTO">{{cite web
 |title=Red-throated Diver
 |publisher=British Trust for Ornithology
 |url=http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob20.htm
 |access-date=27 June 2008
}}</ref>
<ref name="BBC">{{cite news
 |date=7 September 2007
 |title=Rise in divers mystifies experts
 |work=BBC News
 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/highlands_and_islands/6980265.stm
 |access-date=7 September 2007
}}</ref>
}}

===Sources===
; Papers
{{Refbegin}}
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
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 |volume=71 |issue=1
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
 |last=Davis
 |first=Rolph A.
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
 |last=Eriksson |first=Mats O. G
 |year=1994
 |title=Susceptibility to freshwater acidification by two species of loon: Red-throated Loon (''Gavia stellata'') and Arctic Loon (''Gavia arctica'') in southwest Sweden
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
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 |last5=King
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 |journal=The Condor
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* {{cite journal
 |last1=Halley
 |first1=D.J.
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 |first2=P
 |date=2007
 |title=Breeding and overland flight of red-throated divers ''Gavia stellata'' at Smøla, Norway, in relation to the Smøla wind farm
 |journal=NINA Report 297
 |publisher=Norwegian Institute of Nature Research
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* {{cite journal
 |last1=Hart |first1=Alan S.
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* {{cite journal
 |last=Haviland |first=Maud D.
 |date=March 1915
 |title=On the Method of Progression on Land of a Young Red-throated Diver
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* {{cite journal
 |last1=Jessup |first1=David A.
 |last2=Miller |first2=Melissa A.
 |last3=Ryan |first3=John P.
 |last4=Nevins |first4=Hannah M.
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* {{cite journal
 |last=Köngäs |first=Elli Kaija
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* {{cite journal
 |last=M'Atee
 |first=W. L.
 |year=1917
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* {{cite journal
 |last=Mead-Waldo |first=E. G. B.
 |date=November 1922
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* {{cite journal
 |last1=Powers
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 |last2=Cherry
 |first2=Jeffrey
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
 |last=Serle |first=W.
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}}
* {{cite thesis
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
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* {{cite journal
 |last=Wolfenden
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 }}
{{Refend}}

; Books
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Armstrong |first=Edward A.
 |year=1970
 |title=The Folklore of Birds
 |location=New York, NY
 |publisher=Dover Publications
 |isbn=0-486-22145-8
 |orig-year=1958
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Bird |first1=Louis
 |last2=Brown |first2=Jennifer S.H.
 |year=2005
 |title=Telling Our Stories: Omushkego Legends and Histories from Hudson Bay
 |publisher=Broadview Press
 |location=Peterborough, ON, Canada
 |isbn=1-55111-580-8
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
 |last=Carboneras |first=Carles
 |year=1992
 |title=Family Gaviidae (Divers)
 |encyclopedia=[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]]
 |volume=1: Ostrich to Ducks
 |editor1-first=Josep |editor1-last=del Hoyo
 |editor2-first=Andrew |editor2-last=Elliott
 |editor3-first=Jordi |editor3-last=Sargatal
 |publisher=Lynx Edicions
 |location=Barcelona, Spain
 |isbn=84-87334-10-5
 |url-access=registration
 |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Cassidy |first1=Frederic Gomes
 |last2=Hall |first2=Joan Houston
 |year=1985
 |title=Dictionary of American Regional English
 |volume=1: A–C
 |publisher=Harvard University Press
 |location=Cambridge, MA
 |isbn=0-674-20511-1
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Cassidy |first1=Frederic Gomes
 |last2=Hall |first2=Joan Houston
 |year=2002
 |title=Dictionary of American Regional English
 |volume=IV: P–Sk
 |publisher=Harvard University Press
 |location=Cambridge, MA
 |isbn=0-674-00884-7
 |url-access=registration
 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofamer0000unse_a4m8
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Cocker |first1=Mark
 |last2=Mabey |first2=Richard
 |year=2005
 |title=Birds Britannica
 |publisher=Chatto & Windus
 |location=London, UK
 |isbn=0-7011-6907-9
}}
* {{cite book
 |year=1977
 |title=Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: [[Birds of the Western Palearctic]]
 |volume=1: Ostrich to Ducks
 |editor-last=Cramp |editor-first=Stanley
 |publisher=Oxford University Press
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |isbn=0-19-857358-8
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R.
 |last2=Dobkin |first2=David S.
 |last3=Wheye |first3=Darryl
 |last4=Pimm |first4=Stuart L.
 |year=1994
 |title=The Birdwatcher's Handbook
 |publisher=Oxford University Press
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |isbn=0-19-858407-5
 |url=https://archive.org/details/birdwatchershand00ehrl
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Howell |first1=Steve N. G.
 |last2=Webb |first2=Sophie
 |year=1995
 |title=A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America
 |publisher=Oxford University Press
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |isbn=0-19-854012-4
 |url-access=registration
 |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetobirdsofme0000howe
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Johnsgard |first=Paul A. |author-link=Paul Johnsgard
 |year=1987
 |title=Diving Birds of North America
 |publisher=University of Nebraska
 |location=Lincoln
 |isbn=0-8032-2566-0
 |url=https://archive.org/details/divingbirdsofnor0000john
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Lutwack |first=Leonard
 |year=1994
 |title=Birds in Literature
 |publisher=University Press of Florida
 |isbn=0-8130-1254-6
 |url=https://archive.org/details/birdsinliteratur00lutw_0
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Sibley |first=David
 |year=2000
 |title=The Sibley Guide to Birds
 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf
 |location=New York, NY
 |isbn=0-679-45122-6
 |url=https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0
}}
* {{cite book
 |year=2001
 |title=The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour
 |editor1-first=David |editor1-last=Sibley
 |editor2-last=Elphick |editor2-first=Chris
 |editor3-last=Dunning <!--Jr.--> |editor3-first=John B.
 |publisher=Christopher Helm
 |location=London, UK
 |isbn=0-7136-6250-6
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Simpson |first=Donald Penistan
 |year=1979
 |title=Cassell's Latin Dictionary
 |edition=5th
 |publisher=Cassell Ltd.
 |location=London, UK
 |isbn=0-304-52257-0
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Stienen |first1=Eric W.M.
 |last2=Waeyenberge |first2=Van
 |last3=Kuijken |first3=Eckhart
 |last4=Seys |first4=Jan
 |year=2007
 |contribution=Trapped Within the Corridor of the Southern North Sea: The Potential Impact of Offshore Wind Farms on Seabirds
 |title=Birds and Wind Farms: Risk Assessment and Mitigation
 |publisher=Quercus
 |editor1-last=de Lucas |editor1-first=Manuela
 |editor2-last=Janss |editor2-first=Guyonne F.E.
 |editor3-last=Ferrer |editor3-first=Miguel
 |location=London, UK
 |url=http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/129847.pdf
}}
* {{cite journal
 |last=Storer |first=Robert W.
 |year=2002
 |title=The Metazoan Parasite Fauna of Loons (Aves: Gaviiformes), Its Relationship to the Birds' Evolutionary History and Biology, and a Comparison with the Parasite Fauna of Grebes
 |journal=Miscellaneous Publications. Museum of Zoology
 |publisher=Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan
 |page=37
 |issn=0076-8405
 |location=Ann Arbor, MI
 |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/56434/1/MP191.pdf
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Svensson |first1=Lars
 |last2=Grant |first2=Peter
 |year=1999
 |title=Collins Bird Guide
 |publisher=HarperCollins
 |location=London, UK
 |isbn=0-00-219728-6
}}
* {{cite book
 |last1=von Nordheim |first1=Henning
 |last2=Boedeker |first2=Dieter
 |last3=Krause |first3=Jochen
 |year=2006
 |title=Progress in Marine Conservation in Europe: Natura 2000 Sites in German Offshore Waters
 |publisher=Springer
 |location=Berlin, Germany
 |isbn=978-3-540-33291-6
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Gavia stellata}}
{{Wikispecies|Gavia stellata}}
* {{VIREO|Red-throated+loon}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|red-throated-diver-gavia-stellata|Red-throated diver}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Gavia|stellata|Red-throated loon}}
* [http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Gavia_stellata/Gavia_stellata.htm Feathers of red-throated diver] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606220250/http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Gavia_stellata/Gavia_stellata.htm |date=2014-06-06 }} at [http://www.ornithos.de ornithos.de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304095807/http://www.ornithos.de/ |date=2018-03-04 }}
* {{BirdLife|22697829|Gavia stellata}}

{{Loons}}
{{Portal bar|Birds|Animals|Biology}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q26691}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gaviiformes]]
[[Category:Holarctic birds]]
[[Category:Diving animals]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1763]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Erik Pontoppidan]]