Editing Ramesses III

{{short description|Egyptian pharaoh 1186–1155 BCE, New Kingdom, 20th Dynasty}}
{{Infobox pharaoh
| name = Ramesses III
| alt_name = Ramses III, Rameses III
| image = KhonsuTemple-Karnak-RamessesIII-2.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Relief from the sanctuary of the [[Temple of Khonsu]] at [[Karnak]] depicting Ramesses III
| reign = 32 regnal years<br>1186–1155 BC
| dynasty = [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|20th&nbsp;Dynasty]]
| coregency =
| predecessor = [[Setnakhte]]
| successor = [[Ramesses IV]]
| notes =
| prenomen = Usermaatre Meriamun <br /> ''Wsr-m3ˁt-Rˁ-mrj-Jmn'' <br /> ''Strong is the [[Maat]] of [[Ra]], beloved of [[Amun]]''<br><hiero>M23:t-L2:t-<-ra-wsr-mAat-N36-i-mn:n-></hiero>
| prenomen_hiero = 
| nomen = Ramesisu Heqaiunu<br>''Rˁ msj sw ḥq3 Jwnw'' <br /> ''Ra has fashioned him, ruler of [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]''
| nomen_hiero = <hiero>C1-ms-z:z-HqA-q-iwn</hiero>
| horus = Kanakht Aanisut<br>''K3-nḫt-ˁ3-nsyt''<br>''Strong bull, whose royalty is great''
| horus_hiero = <hiero>E1:D43-O29-M23-M17-M17-X1:Z2</hiero>
| horus_prefix = <!-- Default is <hiero>G5</hiero> -->
| nebty = Werhabused mi Tatenen <br>''Wr-ḥˁb.w-sd-mj-T3-ṯnn''<br>''Great of [[Sed festival|Hebsed]] like [[Ptah]]-[[Tatenen]]''
| nebty_hiero = <hiero>G36:D21-O23:W3-Z3-W19-C18</hiero>
| golden = Userrenput mi Atum <br> ''Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-Jtm'' <br> ''The golden falcon, rich in years like [[Atum]]''
| golden_hiero = <hiero>F12-M4*M4*M4-W19-A45</hiero>

| spouse = [[Tyti]], [[Isis Ta-Hemdjert]], [[Tiye (20th dynasty)|Tiye]]
| children = '''By Tyti:'''<br>{{plainlist|
*[[Amun-her-khepeshef (20th dynasty)|Amenherkhepeshef]]
*[[Ramesses IV]]
*[[Meryamun (20th dynasty)|Meryamun]]
'''By Isis Ta-Hemdjert:'''
{{plainlist|
*[[Pareherwenemef (20th dynasty)|Pareherwenemef]]
*[[Ramesses VI]]
*[[Montuherkhopshef (son of Ramesses III)|Montuherkhopshef]]}}
}}
'''By Tiye:'''<br>{{plainlist|
*[[Khaemwaset (20th dynasty)|Khaemwaset]]
*[[Pentawere]]
*[[Meryatum (20th dynasty)|Meryatum]]
*[[Ramesses VIII]]
*[[Duatentopet]] (only daughter)
}}
| father = [[Setnakhte]]
| mother = [[Tiy-Merenese]]
| birth_date = 1217 BC 
| death_date = 1155 BC (aged 61-62)
| burial = [[KV11]]; Mummy found in the [[Deir el-Bahri]] [[Royal Cache|royal cache]] (Theban Necropolis)
| monuments = [[Medinet Habu (temple)|Medinet Habu]]
}}

'''Usermaatre Meryamun Ramesses III''' was the second [[Pharaoh]] of the [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth Dynasty]] in [[Ancient Egypt]]. Some scholars date his reign from 26 March 1186 to 15 April 1155 BC, and he is considered the last pharaoh of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] to have wielded substantial power.

His long reign saw the decline of Egyptian political and economic power, linked to a series of invasions and internal economic problems that also plagued pharaohs before him. This coincided with a decline in the cultural sphere of Ancient Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robins |first1=Gay |title=The Art of Ancient Egypt}}</ref>

However, his successful defense was able to slow down the decline, although it still meant that his successors would have a weaker military. He has also been described as a "warrior Pharaoh" due to his strong military strategies. He led the way by defeating the invaders known as "the [[Sea Peoples]]", who had caused destruction in other civilizations and empires. He was able to save Egypt from collapsing at the time when [[Late Bronze Age collapse|many other empires fell during the Late Bronze Age]]; however, the damage of the invasions took a toll on Egypt.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43077586 | jstor=43077586 | title=Ramses III and the Sea Peoples: A Structural Analysis of the Medinet Habu Inscriptions | last1=Cifola | first1=Barbara | journal=Orientalia | date=1988 | volume=57 | issue=3 | pages=275–306 }}</ref>

Rameses III constructed one of the largest mortuary temples of western Thebes, now called [[Medinet Habu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van de Mieroop |first1=Marc |title=A history of ancient Egypt |date=2021 |location=Chichester, West Sussex |isbn=978-1119620877 |page=237 |edition=Second}}</ref> He was assassinated in the [[Harem conspiracy]] led by his secondary wife [[Tiye (20th dynasty)|Tiye]] and her eldest son [[Pentawere]]. This would ultimately cause a succession crisis which would further accelerate the decline of [[Ancient Egypt]]. He was succeeded by his son and designated successor [[Ramesses IV]], although many of his other sons would rule later.

==Name==
Ramesses (also written '''Ramses''' and '''Rameses''') two main names transliterate as wsr-mꜢʿt-rʿ–mry-ỉmn rʿ-ms-s–ḥḳꜢ-ỉwnw. They are normally realised as ''Usermaatre-Meryamun Rameses-Heqaiunu'', meaning "The [[Ma'at]] of [[Ra]] is strong, Beloved of [[Amun]], Born of [[Ra]], Ruler of [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]".

==Early Years==
Ramesses III was not closely related to [[Ramesses I]] or [[Ramesses II]].
He was the son of [[Setnakhte]] and [[Tiy-Merenese]] who wrote her name in a cartouche. Setnakhte's origin is unknown. He seized the throne during a time of crisis and political unrest likely from [[Twosret]] and he was presumably a minor descendant of [[Ramesses II]] through a separate family line from that of Seti II, Siptah and Twosret.<ref>A. Dodson, Poisoned Legacy The Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty, American University in Cairo 2010, p.119</ref>

==Accession==
Ramesses III is believed to have reigned from March 1186 to April 1155&nbsp;BC. This is based on his known accession date of I [[Season of the Harvest|Shemu]] day 26 and his death on Year 32 III [[Season of the Harvest|Shemu]] day 15. Some scholars estimate a reign of 31 years, 1 month and 19 days.<ref>[[Edward F. Wente|E.F. Wente]] & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom" in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, p.235, {{ISBN|0-918986-01-X}}</ref> Alternative dates for his reign are 1187–1156&nbsp;BC.

In a description of his [[coronation of the pharaoh|coronation]] from Medinet Habu, four [[dove]]s were said to be "dispatched to the four corners of the horizon to confirm that the living [[Horus]], Ramses III, is (still) in possession of his throne, that the order of [[Maat]] prevails in the cosmos and society".<ref>[[William J. Murnane|Murnane, W. J]]., United with Eternity: A Concise Guide to the Monuments of Medinet Habu, p. 38, Oriental Institute, Chicago / American University in Cairo Press, 1980.</ref><ref name="LambertGeorge2000">{{cite book|author1=Wilfred G. Lambert|author2=A. R. George|author3=Irving L. Finkel|title=Wisdom, Gods and Literature: Studies in Assyriology in Honour of W.G. Lambert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRqbe67ChgAC&pg=PA384|access-date=18 August 2012|year=2000|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1-57506-004-0|pages=384–}}</ref>

==Tenure of constant war==
{{further|Battle of Djahy|Battle of the Delta|Ramesses III prisoner tiles}}
[[File:Statue of Ramesses III at the Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|Statue of Ramesses III at the [[Rockefeller Museum]], Jerusalem]]
[[File:Weihrauchopfer RamsesIII aus KV11.jpg|thumb|right|Ramses III offering incense, wall painting in KV11.]]
During his long tenure in the midst of the surrounding political chaos of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], Egypt was beset by foreign invaders (including the so-called [[Sea Peoples]] and the [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]]) and experienced the beginnings of increasing economic difficulties and internal strife which would eventually lead to the collapse of the Twentieth Dynasty.

In Year 8 of his reign, the Sea Peoples, including [[Philistines|Peleset]], [[Denyen]], [[Shardana]], [[Meshwesh]] of the sea, and [[Tjekker]], invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles. First, he defeated them on land in the Battle of Djahy on the Egyptian Empire's easternmost frontier in Djahy or modern-day southern Lebanon. The second one was the Battle of the Delta, in which Ramesses enticed the Sea Peoples and their ships into the mouth of the Nile, where he had assembled a fleet in ambush. Although the Egyptians had a reputation as poor seamen, they fought tenaciously. Rameses lined the shores with ranks of archers who kept up a continuous volley of arrows into the enemy ships when they attempted to land on the banks of the Nile. Then, the Egyptian navy attacked using grappling hooks to haul in the enemy ships. In the brutal hand-to-hand fighting which ensued, the Sea Peoples were utterly defeated. The [[Papyrus Harris|Harris Papyrus]] states:
{{blockquote|As for those who reached my frontier, their seed is not, their heart and their soul are finished forever and ever. As for those who came forward together on the seas, the full flame was in front of them at the Nile mouths, while a stockade of lances surrounded them on the shore, prostrated on the beach, slain, and made into heaps from head to tail.<ref>Hasel, Michael G. "Merenptah's Inscription and Reliefs and the Origin of Israel" in The Near East in the Southwest: Essays in Honor of William G. Dever" edited by Beth Albprt Hakhai ''The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' Vol. 58 2003, quoting from Edgerton, W. F., and Wilson, John A. 1936 ''Historical Records of Ramses III, the Texts in Medinet Habu, Volumes I and II''. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 12. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.</ref>}}

Ramesses III incorporated the Sea Peoples as subject peoples and settled them in southern [[Canaan]]. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. During the reign of Ramses III, Egyptian presence in the Levant is still attested as far as [[Byblos]]<ref>{{Citation |title= The levantine war-records of Ramesses III : changing attitudes, past, present and future |last= James|first= Peter|year= 2017 |pages=71}}</ref> and he may have campaigned further north into Syria.<ref>{{Cite book |title= Ramesses III: The Life and Times of Egypt's Last Hero |last= Kitchen |first= K.A. |publisher= University of Michigan Press |year=2012 |pages=14}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title= The Historical Background of a Topographical List of Ramesses III |last= Kahn|first= D.|year= 2016 |pages=161–168}}</ref> further south inscriptions of Ramses III have been found in [[Wadi Rum|southern Jordan]] and [[Tayma|northern Saudi Arabia]] which were inscribed as the pharaoh led an army through the area according to archaeologists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article182756.ece |title=Pharaonic inscription found in Saudi Arabia |website=arabnews.com |date=2025-04-28 }}</ref> He was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his Year 5 and Year 11 respectively.<ref>Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.271</ref> By the early 12th century, Egypt claimed overlordship of Cyrenaican tribes. At one point a ruler chosen by Egypt was set up (briefly) over the combined tribes of Meshwesh, Libu, and Soped.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=David O'Connor |author1-link=David O'Connor (Egyptologist) |title=Expedition Magazine - Penn Museum |website=www.penn.museum |volume=29 |issue=3 |url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/egyptians-and-libyans-in-the-new-kingdom/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology}}</ref>

==Economic turmoil==
The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt's treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. The severity of these difficulties is stressed by the fact that the first known labour strike in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III's reign, when the food rations for the favoured and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village of ''Set Maat her imenty Waset'' (now known as [[Deir el-Medina]]), could not be provisioned.<ref>William F. Edgerton, The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year, JNES 10, No. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137-145</ref> Something in the air (possibly the [[Hekla 3 eruption]]) prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground and also arrested global tree growth for almost two full decades until 1140&nbsp;BC. The result in Egypt was a substantial increase in grain prices under the later reigns of Ramesses VI-VII, whereas the prices for fowl and slaves remained constant.<ref>Frank J. Yurco, "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause" in Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999. p.456</ref> Thus the cooldown affected Ramesses III's final years and impaired his ability to provide a constant supply of grain rations to the workmen of the Deir el-Medina community.

[[Image:RamesesIII.JPG|right|220px|thumb|Osirid statues of Ramses III at his temple in Karnak (in the first courtyard of the Great Temple of Amun).]]

These difficult realities are completely ignored in Ramesses' official monuments, many of which seek to emulate those of his famous predecessor, [[Ramesses II]], and which present an image of continuity and stability. He built important additions to the [[Egyptian temple|temples]] at [[Luxor Temple|Luxor]] and [[Karnak]], and his funerary temple and administrative complex at [[Medinet Habu (temple)|Medinet-Habu]] is amongst the largest and best-preserved in Egypt; however, the uncertainty of Ramesses' times is apparent from the massive fortifications which were built to enclose the latter. No temple in the heart of Egypt prior to Ramesses' reign had ever needed to be protected in such a manner.

==Assassination==
{{Main| Harem conspiracy}}
[[File:Frammento del 'Giornale della Necropoli' relativo all'annuncio della morte di Ramesse III e della salita al trono di Ramesse IV DEI9023-HDR.tif|thumb|Fragment of the "Journal of the Necropolis" concerning the change of reign Ramesses III to [[Ramesses IV]]. [[Museo Egizio]], Turin.]]

Thanks to the discovery of [[papyrus]] [[Judicial Papyrus of Turin|trial transcripts]] (dated to Ramesses III), it is now known that there was a [[Conspiracies in ancient Egypt|plot]] against his life as a result of a royal [[harem conspiracy]] during a celebration at [[Medinet Habu (location)|Medinet Habu]] On day 15 of month 2 of [[Season of the Harvest|Shemu]] 1155 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://collezionepapiri.museoegizio.it/en-GB/document/391/ |title=The Harem Conspiracy Papyrus/Judical Papyrus |author=<!--Not stated--> |orig-date=1155 BC |website=Museo Egizio, Turin Italy |publisher=Museo Egizio, Turin Italy |access-date=30 December 2024 |quote=Cat. 1875 is a judicial papyrus that recounts a trial that (possibly) took place against a group of conspirators for having attempted to kill Pharaoh Ramesses III. The instigator was queen Tiye who, together with other women from the Pharaoh’s harem and several people in high positions in the government, tried to place Tiye's son Pentaweret on the throne instead of the appointed heir.}}</ref> The conspiracy was instigated by [[Tiye (20th dynasty)|Tiye]], one of his three known wives (the others being [[Tyti]] and [[Iset Ta-Hemdjert]]), over whose son would inherit the throne. Tyti's son, Ramesses Amenherkhepshef (the future [[Ramesses IV]]), was the eldest and the successor chosen by Ramesses III in preference to Tiye's son [[Pentaweret]].

The trial documents<ref name="ReferenceA">J. H. Breasted, ''Ancient Records of Egypt'', Volume IV, §§416-456</ref> show that many individuals were implicated in the plot.<ref>James H. Breasted, ''Ancient Records of Egypt'', Volume IV, §§416-417</ref> Chief among them were Queen [[Tiye (20th dynasty)|Tiye]] and her son [[Pentaweret]], Ramesses' chief of the chamber, [[Pebekkamen]], seven royal butlers (a respectable state office), two Treasury overseers, two Army standard bearers, two royal scribes and a herald. There is little doubt that all of the main conspirators were executed: some of the condemned were given the option of committing suicide (possibly by poison) rather than being put to death.<ref>James H. Breasted, ''Ancient Records of Egypt'', Part Four, §§446-450</ref> According to the surviving trial transcripts, a total of three separate trials were started, while 38 people were sentenced to death.<ref>Joyce Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, Thames & Hudson October 2006, p.170</ref> The tombs of Tiye and her son Pentaweret were robbed and their names erased to prevent them from enjoying an afterlife. The Egyptians did such a thorough job of this that the only references to them are the trial documents and what remains of their tombs.

Some of the accused harem women tried to seduce the members of the judiciary who tried them but were caught in the act. Judges who were involved were severely punished.<ref name="Cambridge Ancient History 2000, p. 247">''Cambridge Ancient History'', Cambridge University Press 2000, p.247</ref>
[[File:Sarcophagus of Ramses III, Louvre, egyptologie 22.jpg|thumb|250px|Red granite sarcophagus of Ramesses III (Louvre). The Lid is in the [[Fitzwilliam Museum]].<ref name=Strudwick113>{{cite book |last1=Strudwick |first1=Nigel |last2=Strudwick |first2=Helen|date=1999 |title=Thebes in Egypt A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor|publisher=Cornell University Press |page=113 |isbn=0801436931}}</ref>
]]

Ramesses IV, the king's designated successor, assumed the throne upon his death rather than Pentaweret, who was intended to be the main beneficiary of the palace conspiracy. Moreover, Ramesses III died in his 32nd year before the [[Judicial Papyrus of Turin|summaries of the sentences]] were composed,<ref>J. H. Breasted, ''Ancient Records of Egypt'', p.418</ref> but the same year that the trial documents<ref name="ReferenceA"/> record the trial and execution of the conspirators.

[[File:Cartouches of Ramesses III.jpg|thumb|Cartouches of Ramesses III.]]
Although it was long believed that Ramesses III's body showed no obvious wounds,<ref name="Cambridge Ancient History 2000, p. 247" /> an examination of the mummy by a German forensic team, televised in the documentary ''Ramesses: Mummy King Mystery'' on the Science Channel in 2011, showed excessive bandages around the neck. A subsequent [[CT scan]] that was done in Egypt by Ashraf Selim and [[Sahar Saleem]], professors of [[radiology]] at [[Cairo University]], revealed that beneath the bandages was a deep knife wound across the throat, deep enough to reach the vertebrae. According to the documentary narrator, "It was a wound no one could have survived."<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/sciencefair/2012/12/17/ramses-ramesses-murdered-bmj/1775159/ Egyptologist: Ramses III assassinated in coup attempt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180302164823/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/sciencefair/2012/12/17/ramses-ramesses-murdered-bmj/1775159/ |date=2018-03-02 }}, Dan Vergano, ''USA Today'', December 17, 2012</ref> The CT scan revealed that his throat was cut to the bone, severing the [[trachea]], [[esophagus]], and blood vessels, which would have been rapidly fatal.<ref name=Revisiting/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hawass |first1=Zahi |last2=Saleem |first2=Sahar N. |title=Scanning the Pharaohs : CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies |date=2016 |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |location=New York |isbn=978-977-416-673-0 |pages=181–182 |edition=Hardback}}</ref> The December 2012 issue of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' quoted the conclusion of the study of the team of researchers, led by [[Zahi Hawass]], the former head of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity, and his Egyptian team, as well as Albert Zink from the Institute for Mummies and the Iceman of [[Eurac Research]] in [[Bolzano]], [[Italy]], which stated that conspirators murdered Ramesses III by cutting his throat.<ref name=Revisiting>{{cite journal |title=Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study |author=Zahi Hawass, Somaia Ismail, Ashraf Selim, Sahar N. Saleem, Dina Fathalla, Sally Wasef, Ahmed Zakaria Gad, Rama Saad, Suzan Fares, Hany Amer, Paul Gostner, Yehia Z. Gad, Carsten M. Pusch, Albert R. Zink |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e8268 |journal= British Medical Journal | doi=10.1136/bmj.e8268 |date=December 17, 2012 |volume=345 |pages=e8268 |pmid=23247979 |access-date=December 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202141525/http://www.bmj.com//content/345/bmj.e8268 |archive-date=February 2, 2013 |url-status=live |hdl=10072/62081 |s2cid=206896841 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="BBC">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-20755264 King Ramesses III's throat was slit, analysis reveals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504185340/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-20755264 |date=2018-05-04 }}. Retrieved 2012-12-18.</ref><ref>British Medical Journal, [http://www.bmj.com/press-releases/2012/12/17/study-reveals-pharaoh’s-throat-was-cut-during-royal-coup Study reveals that Pharaoh’s throat was cut during royal coup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518221831/https://www.bmj.com/press-releases/2012/12/17/study-reveals-pharaoh%E2%80%99s-throat-was-cut-during-royal-coup |date=2019-05-18 }}, Monday, December 17, 2012</ref> Zink observed in an interview that:

{{blockquote|The cut [to Ramesses III's throat] is&nbsp;... very deep and quite large, it really goes down almost down to the bone (spine) – it must have been a lethal injury.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pharaoh's murder riddle solved after 3,000 years |author=AFP |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9752002/Pharaohs-murder-riddle-solved-after-3000-years.html |newspaper= [[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=December 18, 2012 |access-date=December 18, 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130421090618/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9752002/Pharaohs-murder-riddle-solved-after-3000-years.html |archive-date=April 21, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

A subsequent study of the CT scan of the mummy of Ramesses III's body by Sahar Saleem revealed that the left big toe was likely chopped by a heavy sharp object like an ax. There were no signs of bone healing so this injury must have happened shortly before death. The embalmers placed a prosthesis-like object made of linen in place of the amputated toe. The embalmers placed six amulets around both feet and ankles for magical healing of the wound for the life after. This additional injury of the foot supports the assassination of the Pharaoh, likely by the hands of multiple assailants using different weapons.<ref name="Livescience">{{Cite news|url=http://www.livescience.com/54100-pharaoh-ramesses-iii-killed-by-multiple-assailants-egyptologists-say.html|title=Pharaoh Ramesses III Killed by Multiple Assailants, Radiologist Says|work=Live Science|access-date=2018-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227034913/https://www.livescience.com/54100-pharaoh-ramesses-iii-killed-by-multiple-assailants-egyptologists-say.html|archive-date=2018-02-27|url-status=live}}</ref>

Before this discovery it had been speculated that Ramesses III had been killed by means that would not have left a mark on the body. Among the conspirators were practitioners of magic,<ref>J. H. Breasted, ''Ancient Records of Egypt'', pp.454-456</ref> who might well have used poison. Some had put forth a hypothesis that a snakebite from a [[Viperinae|viper]] was the cause of the king's death. His mummy includes an [[amulet]] to protect Ramesses III in the afterlife from snakes. The servant in charge of his food and drink were also among the listed conspirators, but there were also other conspirators who were called the snake and the lord of snakes.

In one respect the conspirators certainly failed. The crown passed to the king's designated successor: Ramesses IV. Ramesses III may have been doubtful as to the latter's chances of succeeding him, given that, in the [[Harris Papyrus|Great Harris Papyrus]], he implored Amun to ensure his son's rights.<ref>J. H. Breasted, ''Ancient Records of Egypt'', Part Four, §246</ref>

==DNA and possible relationship with his son Pentaware==
[[File:Horus and Seth crowning Ramesses III.JPG|thumb|The gods [[Horus]] (left) and [[Set (mythology)|Set]] (right) blessing Ramesses in this statute, currently located in the [[Egyptian Museum]].]]
The Zink unit determined that the mummy of an unknown man buried with Ramesses was, because of the proven genetic relationship and a mummification process that suggested punishment, a good candidate for the pharaoh's son, Pentawere, who was the only son to revolt against his father. It was impossible to determine his cause of death. Both mummies were predicted by Whit Athey's [[Microsatellite|STR]]-predictor to share the Y chromosomal haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-V38|E1b1a-V38]] and 50% of their genetic material, which pointed to a father-son relationship.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hawass, Zahi|display-authors=etal|title=Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study|journal=BMJ|date=2012|volume=345|issue=e8268|pages=e8268|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233941674|access-date=6 January 2018|doi=10.1136/bmj.e8268|pmid=23247979|hdl=10072/62081|s2cid=206896841|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In 2010 Hawass et al undertook detailed anthropological, radiological, and genetic studies as part of the King [[Tutankhamun]] Family Project. The objectives included attempting to determine familial relationships among 11 royal mummies of the New Kingdom, as well to research for pathological features including potential inherited disorders and infectious diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hawass |first1=Zahi |last2=Gad |first2=Yehia Z. |last3=Ismail |first3=Somaia |last4=Khairat |first4=Rabab |last5=Fathalla |first5=Dina |last6=Hasan |first6=Naglaa |last7=Ahmed |first7=Amal |last8=Elleithy |first8=Hisham |last9=Ball |first9=Markus |last10=Gaballah |first10=Fawzi |last11=Wasef |first11=Sally |last12=Fateen |first12=Mohamed |last13=Amer |first13=Hany |last14=Gostner |first14=Paul |last15=Selim |first15=Ashraf |date=2010-02-17 |title=Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family |url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.121 |journal=JAMA |volume=303 |issue=7 |pages=638–647 |doi=10.1001/jama.2010.121 |pmid=20159872 |issn=0098-7484}}</ref> In 2012, Hawass et al undertook an anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study of the 20th dynasty mummies of Ramesses III and an unknown man which were found together.<ref name=Revisiting/> In 2022, S.O.Y. Keita analysed 8 [[STR analysis|Short Tandem loci]] (STR) data published as part of these studies by Hawass et al, using an algorithm that only has three choices: Eurasians, sub-Saharan Africans, and East Asians. Using these three options, Keita concluded that the majority of the samples, which included the genetic remains of Rameses III and Tutankhamun had a population "affinity with '[[sub-Sahara]]n' Africans in one affinity analysis". However, Keita cautioned that this does not mean that the royal mummies “lacked other affiliations” which he argued had been obscured in typological thinking. Keita further added that different “data and algorithms might give different results” which reflects the complexity of biological heritage and the associated interpretation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Keita |first1=S. O. Y. |title=Ideas about "Race" in Nile Valley Histories: A Consideration of "Racial" Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from "Black Pharaohs" to Mummy Genomest |url=https://egyptianexpedition.org/articles/ideas-about-race-in-nile-valley-histories-a-consideration-of-racial-paradigms-in-recent-presentations-on-nile-valley-africa-from-black-pharaohs/ |website=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections|date=September 2022 }}</ref>

==Legacy==
The Great Harris Papyrus or [[Papyrus Harris I]], which was commissioned by his son and chosen successor [[Ramesses IV]], chronicles this king's vast donations of land, gold statues and monumental construction to Egypt's various temples at [[Piramesse]], [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]], [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], [[Athribis]], [[Hermopolis]], [[Thinis|This]], [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], [[Coptos]], [[Eileithyiaspolis|El Kab]] and various cities in Nubia. It also records that the king dispatched a trading expedition to the [[Land of Punt]] and quarried the copper mines of Timna in southern Canaan. Papyrus Harris I records some of Ramesses III's activities:

{{blockquote|I sent my emissaries to the land of Atika, [i.e., Timna] to the great copper mines which are there. Their ships carried them along and others went overland on their donkeys. It had not been heard of since the [time of any earlier] king. Their mines were found and [they] yielded copper which was loaded by tens of thousands into their ships, they being sent in their care to Egypt, and arriving safely. (P. Harris I, 78, 1–4)<ref>A. J. Peden, ''The Reign of Ramesses IV'', Aris & Phillips Ltd, 1994. p.32 Atika has long been equated with Timna, see here B. Rothenburg, ''Timna, Valley of the Biblical Copper Mines'' (1972), pp.201–203 where he also notes the probable port at Jezirat al-Faroun.</ref>}}
[[File:Medinet Haboe Reliëf.jpg|right|thumb|Medinet Habu temple relief of Ramesses III]]

Ramesses began the reconstruction of the [[Temple of Khonsu]] at [[Karnak]] from the foundations of an earlier temple of [[Amenhotep III]] and completed the Temple of [[Medinet Habu (temple)|Medinet Habu]] around his Year 12.<ref>[[Jacobus Van Dijk]], 'The Amarna Period and the later New Kingdom' in ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', ed. Ian Shaw, Oxford University Press paperback, (2002) p.305</ref> He decorated the walls of his Medinet Habu temple with scenes of his naval and land battles against the [[Sea Peoples]]. This monument stands today as one of the best-preserved temples of the New Kingdom.<ref>Van Dijk, p.305</ref>

The [[mummy]] of Ramesses III was discovered by antiquarians in 1886 and is regarded as the prototypical Egyptian Mummy in numerous Hollywood movies.<ref>Bob Brier, ''The Encyclopedia of Mummies'', Checkmark Books, 1998. p.154</ref> His tomb ([[KV11]]) is one of the largest in the [[Valley of the Kings]].

In 1980, James Harris and [[Edward F. Wente]] conducted a series of X-ray examinations on New Kingdom Pharaohs crania and skeletal remains, which included the mummified remains of Ramesses III. The analysis in general found strong similarities between the New Kingdom rulers of the [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|19th&nbsp;Dynasty]] and [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|20th&nbsp;Dynasty]] with [[Mesolithic]] Nubian samples. The authors also noted affinities with modern Mediterranean populations of Levantine origin. Harris and Wente suggested this represented admixture as the Rammessides were of northern origin.<ref>{{cite book |title=An X-ray atlas of the royal mummies |date=1980 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0226317455 |pages=207–208}}</ref>

In April 2021 his mummy was moved from the [[Museum of Egyptian Antiquities]] to the [[National Museum of Egyptian Civilization]] along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the [[Pharaohs' Golden Parade]].<ref name=Parisse>{{cite news |last=Parisse |first=Emmanuel |date=5 April 2021 |title=22 Ancient Pharaohs Have Been Carried Across Cairo in an Epic 'Golden Parade' |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/22-ancient-pharaohs-have-been-carried-across-cairo-in-an-epic-golden-parade |work=ScienceAlert |access-date=5 April 2021}}</ref>

==Chronological dispute==
There is uncertainty regarding the exact dates of the reign of Ramesses III. This uncertainty affects the dating of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse|Late Bronze/Iron Age transition]] in the [[Levant]]. This transition is defined by the appearance of [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] LH IIIC:1b ([[Philistines|Philistine]]) pottery in the coastal plain of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], generally assumed to correspond to the settlement of Sea Peoples there at the 8th year of Ramesses III.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mazar | first1 = Amihai | year = 1985 | title = The emergence of the Philistine material culture | journal = Israel Exploration Journal | volume = 35 | issue = 2/3| pages = 95–107 | jstor=27925978}}</ref> Radiocarbon dates and other external evidence permit this transition to be as late as 1100 BC, compared to the conventional dating of c. 1179 BC.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hagens | first1 = Graham | year = 2006 | title = Testing the Limits: Radiocarbon dating and the end of the Late Bronze Age | url = https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/2850/2614 | journal = Radiocarbon | volume = 48 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–100 | doi = 10.1017/S0033822200035414 | bibcode = 2006Radcb..48...83H | access-date = 2014-10-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170317054932/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/2850/2614 | archive-date = 2017-03-17 | url-status = live | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Some scientists have tried to establish a chronological point for this pharaoh's reign at 1159&nbsp;BC, based on a 1999 dating of the [[Hekla 3 eruption]] of the Hekla volcano in Iceland. Since contemporary records show that the king experienced difficulties provisioning his workmen at [[Deir el-Medina]] with supplies in his 29th Year, this dating of Hekla 3 might connect his 28th or 29th regnal year to c. 1159&nbsp;BC.<ref>Frank J. Yurco, "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause" in ''Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente'', ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp.456-458</ref> A minor discrepancy of one year is possible since Egypt's granaries could have had reserves to cope with at least a single bad year of crop harvests following the onset of the disaster. This implies that the king's reign would have ended just three to four years later, around 1156 or 1155&nbsp;BC. A rival date of "2900&nbsp;BP" (950&nbsp;BC) has since been proposed by scientists based on a re-examination of the volcanic layer.<ref>At first, scholars tried to redate the event to "3000&nbsp;BP": [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_54866.htm TOWARDS A HOLOCENE TEPHROCHRONOLOGY FOR SWEDEN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407061552/http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_54866.htm |date=2009-04-07 }}, Stefan Wastegǎrd, XVI INQUA Congress, Paper No. 41-13, Saturday, July 26, 2003. Also: [http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/242/1/145 Late Holocene solifluction history reconstructed using tephrochronology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201175051/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/242/1/145 |date=2008-12-01 }}, Martin P. Kirkbride & Andrew J. Dugmore, Geological Society, London, Special Publications; 2005; v. 242; p. 145-155.</ref> Given that no Egyptologist dates Ramesses III's reign to as late as 1000&nbsp;BC, this would mean that the Hekla 3 eruption presumably occurred well after Ramesses III's reign. A 2002 study, using high-precision radiocarbon dating of a peat deposit containing ash layers, put this eruption in the range 1087–1006 BC.<ref name="Bogaard2002">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1006/qres.2002.2325| title = Two Tephra Layers Bracketing Late Holocene Paleoecological Changes in Northern Germany| journal = Quaternary Research| volume = 57| issue = 3| page = 314| year = 2002| last1 = Van Den Bogaard | first1 = C. | last2 = Dörfler | first2 = W. | last3 = Glos | first3 = R. | last4 = Nadeau | first4 = M. J. E. | last5 = Grootes | first5 = P. M. | last6 = Erlenkeuser | first6 = H. | bibcode = 2002QuRes..57..314V| s2cid = 140611931}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Ramses III mummy head.png|Ramesses III's mummy
File:KhonsuTemple-Karnak-Incredible.jpg|Finely painted reliefs from Ramesses III's Khonsu temple at Karnak
File:PalaceInlays-NubiansPhilistineAmoriteSyrianAndHittite-Compilation-MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png|[[Ramesses III prisoner tiles]]: Inlay figures, faience and glass, of "the traditional enemies of Ancient Egypt" from Medinet Habu, at the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]. From left: 2 [[Nubians]], [[Philistine]], [[Amorite]], Syrian, [[Hittites|Hittite]]
File:Medinet Habu Ramses III. Tempel 02.JPG|Ramesses III's mortuary temple at Medinet Habu.
File:SFEC-2010-MEDINET HABU-052.JPG|A painted ceiling of [[Nekhbet]] at Ramesses III's mortuary temple at Medinet Habu.
File:Bas-relief at the mortuary temple of Ramesses III 17.jpg|Medinet Habu – the severed hands of the defeated enemies
File:Stele Apis Ramesses3 mariette.jpg|Stele (one of three) commemorating the death of an Apis bull under the reign of Ramesses III, 20th dynasty, New Kingdom. Found in the Serapeum of Saqqara, now in the Louvre Museum.
File:Medinet Habu migdol4.JPG|Wall relief of Ramses III on migdol of Medinet Habu, Theban Necropolis, Egypt
File:Great Harris Papyrus, Sheet 2.jpg|Ramesses III talking with the [[Theban Triad]]: [[Amun]], [[Mut]] and [[Khonsu]]. The ‘Great Harris Papyrus’ at the [[British Museum]], c. 1150 BC. Image taken from the book ''[[The Search for Ancient Egypt]]'' ({{p.|91}}) by [[Jean Vercoutter]].
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Eric H. Cline and David O'Connor, eds. ''Ramesses III: The Life and Times of Egypt's Last Hero'' (University of Michigan Press; 2012) 560 pages; essays by scholars.
* [[Conspiracies in ancient Egypt]]

==External links==
{{commons category|Ramses III}}
*[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Archaeology/timna.html Timna: Valley of the Ancient Copper Mines]

{{Pharaohs}}
{{Rulers of the Ancient Near East}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramesses 03}}
[[Category:Ramesses III| ]]
[[Category:12th-century BC pharaohs]]
[[Category:Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian mummies]]
[[Category:Sea Peoples]]
[[Category:13th-century BC births]]
[[Category:12th-century BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:12th-century BC murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:Late Bronze Age collapse]]
[[Category:Deaths by stabbing in Egypt]]