Editing Racial quota

{{Short description|Numerical requirements for hiring members of a particular racial group}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Discrimination sidebar}}
'''Racial quotas''' in employment and education are numerical requirements or [[Quotaism|quotas]] for hiring, promoting, admitting and/or graduating members of a particular [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial group]]. Racial quotas are often established as means of diminishing racial [[discrimination]], addressing under-representation and evident [[racism]] against those racial groups or, the opposite, against the disadvantaged majority group (see ''[[numerus clausus]]'' or ''[[Bumiputera (Malaysia)|bhumiputra]]'' systems). Conversely, quotas have also been used historically to promote discrimination against minority groups by limiting access to influential institutions in employment and education.

These quotas may be determined by governmental authority and backed by governmental sanctions. When the total number of jobs or enrollment slots is fixed, this proportion may get translated to a specific number.

==Regions and nations==

=== Ancient Mongolia ===
The [[Mongols]] divided different races into a four-class system during the [[Yuan dynasty]].

The [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty|Mongol Emperor]] [[Kublai Khan]] had introduced a hierarchy of reliability by dividing the population of the Yuan dynasty into the following classes:

*Mongols introduced it to China which was at time ruled by the Mongol Empire
*[[Semu]]ren, immigrants from the west and some clans of [[Central Asia]] (Muslims, Christians, Jews, Buddhists)
*North Chinese, [[Khitan people|Kitans]], [[Jurchens]] and [[Koreans]]
*Southerners, or all subjects of the former Song dynasty{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

=== Ancient China ===
Several laws enforcing [[racial segregation]] of foreigners were passed during the [[Tang dynasty]]. In 779 AD, the Tang dynasty issued an [[edict]] which forced [[Uyghur people|Uighurs]] to wear their ethnic dress, and restricted them from marrying Chinese.

In 836 AD, Lu Chun was appointed as governor of [[Guangzhou|Canton]]. He was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and [[Interracial marriage|intermarriage]]. Lu enforced separation, banning [[interracial marriage]]s, and prevented foreigners from owning properties.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&q=chinese+uighurs+779+edict+lure+canton+836+foreigners+and+chinese+lu+governor+forbade+marriages+forced+separate&pg=PA22|title = The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics|author = Edward H. Schafer|year = 1963|publisher = University of California Press|isbn = 0-520-05462-8|page = 22|access-date = 2010-06-28}}</ref>
The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "[[People of colour]]", terms referring to foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", etc.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgVvAh2_EsC&q=836+private+intercourse+dark+peoples&pg=PA170|title = China's cosmopolitan empire: the Tang dynasty|author = Mark Edward Lewis|year = 2009|publisher = Harvard University Press|isbn = 978-0-674-03306-1|page = 170|access-date = 2010-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url = https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern|url-access = registration|quote = 836 decree chinese people of colour.|title = A history of Chinese civilization|author = Jacques Gernet|year = 1996|publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn = 0-521-49781-7|page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/294 294]|access-date = 2010-10-28}}</ref>

=== France ===
By 1935, the French government enacted a series of racial quotas on certain professions.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Europe's fear of Muslim refugees echoes rhetoric of 1930s anti-Semitism|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/09/02/europes-current-anti-migrant-rhetoric-carries-echoes-of-1930s-anti-semitism/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date = 2015-09-02|access-date = 2015-11-21|issn = 0190-8286|language = en-US|first = Ishaan|last = Tharoor}}</ref>

=== Germany ===
See [[Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses]].

=== Malaysia ===
See [[Bumiputera (Malaysia)]].

===United States===
The [[National Origins Formula]] was an American system of immigration quotas, between 1921 and 1965, which restricted [[Immigration to the United States|immigration]] on the basis of existing proportions of the population. The goal was to maintain the existing ethnic composition of the United States. It had the effect of giving low quotas to Eastern and Southern Europe.

Such racial quotas were restored after the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], especially during the 1970s.<ref name="'70s 242">{{cite book|title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|author-link= David Frum|year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0-465-04195-7|pages= [https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/242 242–244]|url= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/242}}</ref> [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor Secretary]] [[George Shultz|George P. Shultz]] demanded that anti-black construction unions allow a certain number of black people into the unions.<ref name="'70s 242" /> The [[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]] began enforcing these quotas across the country.<ref name="'70s 242" /> After a [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] case, ''[[Griggs v. Duke Power Company]]'', found that neutral application tests and procedures that still resulted in ''de facto'' segregation of employees (if previous discrimination had existed) were illegal, more companies began implementing quotas on their own.<ref name="'70s 242" />

In a 1973 court case, a federal judge created one of the first mandated quotas when he ruled that half of the [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]] Police Department's new employees must be either black or [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]].<ref name="'70s 242"/> In 1974, the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] and the [[United Steelworkers of America]] came to an agreement on the largest-to-then quota program, for steel unions.<ref name="'70s 242"/>

In 1978, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Regents of the University of California v. Bakke]]'' that public universities (and other government institutions) could not set specific numerical targets based on race for admissions or employment.<ref name="'70s 242"/> The Court said that "goals" and "timetables" for diversity could be set instead.<ref name="'70s 242"/> A 1979 Supreme Court case, ''[[United Steelworkers v. Weber]]'', found that private employers could set rigid numerical quotas, if they chose to do so.<ref name="'70s 242"/> In 1980, the Supreme Court found that a 10% racial quota for federal contractors was permitted.<ref name="'70s 242"/>

In 1990 [[City University of New York]] was accused of discriminatory hiring practices against Italian-Americans.<ref>{{cite news
    |newspaper=[[New York Post]]
    |title=CUNY hit for Italian-American hiring bias
    |quote=U.S. Labor Department .. Italian-Americans have yet to benefit .. identified in 1976
    |date=August 10, 1990 |page=8}}</ref>

In 1991, President [[George H. W. Bush]] made an attempt to abolish [[affirmative action]] altogether, maintaining that "any regulation, rule, enforcement practice or other aspect of these programs that mandates, encourages, or otherwise involves the use of quotas, preferences, set-asides or other devices on the basis of race, sex, religion or national origin are to be terminated as soon as is legally feasible".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/21/us/bush-to-order-end-of-rules-allowing-race-based-hiring.html |title=Bush to order end of rules allowing race-based hiring |date=21 November 1991 |access-date=14 October 2017 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> This claim led up to the creation of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1991]]; however, the document was not able to implement these changes. It only covered the terms for settling cases where discrimination has been confirmed to have occurred.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1991_pub_l_102_166|title=Civil Rights Act of 1991 – Pub. L. 102–166 – findUSlaw|website=finduslaw.com}}</ref>

[[College admissions in the United States]] have had racial quotas; see {{slink|Numerus clausus|United States}} for details. These have notably included blanket bans on [[African-American]]s, [[Jewish quota]]s from 1918 to the 1950s, and an alleged [[Asian quota]] from the 1980s and ongoing {{as of|2017|lc=y}}.

=== South Africa ===
Local trade unions commonly use the term "Absolute representation" in this regard.<ref name="stopkwotas">{{cite web|url=http://stopkwotas.co.za/faq/absolute-representation/|title=Absolute representation &#124; Stop Kwotas|publisher=stopkwotas.co.za|access-date=2014-10-05}}</ref>
* '''[[Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment|BEE (Black Economic Empowerment)]]''' – Companies are scored based on the quota of black ownership, senior managers, training, as well as suppliers. These scores then translate into their ability to compete for government tenders.
* '''[[Affirmative action|Affirmative Action]]''' – The SAPS (South African Police Service) operates a quota system policy for hiring and promotion. Positions will be left unfilled if the appropriate demographic candidate cannot be recruited, even if another qualified person is available.<ref name="iol">{{cite web|url=http://www.iol.co.za/news/crime-courts/solidarity-to-fight-for-minorities-in-saps-1.1746787#.VBoAXaFwbiw|title=Solidarity to fight for minorities in SAPS – Crime & Courts &#124; IOL News &#124; IOL.co.za|publisher=iol.co.za|access-date=2014-10-05}}</ref><ref name="solidariteit">{{cite web|url=https://solidariteit.co.za/en/background-to-renate-barnard-case/|title=Background to Renate Barnard case|publisher=solidariteit.co.za|access-date=2014-10-05}}</ref>
* '''University Enrollment''' – First year students are registered on a racial quota basis. In some cases there are different admission requirements for different demographics. For example: to study medicine at the [[University of Cape Town|University of Cape Town (UCT)]], white and Indian students require at least a 78% average on their National Senior Certificate, whereas black students only requires 59%.<ref name="iol2">{{cite web|url=http://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/bar-still-raised-for-white-pupils-1.1111112#.VBoYcaFwbiw|title=Bar still raised for white pupils – Cape Times &#124; IOL.co.za|publisher=iol.co.za|access-date=2014-10-05}}</ref> This is largely as a result of the quota system requiring privileged access for certain ethnic groups – In 2016 the University of KwaZulu-Natal quota for medical students is 69% black African, 19% Indian, 9% coloured, 2% white and 1% other.<ref>{{Cite web|title=University race quotas in spotlight|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/kwazulu-natal/university-race-quotas-in-spotlight-1650992|access-date=2021-09-20|website=www.iol.co.za|language=en}}</ref>
* '''Sport''' – Sports Minister Fikile Mbalula has imposed quota systems in athletics, cricket, football, netball and rugby.<ref name="independent">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/rugby/rugby-union/international/south-africa-bring-back-racial-quotas-for-teams-8762467.html|title=South Africa bring back racial quotas for teams – International – Rugby Union – The Independent|date=14 August 2013 |publisher=independent.co.uk|access-date=2014-10-05}}</ref>

==Opposition==
{{See also|Meritocracy|Equality before the law}}
[[File:Protesto contra o sistema de cotas.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Students protesting against racial quotas in [[Brasília]], [[Brazil]]. The sign reads: "Want an opening? Pass the [[Vestibular]] (entry exam)!"]]
Opponents of quotas object that one group is favored at the expense of another whenever a quota is invoked rather than factors such as grade point averages or test scores. They argue that using quotas displaces individuals that would normally be favored based on their individual achievements. Opponents of racial quotas believe that qualifications should be the only determining factor when competing for a job or admission to a school. It is argued this causes "[[reverse discrimination]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/reverse-discrimination.html|title=What is reverse discrimination? definition and meaning|website=BusinessDictionary.com}}</ref> where individuals in the majority to lose out to a minority.

==Examples==
Some affirmative action programs openly involve quotas such as the admission program of the [[Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Jon|last=Jeter|title=Affirmative Action Debate Forces Brazil to Take Look in the Mirror|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A62685-2003Jun15?language=printer|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926122952/https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A62685-2003Jun15/?language=printer|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 26, 2018|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=June 16, 2003}}</ref> (See also: [[Vestibular exam#Racial quotas]].)

The law student organization [[Building a Better Legal Profession]] developed a method to encourage politically liberal students to avoid [[law firms]] whose racial makeup is markedly different from that of the population as a whole. In an October 2007 press conference reported in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'',<ref>Amir Efrati, You Say You Want a Big-Law Revolution, Take II, "Wall Street Journal", October 10, 2007.</ref> and ''The New York Times'',<ref>{{Cite news |last=Liptak |first=Adam |date=2007-10-29 |title=In Students' Eyes, Look-Alike Lawyers Don't Make the Grade |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/us/29bar.html |access-date=2024-07-04 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> the group released data publicizing the numbers of African-Americans, Hispanics, and Asian-Americans at America's top law firms. The group has sent information to top law schools around the country to encourage students who agree with its viewpoint to take the demographic data into account when they choose where to work after graduation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weinstein |first=Henry |date=2007-10-11 |title=Lack of diversity marks L.A. law |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-oct-11-me-diversity11-story.html |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> As more students choose where to work based on firms' diversity rankings, firms face an increasing market pressure to change theirs.<ref>Thomas Adcock and Zusha Elinson, "Student Group Grades Firms On Diversity, Pro Bono Work", ''New York Law Journal'', October 19, 2007, http://www.law.com/jsp/nylj/PubArticleNY.jsp?hubtype=BackPage&id=1192698212305</ref>

== Examples of racial quotas ==
* [[Affirmative Action]] in some but not all cases
* [[Asian quota]]
* [[Jewish quota]]
* [[Reservation in India]]
* [[Reserved political positions]]

==See also==
* [[All-women shortlists]]
* [[Diversity (business)]]
* [[Equality of opportunity]] vs [[Equality of outcome]]
* [[Gender quota]]
* [[Numerus clausus]]
* [[Racism]], [[Anti-racism]]
* [[Reverse discrimination]], [[Discrimination]]
*''[[Regents of the University of California v. Bakke]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Racism topics}}{{Discrimination}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Racial Quota}}
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Affirmative action]]
[[Category:Quotas]]

[[es:Cuota de equidad]]