Editing Pueraria montana

{{Short description|Species of legume}}
{{speciesbox
|image = Starr 021012-0015 Pueraria montana var. lobata.jpg
|image_caption = ''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata''
|image_alt = Pueraria montana var. lobata
|taxon = Pueraria montana
|authority = ([
*''Zeydora agrestis'' <small>Lour. ex Gomes Mach.</small>
|synonyms_ref = <ref name="516708-1" >{{cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:516708-1 |title=''Pueraria montana'' (Lour.) Merr. |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=11 April 2021 }}</ref><ref name="77214026-1" >{{cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:77214026-1 |title=''Pueraria montana'' var. ''montana'' |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=11 April 2021 }}</ref>
|}}

'''''Pueraria montana''''' is a species of plant in the botanical family [[Fabaceae]].<ref>{{Cite report |publisher=[[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] |work=[[Engineer Research and Development Center]] |last1=Denight|first1=Michael L.|last2=Guertin|first2=Patrick J.|last3=Gebhart|first3=Dick L.|last4=Nelson|first4=Linda|date=2008-11-01|title=Invasive Species Biology, Control, and Research. Part 2. Multiflora Rose (Rosa multiflora)|location=Fort Belvoir, VA|doi=10.21236/ada492988|hdl=11681/8586|hdl-access=free}}</ref> At least three sub-species (alternatively called varieties) are known. It is closely related to other species in the genus ''[[Pueraria]]'' (''P. edulis'' and ''[[Pueraria phaseoloides|P. phaseoloides]]'') and the common name  is used for all of these [[species]] and [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s between them. The morphological differences between them are subtle, they can breed with each other, and it appears that introduced kudzu populations in the [[United States]] have ancestry from more than one of the species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jewett |first1=D. K. |last2=Jiang |first2=C. J. |last3=Britton |first3=K. O. |last4=Sun |first4=J. H. |last5=Tang |first5=J. |title=Characterizing Specimens of Kudzu and Related Taxa with RAPD's |journal=Castanea |date=2003 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=254–260 |jstor=4034173 }}</ref><ref>{{citation | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3180.2005.00462.x | title = Genetic diversity of ''Pueraria lobata'' (kudzu) and closely related taxa as revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat analysis | year = 2005 | last1 = Sun | first1 = J H | journal = Weed Research | volume = 45 | pages = 255 | last2 = Li | first2 = Z-C | last3 = Jewett | first3 = D K | last4 = Britton | first4 = K O | last5 = Ye | first5 = W H | last6 = Ge | first6 = X-J | issue = 4 | bibcode = 2005WeedR..45..255S }}</ref>

==Description==
It is a seasonal climbing plant, growing high where suitable surfaces ([[tree]]s, [[cliff]]s, [[wall]]s) are available, and also growing as ground cover where there are no vertical surfaces. It is a [[perennial plant|perennial]] vine with tuberous roots and rope-like, dark brown stems to {{cvt|20|m}} long. It grows up to {{convert|20|m}} per year and can achieve a height of {{convert|30|m}}. It has markedly hairy herbaceous stems.

''Pueraria montana'' is native to [[East Asia]], primarily [[subtropics|subtropical]] and [[temperateness|temperate]] regions of [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]],<ref name=Harrington>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1614/02-142 | doi=10.1614/02-142 | title=Kudzu (Pueraria montana) community responses to herbicides, burning, and high-density loblolly pine | year=2003 | last1=Harrington | first1=Timothy B. | last2=Rader-Dixon | first2=Laura T. | last3=Taylor | first3=John W. | journal=Weed Science | volume=51 | issue=6 | pages=965–974 | s2cid=2356816 }}</ref><ref name=Hickman>{{cite journal | doi=10.1073/pnas.0912279107 | title=Kudzu ( Pueraria montana ) invasion doubles emissions of nitric oxide and increases ozone pollution | year=2010 | last1=Hickman | first1=Jonathan E. | last2=Wu | first2=Shiliang | last3=Mickley | first3=Loretta J. | last4=Lerdau | first4=Manuel T. | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=107 | issue=22 | pages=10115–10119 | pmid=20479252 | pmc=2890437 | bibcode=2010PNAS..10710115H | doi-access=free }}</ref> with [[Leaf shape|trifoliate]] leaves composed of three [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]].<ref name=Forseth/><ref name="MDC">{{Cite web |title=Kudzu {{!}} MDC |url=http://mdc.mo.gov/landwater-care/plant-management/invasive-plant-management/kudzu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526102822/http://mdc.mo.gov/landwater-care/plant-management/invasive-plant-management/kudzu |archive-date=2011-05-26 }}</ref> Each leaflet is large and [[oval|ovate]] with two to three lobes each and hair on the underside.<ref name=Forseth/><ref name=Mitich>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3988532|title = Kudzu &#91;Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi&#93;|last1 = Mitich|first1 = Larry W.|journal = Weed Technology|year = 2000|volume = 14|issue = 1|pages = 231–235|doi = 10.1614/0890-037X(2000)014[0231:KPLWO]2.0.CO;2| s2cid=86120103 }}</ref> The species can [[nitrogen fixation|fix atmospheric nitrogen]], which can supply up to 95% of leaf [[nitrogen]] to the plant in poor soils.<ref name=Forseth/> Along the vines are [[Plant stem|nodes]], points at which stems or [[tendril]]s can propagate to increase support and attach to structures.<ref name=Forseth/> As a [[Vine|twining vine]], kudzu uses [[Plant stem|stems]] or tendrils that can extend from any node on the vine to attach to and climb most surfaces.<ref name=Harrington/><ref name=Forseth/><ref name=Black>{{cite journal |last1=Black |first1=R.J. |last2=Meerow |first2=A.W. |title=Landscaping to Conserve Energy |journal=Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society |volume=102 |pages=142–144 |year=1989 |url=https://journals.flvc.org/fshs/article/view/93897 }}</ref> In addition, the nodes of the kudzu vine have the ability to root when exposed to soil, further anchoring the vine to the ground.<ref name=Harrington/><ref name=Forseth/> The roots are [[Tuber#Root tubers|tuberous]] and are high in starch and water content, and the twining of the plant allows for less carbon concentration in the construction of woody stems and greater concentration in roots, which aids root growth.<ref name=Forseth/> The roots can account for up to 40% of total plant biomass.<ref name=Harrington/>

[[File:Fabaceae - Pueraria montana var. lobata.JPG|thumb|240px|left|Close-up on flowers of ''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata'']] Flowers are reddish-purple and yellow, fragrant, similar to pea flowers, about {{convert|20|-|25|mm|in|frac=4}} wide and are produced at the leaf axis in elongated [[raceme]]s about {{convert|20|cm|in|0}} long. The flowering period extends from July through October. The fruit is a flat hairy pod about {{convert|8|cm|in|0}} long with three seeds.

Kudzu's primary method of reproduction is [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative spread (cloning)]] which is aided by the ability to root wherever a stem is exposed to soil.<ref name=Forseth/> For [[Plant reproduction#History of sexual reproduction of plants|sexual reproduction]], kudzu is entirely dependent on pollinators.<ref name=Forseth/>

Although kudzu prefers forest regrowth and [[Edge effect|edge habitats]] with high sun exposure, the plant can survive in full sun or partial shade.<ref name=Harrington/><ref name=Forseth/> These attributes of kudzu made it attractive as an ornamental plant for shading porches in the [[Southeastern United States]], but they facilitated the growth of kudzu as it became a “structural parasite” of the southern states,<ref name=Forseth/> enveloping entire structures when untreated<ref name=Mitich/> and often referred to as “the vine that ate the south”.<ref name="McGroarty">{{Cite web |title=Kudzu, the Vine That Ate the South |url=http://www.freeplants.com/kudzu.html |last=McGroarty |first=Michael J.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201010606/http://www.freeplants.com/kudzu.html |archive-date=2010-02-01 }}</ref>

==Subspecies and varieties==
*[[Pueraria montana var. chinensis|''Pueraria montana'' var. ''chinensis'']] <small>(Ohwi) Sanjappa & Pradeep</small>
*[[Pueraria montana var. lobata|''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata'']] <small>(Willd.) Sanjappa & Pradeep</small>
*[[Pueraria montana var. thomsonii|''Pueraria montana'' var. ''thomsonii'']] <small>(Benth.) Wiersema ex D.B. Ward</small>
<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=pueraria+montana+chinensis|title=Varieties on The Plant List}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The Latin [[Botanical name#Binary name|specific epithet]] ''montana'' refers to mountains or coming from mountains.<ref>Archibald William Smith {{google books|ahNMkgoNJ7IC|A Gardener's Handbook of Plant Names: Their Meanings and Origins|page=239}}</ref>

==Uses==
Kudzu has been referred to as a "quasi-wild" species, since it has been farmed and selectively bred by humans for millennia in its native range, but cultivated strains have never become isolated from wild populations, resulting in repeated interchanges between wild and farmed kudzu. As a result, the gene pool of kudzu is diverse, vigorous, and strongly influenced by the plant's relationship with humans.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Zhenyu |last2=Dong |first2=Quan |last3=Albright |first3=Thomas |last4=Guo |first4=Qinfeng |title=Natural and human dimensions of a quasi-wild species: The case of kudzu |journal=Biological Invasions |date=2011 |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=2167–2179|doi=10.1007/s10530-011-0042-7 |bibcode=2011BiInv..13.2167L |s2cid=14948770 }}</ref> The main uses of kudzu are for food, for fiber, and as a medicinal plant; it is also used to make paper, for basketry, and as a food source for livestock.

The starchy root of kudzu has been used for food in China since before 540 CE, with specific cultivars bred for this purpose, and often sustained Chinese people during famines that occurred throughout history. Kudzu starch is used as a thickening or gelling agent similar to arrowroot, [[tapioca]] or potato starch, and has many alleged benefits as a health food.<ref>{{cite web |last1=King |first1=Katie Carter |title=Making Kuzu out of Kudzu |url=https://www.southernfoodways.org/making-kuzu-out-of-kudzu/ |website=southernfoodways.org|date=November 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=What is Kuzu (Kudzu) and why you want to start using it |url=https://cookingwithyoshiko.com/what-is-kuzu-kudzu-and-why-you-want-to-start-using-it/ |website=cookingwithyoshiko.com|date=30 April 2018 }}</ref> Kudzu is still utilized for food in China, Japan, and Korea. Kudzu starch is an important component of many Japanese confections and sweets, valued for its ability to set firmly with a fine, translucent appearance. It is also turned into flour and can be used to make noodles.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=what's kudzu |url=http://kuzufu.com/cn60/kudzu.html |website=Oigawa Kudzu-fu Weaving Studio}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Egan |first1=Ashley N |title=Economic and ethnobotanical uses of tubers in the genus Pueraria DC |journal=Legume Perspectives |date=2020 |issue=19 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346044330}}</ref> Kudzu is furthermore considered an important medicinal plant, and is sometimes sold as a supplement in health food stores.

Kudzu cloth is called "ko-pu" and archaeological records indicate that ko-pu was used in China at least 6,000 years ago. From the [[Zhou dynasty]] to the early twentieth century, kudzu was one of three major textile materials used in China, with the others being [[silk]] and [[ramie]]. Kudzu textiles were inexpensive and widespread, and formed such a major part of commerce that the Zhou dynasty had a specific office for dealing with kudzu-related affairs.<ref name="auto1"/> In Japan, the earliest evidence for kudzu cloth dates back to 300-538 CE, and it continued to be used into the Edo period. Kudzu fiber is a [[bast fiber]], like [[linen]] or [[hemp]]. To obtain the bast fibers, the new young vines are harvested in summer and boiled, then left to be fermented by the action of naturally occurring bacteria in mounds of grass until the outer bark becomes slimy and can be washed off in running water.<ref name="auto"/>

In 2023, kudzu was used to develop a biodegradable alternative to plastic food packaging.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Attaway |first1=Denise |title=Turning kudzu into biodegradable food packaging |url=https://www.farmprogress.com/weeds/turning-kudzu-into-biodegradable-food-packaging |website=farmprogress.com}}</ref>

==Invasive species==
{{More citations needed|date=June 2019}}
{{Further|Kudzu|Kudzu in the United States|invasive species}}
The natural range of ''Pueraria montana'' can be found in [[India]], [[Myanmar]], [[Indochina]], [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Pacific Islands]], and in north [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=United States. Forest Service. Alaska Region.|title=Sitga Ranger District : USDA Forest Service information|date=1994|publisher=The Region|isbn=9780486320052|oclc=31702167}}</ref> In its native habitat, it and its closely related species occur across wide areas; the species have diverged genetically due to [[vicariance]]. Its invasiveness can be attributed to similarities between both native and newly invaded niches, effectively expanding its habitable range into areas with climates it may not be able to endure otherwise.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Callen|first1=Steven T.|last2=Miller|first2=Allison J.|date=2015|title=Signatures of niche conservatism and niche shift in the North American kudzu (Pueraria montana) invasion|journal=Diversity and Distributions|language=en|volume=21|issue=8|pages=853–863|doi=10.1111/ddi.12341|bibcode=2015DivDi..21..853C |s2cid=82605527 |issn=1472-4642|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Some researchers argue that, because of the close relationship shared between kudzu and humans since the Neolithic, human harvesting is the main ecological control mechanism that keeps kudzu in check in its natural range. In Eastern Asia, where kudzu is a valuable plant with many benefits to humans, many millennia of human selection and cultivation have facilitated the spread of the plant to new areas and resulted in a broad, adaptable gene pool. However, although humans have provided benefits to kudzu, harvesting the vines and roots regularly would decrease the plant's competitiveness and aggressive growth, meaning humans have essentially served as a biological control for kudzu.<ref name="auto1"/>

Like other exotic species, the introduction to other areas is due to human actions. Seeds are spread by mammals and birds. Kudzu are plants adapted to drought. Only above ground portions are damaged by frost; thick storage roots grow as deep as 1 metre. It forms new perennial root crowns from stem nodes touching the ground.

The ecological requirements of the species are those of the [[subtropics|subtropical]] and [[temperateness|temperate]] habitat areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aurambout|first1=J.-P.|last2=Endress|first2=A.G.|date=2018|title=A model to simulate the spread and management cost of kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata) at landscape scale|journal=Ecological Informatics|volume=43|pages=146–156|doi=10.1016/j.ecoinf.2017.12.004|issn=1574-9541}}</ref>

In [[Europe]], ''Pueraria montana'' grows in several places in the warm regions of [[Switzerland]] and [[Italy]] near [[Lake Maggiore]] and [[Lake Lugano]].

During [[World War II]], kudzu was introduced to [[Vanuatu]] and [[Fiji]] by [[United States Armed Forces]] to serve as [[Military camouflage|camouflage]] for equipment. It is now a major weed there.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mazurczyk|first1=Wojciech|last2=Rzeszutko|first2=Elzybieta|date=2015|title=Security--A Perpetual War: Lessons from Nature|journal=IT Professional|volume=17|issue=1|pages=16–22|doi=10.1109/mitp.2015.14|issn=1520-9202|arxiv=1410.4795|s2cid=8619336}}</ref>

''Pueraria montana'' is also becoming a problem in [[Queensland]].

In the United States, ''Pueraria montana'' is extensively reported in the coastal states from eastern [[Texas]] to [[Florida]], North to [[Maryland]], as well as inland in [[Arkansas]], [[Kentucky]], [[Missouri]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Tennessee]], [[Washington, D.C.]], and [[West Virginia]]. Since 2004, Kudzu has moved farther North along the [[Ohio River]], appearing in [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], and [[Ohio]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.agweb.com/article/kudzu_heads_north_naa_betsy_jibben/ |title=Kudzu Heads North |access-date=2018-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223073701/https://www.agweb.com/article/kudzu_heads_north_naa_betsy_jibben/ |archive-date=2018-12-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Of all affected states, three in the southeast have the heaviest infestations: Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.

== Effects on biodiversity ==
[[File:Kudzu on trees in Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|thumb|''Pueraria montana'' (Kudzu) growing over trees in a forest of Georgia]]
Due to the aggressive, climbing nature of ''P. montana'' it often causes shading and death of native vegetation, resulting in a [[monoculture]] of ''P. montana.'' As ''P. montana'' spreads, it shades and crushes its competitors with its weight, eliminating everything in its path. As a result of growing over native plants and trees, it blocks their access of vital resources such as sunlight, killing off young vegetation. These result in dramatic reductions in native [[biodiversity]] at the local level.<ref name=Forseth>{{Cite journal|last1=Forseth|first1=Irwin N.|last2=Innis|first2=Anne F.|date=2004-09-01|title=Kudzu (Pueraria montana): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat|journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=23|issue=5|pages=401–413|doi=10.1080/07352680490505150|bibcode=2004CRvPS..23..401F |s2cid=84404633|issn=0735-2689}}</ref>

Other than the [[loss of biodiversity]] of plant species, ''P. montana'' may have a negative effect on animals. Many plant species that are suppressed by ''P. montana'' because of its uncontrolled and rapid growth negatively impacts some wildlife animals that have specific [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualisms]] or feeding relationships with these plant species.<ref name=Forseth/> This potentially could lead to the death of certain animal species, specifically [[herbivore]]s, that depend on some vegetation as a resource for both food and shelter. These are important factors that lead to [[habitat destruction]] and reduction in animal biodiversity.

== Impacts of global changes ==
Changes in the global environment such as higher CO<sub>2</sub> levels, higher temperatures, greater rates of nitrogen deposition, and greater fragmentation of natural habitats are predicted to increase the spread of ''P. montana''.

=== Carbon dioxide ===
Kudzu is highly responsive to increased [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] levels as it results in maximal leaf expansion, increase in leaf size, and an overall 12% increase in leaf production. In turn, the plant has higher [[turgor pressure]] which results in the improvements in its growth potential. As the atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration continues to rise, it is possible for the potential enhancement of ''P. montana''’s [[Invasive species|invasiveness.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sasek|first1=Thomas W.|last2=Strain|first2=Boyd R.|date=January 1989|title=Effects of Carbon Dioxide Enrichment on the Expansion and Size of Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) Leaves|journal=Weed Science|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=23–28|doi=10.1017/S004317450005579X|s2cid=82215879 |issn=0043-1745}}</ref>

=== Temperature ===
With [[global warming]], overnight temperatures tend to increase. Data collected in the [[United States]] over the past few decades showed a reduction in frost days, an earlier date for the last freeze in spring, and a later date for the first freeze in fall.<ref name=Forseth/> These favour the spread of &nbsp;''P. montana''. &nbsp;

The northward distribution of ''P. montana'' is hypothesized to be limited by low temperatures. Cold temperatures cause their leaves to be killed off and their leaf expansion to be lagged. However, with the continuous rise in global temperature, it is predicted that ''P. montana'' will rapidly spread northward as a result of the increased number of warmer days.<ref name=Forseth/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* L. J. G. van der Maesen: ''Pueraria, the kudzu and its relatives: an update of the taxonomy'', In: ''Proc. 1st Int. Symp. Tuberous legumes. Guadeloupe, FWI'', 1992, S. 55–86. - ''Pueraria montana'' auf S. 65.
* Delin Wu & Mats Thulin: ''Pueraria'' in der ''Flora of China'', Volume 10, S. 246: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200012296 ''Pueraria montana'' - Online.]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Pueraria montana}}
* [http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/vine/puemonl/all.html ''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata''] at US Forest Service Fire Effects Information System, access date: 14. Juni 2010
* {{GRIN}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/kudzu|title=Species Profile - Kudzu (''Pueraria montana var. lobata'')|publisher=National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]}}
* [http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Pueraria+montana+lobata ''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata''] at ''Plants For A Future'' database.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120406080131/http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/af/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=18118 ''Pueraria montana''] at AgroForestryTree Database access date: 16. Juni 2010
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120425112041/http://www.rspee.glu.org/recherche_espece/fiche_espece.php?recordID=441 Invasive Plant Watch Network: Description file for "Kudzu"], access date: 16. Juni 2010
* [http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb ''Pueraria montana''] at International Legume Database & Information Service - ILDIS, access date: 16. Juni 2010
* [http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/pubs/midatlantic/pumo.htm Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas: Kudzu] at [http://www.nps.gov/ NPS.gov Homepage (U.S. National Park Service)], access date: 16. Juni 2010
* [http://www.hear.org/pier/species/pueraria_montana_var_lobata.htm ''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata'' at Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry - Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070530103010/http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/pueraria_montana_var_lobata.htm |date=2007-05-30 }} access date: 16. Juni 2010
* [http://www.invasive.org/species/subject.cfm?sub=2425 ''Pueraria montana'' var. ''lobata''] at ''Invasive and Exotic Species of North America''.

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1054489}}

[[Category:Pueraria|montana]]
[[Category:Taxa named by João de Loureiro]]
[[Category:Austronesian agriculture]]