Editing Public speaking

{{Short description|Performing a speech to a live audience}}
{{For|the film|Public Speaking (film){{!}}''Public Speaking'' (film)}}
{{Redirect|Public speaker|a person who delivers an oration|Orator}}
[[File:Crowd of citizens, soldiers, and etc. with Lincoln at Gettysburg. - NARA - 529085 -crop.jpg|thumb|A red arrow indicating the location of [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] at [[Gettysburg National Cemetery|Soldiers' National Cemetery]] in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]], on November 19, 1863, approximately three hours before Lincoln delivered the [[Gettysburg Address]], widely considered one of the most famous speeches in the [[History of the United States|American history]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Conant |first=Sean |date=2015 |title=The Gettysburg Address: Perspectives on Lincoln's Greatest Speech |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_bmyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=ix |isbn=978-0-19-022745-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Holsinger |first=M. Paul |date=1999 |title=War and American Popular Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oe4AOVHkJ9oC&pg=PA102 |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |page=102 |isbn=978-0-313-29908-7}}</ref>]]

'''Public speaking''', is the practice of delivering speeches to a live audience.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Publishers |first=HarperCollins |title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Public speaking |url=https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Public+speaking |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=ahdictionary.com}}</ref> Throughout history, public speaking has held significant cultural, religious, and political importance, emphasizing the necessity of effective rhetorical skills. It allows individuals to connect with a group of people to discuss any topic. The goal as a public speaker may be to educate, teach, or influence an audience. Public speakers often utilize visual aids like a slideshow, pictures, and short videos to get their point across. 

The ancient Chinese philosopher [[Confucius]], a key figure in the study of public speaking, advocated for speeches that could profoundly affect individuals, including those not present in the audience. He believed that words possess the power to inspire actions capable of changing the world. In the Western tradition, public speaking was extensively studied in [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]], where it was a fundamental component of rhetoric, analyzed by prominent thinkers.

[[Aristotle]], the ancient Greek philosopher, identified three types of speeches: [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] (political), forensic (judicial), and [[epideictic]] (ceremonial or demonstrative).<ref name="6.1">{{Cite web|publisher=University of Minnesota|author=((Author removed at the request)) |date=2016-11-08 |title=6.1 General Purposes of Speaking |url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/publicspeaking/chapter/6-1-general-purposes-of-speaking/ |language=en-us}}</ref> Similarly, the Roman philosopher and orator [[Cicero]] categorized public speaking into three purposes: judicial (courtroom), deliberative (political), and demonstrative (ceremonial), closely aligning with Aristotle's classifications.<ref name="6.1"/> 

In modern times, public speaking remains a highly valued skill in various sectors, including government, industry, and advocacy. It has also evolved with the advent of digital technologies, incorporating [[video conferencing]], multimedia presentations, and other innovative forms of communication.

== Purposes ==
{{Rhetoric}}
The main objective of public speaking is to inform or change the audience's thoughts and actions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-13 |title=8.2: The Purposes of Public Speaking |url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Introduction_to_Communication/Introduction_to_Communication_(Green_et_al.)/08%3A_Public_Speaking/8.02%3A_The_Purposes_of_Public_Speaking |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=Social Sci LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> The function of public speaking is determined by the speaker's intent, but it is possible for the same speaker, with the same intent, to deliver substantially different speeches to different audiences.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pertwee |first=Ernest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hsm0WqfJK2QC&dq=effective+public+speaking&pg=PA1 |title=The Art of Effective Public Speaking |date=2006-06-01 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-59605-142-3 |language=en}}</ref>

Public speaking is frequently directed at a select and sometimes restricted audience, consisting of individuals who may hold different perspectives. This audience can encompass enthusiastic supporters of the speaker, reluctant attendees with opposing views, or strangers with varying levels of interest in the speaker's topic. Proficient speakers recognize that even a modest-sized audience is not a uniform entity but rather a diverse assembly of individuals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flintoff |first=John-Paul |title=A Modest Book About How To Make An Adequate Speech |date=2021 |publisher=Short Books |isbn=978-1780724560 |page=52 |quote=An audience is not a single entity, but a group of individuals who differ from one another perhaps as much as they may differ from you. If you forget that, the slip is unlikely to work in your favor.}}</ref>

Public speaking aims to either reassure an anxious audience or to alert a complacent audience of something important. Once the speaker has determined which of these approaches is required, they will use a combination of storytelling and informational approaches to achieve their goals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Objectives of speech |url=https://www.coursesidekick.com/communications/study-guides/boundless-communications/types-of-public-speeches#:~:text=An%20informative%20speech%20aims%20to,or%20opinion%20of%20the%20speaker. |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.coursesidekick.com}}</ref>

The purposes of speech can vary depending on the targeted audience. speeches during ceremony's may incorporate humor or stories shared from moments of the person their celebrating, speeches focusing on politics will use persuasion to take a course of action, and forensics speeches is a debate in when the participants take sides and defend the beliefs judging how well they can support their argument.<ref>{{Citation |last=Horn |first=Dakota |title=Diversifying Speeches |date=2024-03-07 |work=Principles of Public Speaking |pages=219–230 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003414926-15 |access-date=2025-04-19 |place=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-41492-6}}</ref>

=== Persuasion===
{{Main|Persuasion}}
[[File:Adolf Hitler- Speech at Krupp Factory in Germany (1935) - British Pathé.webm|thumb|A 1935 video of [[Adolf Hitler]], who served as [[Führer]] of [[Nazi Germany]] from 1933 until his [[Death of Adolf Hitler|suicide]] in 1945. Hitler's mannerisms, expressions, and public speaking are commonly cited as examples of persuasive public speaking.]]

[[Persuasion]] is a term that is derived from the Latin word "persuadere."<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Hassan Sallomi|first=Azhar|title=A Stylistic Study of Persuasive Techniques in Political Discourse |date=2018-01-01|url=http://www.ijla.net/DergiTamDetay.aspx?ID=3912|journal=International Journal of Language Academy|language=en|volume=6|issue=23|pages=357–365|doi=10.18033/ijla.3912|issn=2342-0251}}</ref> Persuasive speaking aims to change the audience's beliefs and is commonly used in political debates. Leaders use such public forums in an attempt to persuade their audience, whether they be the general public or government officials.<ref name=":11" />

Persuasive speaking involves four essential elements: (i) the speaker or persuader; (ii) the audience; (iii) the speaking method; and (iv) the message the speaker is trying to convey. When attempting to persuade an audience to change their opinions, a speaker appeals to their emotions and beliefs.<ref name=":11" />

Various techniques exist for speakers to gain audience support. Speakers can demand action from the audience, use inclusive language like 'we' and 'us' to create unity between the speaker and the audience, and choose words with strong connotations to intensify a message's impact.<ref name=":11" /> Rhetorical questions, anecdotes, generalizations, exaggerations, metaphors, and irony may be employed to increase the likelihood of persuading an audience.

Though historically uncommon, speakers today are enabled to utilise [[statistics]], [[data]] as well as other sources of information, such as [[the internet]], in order to strengthen their argument, stance or proposal; This has only evolved during the modern era, having been generally unavailable at the current rate in the years beforehand with the exception of [[media (communication)|media]] via [[newspapers]], [[television]], although claims given by speakers have often been [[fake news|subject to inaccurate information provided]] by the aforementioned, often in direct correlation with the [[big lie]] means of oratory. This has been further intensified through the [[History of journalism#Radio and television|recent evolution]] of [[mass media]] in [[Mass media#Professions involving mass media|most nations]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}

=== Education ===
Public speaking can often take an educational form, where the speaker transfers knowledge to an audience. [[TED (conference)|TED Talks]] are an example of educational public speaking. The speakers inform their audience about different topics, such as science, technology, religion, economics, [[Society|human society]], and [[psychology]]. TED speakers can use the platform to share personal experiences with [[Psychological trauma|traumatic events]], such as abuse, bullying, grief, [[assault]], [[suicidal ideation]], near-death encounters, and mental illness. They may attempt to raise awareness and acceptance of stigmatizing issues, such as disabilities, racial differences, [[LGBT|LGBTQ]] rights, [[children's rights]], and women's rights.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TED: Ideas Worth Spreading |url=https://www.ted.com/topics |access-date=2023-08-17 |website=www.ted.com}}</ref>

TED Conferences, LLC, is a media organization that posts talks online for free distribution under the slogan: "ideas worth spreading". TED was originally built by Richard Saul Furman in February 1984 as a conference and has been held annually since 1990. Talks delivered in these conferences are usually posted online. The videos of these recorded speeches and talks inspire native and non-native speakers of English to learn the language and presentation style that is used. As such, TED Talk videos can help improve speaking skills and vocabulary retention'''.''' <ref>{{Cite book |last=Salem |first=Ashraf |title=A Sage on a Stage, to Express and Impress: TED Talks for Improving Oral Presentation Skills, Vocabulary Retention and Its Impact on Reducing Speaking Anxiety in ESP Settings |date=May 17, 2019 }}</ref>

There have been many studies that have proven the benefits of teaching public speaking strategies to students in an academic setting, including a higher level of self-confidence and helping to render community well-being with access to a variety of information.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365349685|title=Public-Speaking Skills: Vital in the Personal and Professional Lives of Individuals}}</ref> [[Harvard University]] offers a range of courses in public speaking, including persuasive communication and personal narratives.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://pll.harvard.edu/subject/public-speaking | title=Public Speaking &#124; Harvard University | date=24 July 2023 }}</ref> With the continued popularity of academic conferences and TED talks taking place worldwide, public speaking has become an essential subject in academia for scholarly and professional advancement. Additionally, work meetings and presentations require proficiency in public speaking to actively formulate ideas and solutions, and modern technology helps companies release information to a wider audience.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guiding Students to Be Comfortable With Public Speaking |url=https://www.edutopia.org/article/guiding-students-be-comfortable-public-speaking/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Edutopia |language=en}}</ref>

=== Intervention ===
The [[Rhetoric of social intervention model|intervention style of speaking]] is a relatively new method proposed by rhetorical theorist William R. Brown. This style revolves around the theory of [[idealism]], which holds that humans create a symbolic meaning for life and the things around them.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Opt |first=Susan K. |date=September 2019 |title="To Intervene: A Transcending and Reorienting Goal for Public Speaking." |journal=Atlantic Journal of Communication |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=247–259 |doi=10.1080/15456870.2019.1613657 |s2cid=181424112}}</ref> Due to this, the symbolic meaning of everything changes based on the way one communicates. When approaching communication with an intervention style, communication is understood to be responsible for the constant changes in society, behaviors, and how one considers the meaning behind objects, ideologies, and everyday life.<ref name=":13" />

From an interventional perspective, when individuals communicate, they are intervening with what is already a reality and might "shift symbolic reality."<ref name=":13" /> This approach to communication encompasses the possibility or idea that one may be responsible for unexpected outcomes due to what and how one communicates.

This perspective widens the scope of focus from a single speaker who is intervening to a multitude of speakers all communicating and intervening, simultaneously affecting the world around us.<ref name=":13" />

== History ==
{{See also|Rhetoric}}

=== India ===
{{See also|Ancient Indian rhetoric}}
The literature of [[Ancient India]] is richly endowed with contributions to the development of a ''sui generis'' theory of rhetoric.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gangal |first1=Anjali |last2=Hosterman |first2=Craig |date=1982 |title=Toward an examination of the rhetoric of ancient India |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10417948209372534 |journal=Southern Speech Communication Journal |language=en |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=277–291 |doi=10.1080/10417948209372534 |issn=0361-8269}}</ref> In ancient India, around [[7th century BC|700 BCE]], public debates by Indian rhetors on the topic of religion were a popular form of entertainment.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=George A. |title=Comparative Rhetoric: An Historical and Cross-Cultural Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0195109333 |location=New York |pages=171–190}}</ref> The [[Vedic chant|Vedic hymns]], composed over three millennia ago, demonstrate a refined sense of rhetoric possessed by the intellectual stratum of the society, as seen in their effective employment of similes.<ref name=":03" />

[[Ramayana|The Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata|the Mahabharata]], India's iconic epics, provide valuable insights into the country's ancient rhetorical traditions, featuring numerous speeches and debates that employ sophisticated systems of categorization.<ref name=":03" /> [[Upanishads|The Upanishads]], a seminal work of Vedic philosophical dialogues, exhibit a thoughtful approach to categorizing technical terms, underscoring the value of clear classification.<ref name=":03" /> The famed [[Hindus|Hindu]] discourse known as the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (in the Mahabharata) serves as a classic example of [[deliberative rhetoric]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sloane |first=Thomas O. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eslMAgAAQBAJ&dq=Sloane,%20Thomas%20O.%20(&pg=PA385 |title=Encyclopedia of Rhetoric |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512595-5 |pages=385 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist tradition of India]] places emphasis on the value of engaging in calm and humorous discourse.<ref name=":03" />

=== China ===
In [[History of China|Ancient China]], the use of rhetoric was delayed, largely because the country then lacked rhetoricians who could train students.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Pei-Ling |first=Lee |date=October 2020 |title=The Application of Chinese Rhetoric to Public Speaking. |journal=China Media Research |volume=16 |issue=4}}</ref> It was understood that [[Chinese Rhetoric|Chinese rhetoric]] was part of Chinese philosophy, which schools taught focusing on two concepts: "Wen" (rhetoric); and "Zhi" (thoughtful content).<ref name=":10" /> Ancient Chinese rhetoric shows strong connections with modern public speaking, as Chinese rhetoric placed a high value on ethics.<ref name=":10" />

Ancient Chinese rhetoric had three objectives: (i) using language to reflect people's feelings; (ii) using language to be more pointed, effective, and impactful; and (iii) using rhetoric as an "aesthetic tool."<ref name=":10" /> Chinese rhetoric traditionally focused more on the written than the spoken word, but both share similar characteristics of construction.<ref name=":10" />

A unique and key difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric is the audience targeted for persuasion.<ref name=":10" /> In Chinese rhetoric, state rulers were the audience, whereas Western rhetoric targets the public.<ref name=":10" /> Another difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric practices is how a speaker establishes credibility or [[Ethos]].<ref name=":10" /> In Chinese rhetoric, the speaker does not focus on individual credibility, like Western rhetoric. Instead, the speaker focuses on collectivism<ref name=":10" /> by sharing personal experiences and establishing a connection between the speaker's concern and the audience's interest.<ref name=":10" />

Chinese employs three standards in assessing public rhetoric:<ref name=":10" />

* '''Tracing''': This standard evaluates how well the speaker is doing compared to traditional speaking practices.
* '''Examination''': This standard evaluates how well the speaker considers the audience's daily lives.
* '''Practice''': This standard evaluates how relevant the topic or argument is to the "state, society, and people."

=== Greece ===
{{Communication}}[[File:Arringatore.jpg|thumb|''[[The Orator]]'', a {{circa|100 BCE}} [[Etruscan art|Etrusco]]-[[Roman sculpture|Roman]] [[bronze sculpture]] depicting Aule Metele, an [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] man wearing a Roman [[toga]] while engaged in rhetoric. The statue features an inscription in the [[Etruscan alphabet]].]]

Although evidence of public speaking training exists in [[ancient Egypt]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Womack |first1=Morris M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obsSAQAAMAAJ&q=egypt |title=Speech for Foreign Students |last2=Bernstein |first2=Elinor |date=1990 |publisher=C.C. Thomas |isbn=978-0-398-05699-5 |location=Springfield, IL |page=140 |quote=Some of the earliest written records of training in public speaking may be traced to ancient Egypt. However, the most significant records are found among the ancient Greeks. |access-date=June 12, 2017}}</ref> the first known writing on oratory<ref>Murphy, James J.  [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Demosthenes-Greek-statesman-and-orator "Demosthenes – greatest Greek orator".] ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> is 2,000 years old from [[ancient Greece]]. This work elaborates on principles drawn from the practices and experiences of ancient Greek orators.

[[Aristotle]], one of the first oratory teachers to use definitive rules and models, believed that successful speakers combined, to varying degrees, three qualities in their speech: reasoning, which he called Logos; credentials, which he called Ethos; and emotion, which he called Pathos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heinrichs |first=Jay. |date=2008 |title=[[Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion|Thank You For Arguing]] |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0593237380 |page=39 |quote=Aristotle called them logos, ethos, and pathos, and so will I because the meanings of the Greek versions are richer than those of the English versions}}</ref> Aristotle's work became an essential part of a [[liberal arts]] education during the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]]. The [[classical antiquity]] works by the ancient Greeks capture how they taught and developed the art of public speaking thousands of years ago.

In classical Greece and Rome, rhetoric was the main component of [[Composition studies|composition]] and speech delivery, both critical skills for use in public and private life. In ancient Greece, citizens spoke for themselves rather than having professionals, such as modern lawyers, speak for them. Any [[citizen]] who wished to succeed in court, politics, or social life had to learn public speaking techniques. Rhetorical tools were first taught by a group of teachers called [[Sophists]], who taught paying students how to speak effectively using their methods.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sophists |url=https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Sophists/336904 |access-date=2023-08-17 |website=Britannica Kids |language=en-US}}</ref>

Separately from the Sophists, [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and Aristotle developed their theories of public speaking, teaching these principles to students interested in learning rhetorical skills. Plato founded [[Platonic Academy|The Academy]] and Aristotle founded [[Aristotles Lyceum|The Lyceum]] to teach these skills.<ref>{{Citation |last=Vogt |first=Katja |title=Ancient Skepticism |date=2022 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/skepticism-ancient/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-11-24 |edition=Winter 2022 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>

[[Demosthenes]] was a well-known orator from Athens. After his father died when he was 7, he had three legal guardians: Aphobus, Demophon, and Theryppides.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=May|first=James|date=2004|title=Demosthenes|url=https://online.salempress.com/home.do|access-date=December 12, 2020|website=Salem Press|series=Great Lives from History: The Ancient World, Prehistory-476 c.e.}}</ref> His inspiration for public speaking came from learning that his guardians had robbed him of the money his father left for his education.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Demosthenes (Greek orator) {{!}} World History: A Comprehensive Reference Set - Credo Reference |url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/fofworld/demosthenes_greek_orator/0|access-date=2020-12-13 |website=search.credoreference.com}}</ref> His first public speech was in the court proceeding he brought against his three guardians.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Gale Power Search - Document - Demosthenes & Cicero|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=lincclin_pbcc&id=GALE%7CA496345849&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=2130019c|access-date=2020-12-13|website=go.gale.com}}</ref> After that, Demosthenes continued to practice public speaking. He is known for sticking pebbles into his mouth to improve his pronunciation, talking while running so that he would not lose his breath, and practicing speaking in front of a mirror to improve his delivery.<ref name=":2" />

When Philip II, the ruler of Macedon, tried to conquer the Greeks, Demosthenes made a speech called ''Kata Philippou A.'' In this speech, he spoke about why he opposed Philip II as a threat to all of Greece.<ref name=":02" /> This was the first of several speeches known as the Philippics.<ref name=":2" /> He made other speeches known as the [[Olynthiacs]]. Both series of speeches favored independence and rallied Athenians against Philip II.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":12" />

=== Rome ===
[[File:Cicero Denounces Catiline in the Roman Senate by Cesare Maccari.png|thumb|A portrait of [[Cicero]], an orator during the [[Roman Empire]], addressing the [[Roman Senate]], depicted in ''Cicero Denounces Catiline'', an 1889 fresco by [[Cesare Maccari]]]]

During the political rise of the [[Roman Republic]], Roman orators copied and modified the ancient Greek techniques of public speaking. Instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum, including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises ([[progymnasmata]]), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both [[Forensic linguistics|forensic]] and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] genres.

In [[Latin]], rhetoric was heavily influenced by [[Cicero]], an orator during the [[Roman Empire]], and emphasized a broad education in all areas of the [[humanities]]. Other areas of rhetorical study included the use of wit and humor, the [[Pathos|appeal to the listener's emotions]], and the use of [[digression]]s. Oratory in the [[Roman empire|Roman Empire]], though less central to political life than during the Republic, remained important in law and entertainment. Famous orators were celebrities in ancient Rome, becoming wealthy and prominent in society.

The ornate Latin style was the primary form of oration through the mid-20th century. After [[World War II]] and the increased use of film and television, the Latin oration style began to fall out of favor. This cultural change likely had to do with the rise of the [[scientific method]] and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking and writing. Even today's formal oratory is much less ornate than in the Classical Era.

== Theorists ==
=== Aristotle's "Rhetoric" ===
{{Main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)}}
[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|[[Aristotle]]]]

In one of his most famed writings, "[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]", written in 350 BCE, [[Aristotle]] described mastering the art of public speaking. In this and other works by Aristotle, rhetoric is the act of publicly persuading an audience.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Rapp|first=Christof|title=Aristotle's Rhetoric |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2010/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/|access-date=2021-08-06|website=plato.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref> Rhetoric is similar to [[Dialectic|dialect]]: he defines both as being acts of persuasion. However, dialect is the act of persuading someone in private, whereas rhetoric is about persuading people in a public setting.<ref name=":14" /> Aristotle defines someone who practices rhetoric or a "rhetorician" as an individual who can comprehend persuasion and how it is applied.<ref name=":14" />

Aristotle divides rhetoric into three elements: (i) the speaker; (ii) the topic or point of the speech; and (iii) the audience.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=W. Rhys |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} Rhetoric by Aristotle. |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/rhetoric.1.i.html. |url-status= |access-date=1 July 2021 |website=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]}}</ref> Aristotle also classifies oration into three types: (i) political, used to convince people to take or not take action; (ii) forensic, usually used in law related to accusing or defending someone; and (iii) ceremonial, which recognizes someone positively or negatively.<ref name=":15" />

Aristotle breaks down the political category into five focuses or themes: "ways and means, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and legislation."<ref name=":15" /> These focuses are broken down into detail so that the speaker can effectively influence an audience to agree and support the speaker's ideas.<ref name=":15" />

* The focus of "ways and means" deals with economic aspects of how the country is spending money.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "Peace and War" focuses on what the country has to offer in terms of military power, how war has been conducted, how war has affected the country in the past, and how other countries have conducted war.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "National defense" deals with considering a country's position and strength in the event of an invasion. Fortifying structures and points with a strategic advantage should all be considered.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "Food supply" is concerned with the ability to support a country in regards to food, importing and exporting food, and carefully making decisions to arrange agreements with other countries.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "Legislation" is the most important to Aristotle. The legislation of a country is the most crucial aspect because everything is affected by the policies and laws set by the people in power.<ref name=":15" />

In Aristotle's "Rhetoric" writing, he mentions three strategies someone can use to try to persuade an audience:<ref name=":14" /> Establishing the character of a speaker ([[Ethos]]), influencing the emotional element of the audience ([[Pathos]]), and focusing on the argument specifically ([[Logos]]).<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Higgins|first1=Colin|last2=Walker|first2=Robyn|date=September 2012|title=Ethos, logos, pathos: Strategies of persuasion in social/environmental reports |journal=Accounting Forum|language=en|volume=36|issue=3|pages=194–208 |doi=10.1016/j.accfor.2012.02.003|s2cid=144894570|issn=0155-9982}}</ref> Aristotle believes establishing the character of a speaker is effective in persuasion because the audience will believe what the speaker is saying to be true if the speaker is credible and trustworthy.<ref name=":14" /> With the audience's emotional state, Aristotle believes that individuals do not make the same decisions when in different moods.<ref name=":14" /> Because of this, one needs to try to influence the audience by being in control of one's emotions, making persuasion effective.<ref name=":14" /> The argument itself can affect the attempt to persuade by making the argument of the case so clear and valid that the audience will understand and believe that the speaker's point is real.<ref name=":14" />

In the last part of "Rhetoric", Aristotle mentions that the most critical piece of persuasion is to know in detail what makes up government and to attack what makes it unique: "customs, institutions, and interest".<ref name=":15" /> Aristotle also states that everyone is persuaded by considering people's interests and how the society in which they live influences their interests.<ref name=":15" />

=== Cicero's Five Canons of Rhetoric ===
In his writing ''[[De Inventione]]'', Cicero explained the five canons or tenets of rhetoric. The five canons apply to rhetoric and public speaking. The five canons are invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-10-15 |title=The Five Canons of Rhetoric |url=https://walton.uark.edu/business-communication-lab/resources/downloads/The_Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric.pdf |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=University of Arkansas Sam M. Walton College of Business}}</ref>

Invention is the process of coming up with what to say to persuade the audience of the key points. Individuals will need to understand their topic, brainstorm their ideas, and discover effective research strategies that they can use to get their point across. Arrangement is the process of structuring ideas together. Cicero and the Roman rhetorician Quintilian identified the structure of a text as Exordium, Narrative, Partition, Confirmation, Refutation, and Peroration (or conclusion). In today's text, the structure has been reduced to introduction, body, and conclusion. Style is the process of choosing language and constructing your presentation to create an emotional response from the audience. Individuals can achieve this by using language and rhetoric devices like analogy, allusion and alliteration.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=How You Use the 5 Canons of Classical Rhetoric |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/the-5-canons-of-classical-rhetoric-1691771 |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref>

Memory is remembering enough so that individuals are able to fully and fluently present without reading off a paper or note cards. This includes figures of speech, which can be used to improve memory. Roman rhetoricians made a distinction between natural memory (an innate ability) and artificial memory (particular techniques that enhanced natural abilities).<ref name=":7" />  Delivery is the last of the five canons of rhetoric. It Involves using all the tools available to effectively communicate. Methods and tools like tone of voice, change of pace, pauses, volume, body language, positioning and props are all effective in delivering the point'''.''' <ref name=":0" />

== Glossophobia ==
{{See also|Glossophobia|Stage fright}}
The fear of speaking in public, known as [[glossophobia]]<ref name="Black">{{Cite web |url=https://www.psycom.net/glossophobia-fear-of-public-speaking |title=Glossophobia (Fear of Public Speaking): Are You Glossophobic? |last=Black |first=Rosemary |date=2018-06-04 |website=psycom.net |access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref> or public speaking anxiety, is often mentioned as one of the most common phobias.<ref name=Black/> The reason is uncertain, but it has been speculated that this fear is primal, similar to how animals fear being seen by predators.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/feb/07/can-i-have-your-attention-how-i-came-to-love-public-speaking |title=Can I Have Your Attention? How I came to love public speaking |last=Flintoff |first=John-Paul |date=2021-02-07 |website=theguardian.com |quote=The fear is primal, because for most of history, if you had lots of eyeballs on you, it meant you were about to be gobbled up. For thousands of years, hardly anyone knew what it felt like to be stared at, and listened to, by large groups of others.}}</ref>

The apprehension experienced when speaking in public can have several causes,<ref name="Black" /> such as [[social anxiety disorder]], or a prior experience of public humiliation. This can be related to [[stage fright]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stage Fright {{!}} Psychology Today United Kingdom |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/basics/stage-fright |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Training ==
Effective public speaking can be developed by joining a club such as [[Australian Rostrum|Rostrum]], [[Toastmasters International]], [[Association of Speakers Clubs]] (ASC), or [[Speaking Circles]], in which members are assigned exercises to improve their speaking skills. Members learn by observation and practice and hone their skills by listening to constructive suggestions, followed by new public speaking exercises.

Tips for improving public speaking:

# [[Rehearsal|Rehearse]]
# Craft speech that targets audience.
# Organize it in a way that attracts audience attention.
# Adapt to audiences' reaction.
# Make your speech interesting through use of language.
# Use tone and body language.
# Refrain from script and make an outline
# Refrain from making gestures that distract audience.
# Make your intro interesting and leave audience with something to think about at ending. 
# Use audiovisual aids that enhance or clarify your speech.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schmoldt |first=A. |last2=Benthe |first2=H. F. |last3=Haberland |first3=G. |date=1975-09-01 |title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10 |journal=Biochemical Pharmacology |volume=24 |issue=17 |pages=1639–1641 |issn=1873-2968 |pmid=10}}</ref>

=== Toastmasters International ===
{{Main|Toastmasters International}}
Toastmasters International is a public speaking organization with over 15,000 clubs worldwide and more than 300,000 members.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Yasin |first1=Burhanuddin |last2=Champion |first2=Ibrahim |date=November 12–13, 2016 |title=FROM A CLASS TO A CLUB |url=http://e-repository.unsyiah.ac.id/EEIC/article/viewFile/15881/11701 |journal=Proceedings of the 1st English Education International Conference (EEIC) in Conjunction with the 2nd Reciprocal Graduate Research Symposium (RGRS) of the Consortium of Asia-Pacific Education Universities (CAPEU) Between Sultan Idris Education University and Syiah Kuala University|issn=2527-8037|access-date=2020-12-17|archive-date=2021-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920163630/http://e-repository.unsyiah.ac.id/EEIC/article/viewFile/15881/11701|url-status=dead}}</ref> This organization helps individuals with their public speaking skills, as well as leadership skills necessary to become effective public speakers such as content development, club development, and speech contests.<ref name=":00">{{Cite book |last1=Sha |first1=Mandy |url=https://www.amazon.com/CAN-YOU-TOO-Inspirations-award-winning/dp/B0C522W4Z5 |title=If we can do it, you can, too! Inspirations from award-winning speakers & leaders |last2=Lee |first2=Cassandra |year=2023 |isbn=9798379235413 |pages=44–46|publisher=Amazon Digital Services LLC - Kdp }}</ref> Members of the club meet and work together on their skills; each member practices giving speeches, while the other members evaluate and provide feedback. A typical meeting also includes [[Table topic|Table Topics]], which refers to [[impromptu speaking]], that is, talking about different topics without having anything planned.<ref>{{Cite web |title=6 Tips for Successful Club Meetings |url=https://www.toastmasters.org/magazine/magazine-issues/2022/dec/successful-club-meetings |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=Toastmasters International Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Members can volunteer to serve as a meeting functionary to help facilitate the meeting using their public speaking and leadership skills. The functionary roles enable each member the opportunity to speak at least one time at the meetings.<ref name=":6" /> Members can participate in a variety of speech contests, in which the winners can compete in the annual [[World Championship of Public Speaking]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Toastmasters International -|url=https://www.toastmasters.org/leadership-central/speech-contests|access-date=2020-12-13|website=www.toastmasters.org}}</ref>

=== Australian Rostrum ===
{{Main|Australian Rostrum}}
Rostrum is another public speaking organization, founded in [[Australia]], with more than 100 clubs all over the country.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=Rostrum Australia - About Rostrum Public Speaking|url=https://www.rostrum.com.au/about-us|access-date=2020-12-13 |website=www.rostrum.com.au}}</ref> This organization aims at helping people become better communicators, no matter the occasion.<ref name=":8" /> At the meetings, speakers can gain skills by presenting speeches, while members provide feedback to those presenting.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Rostrum Australia - FAQ |url=https://www.rostrum.com.au/about-us/faq |access-date=2020-12-13|website=www.rostrum.com.au}}</ref> Qualified speaking trainers attend these meetings as well, and provide professional feedback at the end of the meetings.<ref name=":9" /> There are competitions that are held for members to participate in.<ref name=":8" /> An online club is also available for members, no matter where they live.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rostrum Australia - Rostrum Online|url=https://www.rostrum.com.au/clubs/rostrum-on-line|access-date=2020-12-13 |website=www.rostrum.com.au}}</ref>

=== Self-training solutions ===
The new millennium has seen a notable increase in the number of training solutions, offered in the form of video and online courses. Videos can provide simulated examples of behaviors to emulate. Professional public speakers often engage in ongoing training and education to refine their craft. This may include seeking guidance to improve their speaking skills, such as learning better storytelling techniques, learning how to use humor as a communication tool effectively, and continuously researching their topic area of focus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important Public Speaking Skills for Workplace Success |url=https://www.thebalancecareers.com/public-speaking-skills-with-examples-2059697 |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=The Balance Careers |language=en}}</ref> They also recognize that content is king and advocate [[writing]] as a self-training exercise because it requires a speaker to focus on developing the content, not just speaking techniques.<ref name=":00" />

== Professional speakers ==
Public speaking for business and commercial events is often done by professionals, whose expertise is well established. These speakers can be contracted independently, through representation by a [[speakers bureau]], or by other means. Public speaking plays a large role in the professional world. It is believed that 70 percent of all jobs involve some form of public speaking.<ref>{{cite web |title=Public Speaking (The Public Speaking Project) |last1=Schreiber |first1=Lisa |last2=Hartranft |first2=Morgan |date=14 October 2018 |url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Public_Speaking/Public_Speaking_(The_Public_Speaking_Project)}}</ref> Most professional roles require some sort of public speaking skills. Individuals will often be expected to perform tasks like training staff, leading meetings, and pitching proposals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Important Public Speaking Skills for Workplace Success |url=https://www.thebalancemoney.com/public-speaking-skills-with-examples-2059697 |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=The Balance |language=en}}</ref>

== Modern ==
=== Technology ===
[[File:Ettus Ted Talk 1.png|thumb|A [[TED (conference)|TED Talk]]]]

New technology has opened different forms of public speaking that are non-traditional such as [[TED (conference)|TED Talks]], which are conferences that are broadcast globally. This form of public speaking has created a wider audience base because public speaking can now reach both physical and virtual audiences.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gallo |first=Carmine |title=Talk Like TED: The 9 Public-Speaking Secrets of the World's Top Minds |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1466837270}}</ref> These audiences can be watching from all around the world. [[YouTube]] is another platform that allows public speaking to reach a larger audience. On YouTube, people can post videos of themselves. Audiences can watch these videos for all types of purposes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Chris |title=TED Talks: The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2016}}</ref>

Multimedia presentations can contain different video clips, sound effects, animation, laser pointers, remote control clickers, and endless bullet points.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ridgley |first=Stanley K. |title=The Complete Guide to Business School Presenting: What your professors don't tell you... What you absolutely must know |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2012}}</ref> All adding to the presentation and evolving our traditional views of public speaking.

Public speakers may use [[audience response systems]]. For large assemblies, the speaker will usually speak with the aid of a [[public address system]] or [[microphone]] and [[loudspeaker]].

=== Telecommunication ===
[[File:Sputnik 1 satellite model.png|thumb|Sputnik Launched by Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, invoking competition Between U.S. as a race to space which further innovation and Technology especially in communication.]]
[[Telecommunication]] and [[videoconferencing]] are also forms of public speaking. David M. Fetterman of [[Stanford University]] wrote in his 1997 article ''Videoconferencing over the Internet'': "Videoconferencing technology allows geographically disparate parties to hear and see each other usually through satellite or telephone [[communication]] systems."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fetterman |first=David M. |date=February 1997 |title=Videoconferencing over the Internet |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/104973239700700110 |journal=Qualitative Health Research |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=154–163 |doi=10.1177/104973239700700110 |s2cid=143790239 |issn=1049-7323}}</ref> This technology is helpful for large conference meetings and face-to-face communication between parties without demanding the inconvenience of travel.

=== Notable modern theorists ===
* [[Harold Lasswell]] developed [[Lasswell's model of communication]]. Five basic elements of public speaking are described in this theory: the communicator, message, medium, audience, and effect. In short, the speaker should be answering the question "''who'' says ''what'' in which ''channel'' to ''whom'' with what ''effect''?"
* Several other [[Models of communication#Shannon and Weaver|other models and theories]] were created in the 1950s, 60s and 70s. These tend to include emphasis on ''[[Models of communication#Basic concepts|feedback from listeners]]'', as well as understandings of context, shared knowledge and shared experience between people, and ''[[communication noise]]''.

== Women and public speaking ==

=== Australia ===
An organization called the Penguin Club of Australia was founded in [[Sydney]] in 1937 and aimed at developing women's communication skills.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://speakingmadeeasy.com.au/speaking-made-easy-about-us/ |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=Speaking Made Easy |language=en-AU}}</ref> Led by Jean Ellis, the organization spread to [[States and territories of Australia|other territories of Australia]] and current-day [[Papua New Guinea]] over time.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rutledge |first=Martha |title=Melicent Jane (Jean) Ellis (1887–1974) |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ellis-melicent-jane-jean-10117 |work=Australian Dictionary of Biography |access-date=2023-09-26 |place=Canberra |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |language=en}}</ref> A main premise of the organization was that it was created "for women by women." They renamed to "Speaking Made Easy" in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Broekhof |first=Shirl |date=2020-01-25 |title=Women Enriching the Lives of Other Women |url=https://speakingmadeeasy.com.au/women-enriching-the-lives-of-other-women/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Speaking Made Easy |language=en-AU}}</ref>

=== Great Britain ===
{{Further|Women's Social and Political Union}}
The British political activist, [[Emmeline Pankhurst]], founded the [[Women's Social and Political Union]] (WSPU) on October 10, 1903.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |author=June Purvis |editor1=John Merriman |editor2=Jay Winter |date=2006 |title=Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire |volume=4 |chapter=Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3446900622/GVRL?u=lincclin_pbcc&sid=GVR%20L&xid=9846016b |access-date=2020-12-13 |via=link.gale.com |language=en}}</ref> The organization was aimed towards fighting for women's right to a parliamentary vote, which only men were granted at the time.<ref>{{Citation |last=Purvis |first=June |title=Emmeline Pankhurst in the Aftermath of Suffrage, 1918–1928 |date=2013 |work=The Aftermath of Suffrage: Women, Gender, and Politics in Britain, 1918–1945 |pages=19–36 |editor-last=Gottlieb |editor-first=Julie V. |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |place=London |doi=10.1057/9781137333001_2 |isbn=978-1-137-33300-1 |editor2-last=Toye |editor2-first=Richard |language=en}}</ref> Emmeline was known for being a powerful orator, who led many women to rebel through militant forms until the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914.<ref name=":3" />

=== Japan ===
[[Toshiko Kishida|Kishida Toshiko]] (1861–1901) was a female speaker during the [[Meiji era]] in [[Japan]]. In October 1883, she publicly delivered a speech entitled 'Hakoiri Musume' (Daughters Kept in Boxes) in front of approximately 600 people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Marnie |date=2006-12-01 |title=Kishida Toshiko and the Rise of the Female Speaker in Meiji Japan. |url=https://scholarworks.smith.edu/hst_facpubs/3 |journal=U.S.-Japan Women's Journal |issue=31 |pages=36–59}}</ref> Presented in Yotsu no Miya Theater in [[Kyoto]], she criticized the action of parents that shelter their daughters from the outside world. Despite her prompt arrest, Kishida demonstrated the ability of Japanese women to evoke women's issues, experiences, and liberation in public spaces, through the use of public speaking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sievers |first=Sharon L. |date=1981 |title=Feminist Criticism in Japanese Politics in the 1880s: The Experience of Kishida Toshiko |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3173734 |journal=Signs |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=602–616 |doi=10.1086/493837 |jstor=3173734 |s2cid=143844577 |issn=0097-9740}}</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
[[File:Malala Yousafzai.jpg|thumb|[[Malala Yousafzai]], an educational activist from [[Pakistan]], speaking]]

[[Malala Yousafzai]], a public speaker born in the [[Swat District|Swat Valley]] in [[Pakistan]], is an educational activist for women and girls.<ref name=":4">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Yousafzai, Malala (1997–) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/galeislam/yousafzai_malala_1997/0|access-date=2020-12-13|url-access=limited |via=Credo Reference}}</ref> After the [[Taliban]] restricted the educational rights of women in the Swat Valley, Yousafzai presented her first speech, ''How Dare the Taliban Take Away My Basic Right to Education?'', in which she protested the shutdowns of the schools.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Gale Power Search - Document - Education Meant Risking Her Life A Young Girl's Deadly Struggle to Learn|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=lincclin_pbcc&id=GALE%7CA611171418&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=6ed77c61|access-date=2020-12-13|website=go.gale.com}}</ref> She presented this speech to the press in [[Peshawar]],<ref name=":5" /> bringing more awareness to the situation in Pakistan.<ref name=":5" /> She is known for her "inspiring and passionate speech" about educational rights given at the [[United Nations]].<ref name=":4" /> She is the youngest person ever to receive the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], at the age of 17, which was awarded to her in 2014.<ref name=":4" /> Her public speaking has brought worldwide attention to the difficulties of young girls in Pakistan. She continues to advocate for educational rights for women and girls worldwide through the [[Malala Fund]],<ref name=":4" /> to help girls around the world receive 12 years of education.<ref name=":5" />

=== United States ===
During the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States, a prohibition was instituted whereby women were precluded from engaging in public discourse within the confines of the courtroom, the Senate floor, and the pulpit.<ref name="mankiller1998a">{{Cite book |last=Mankiller |first=Wilma Pearl |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618001828 |title=The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |year=1998 |isbn=978-0585068473 |pages=485 |url-access=registration}}</ref> It was deemed improper for a woman to be heard in a public setting. Exceptions existed for women from the [[Quakers|Quaker]] religion, allowing them to speak publicly in meetings of the church.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=O'Dea |first=Suzanne |title=From Suffrage to the Senate: America's Political Women |year=2013 |publisher=Grey House Pub. |isbn=978-1-61925-010-9}}</ref>{{Pages needed|date=December 2018}}
[[File:Franceswright.jpg|thumb|Frances Wright was an abolitionist, feminist, freethinker, and social reformer who advocated for many injustices.]]
[[Frances Wright]] was one of the first female public speakers in the United States, advocating equal education for both women and men through large audiences and the press.{{sfn|Mankiller|1998|p=31}} [[Maria Stewart]], a woman of African American descent, was also one of the first female speakers of the United States, lecturing in Boston in front of both men and women just four years after Wright, in 1832 and 1833, on educational opportunities and abolition for young girls.<ref name=":1" />{{Pages needed|date=December 2018}}

The first female agents and sisters of the [[American Anti-Slavery Society]] [[Angelina Grimké]] and [[Sarah Grimké]] created a platform for public lectures to women and conducted tours between 1837 and 1839. The sisters advocated that slavery relates to women's rights and that women need equality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bizzell |first=Patricia |date=2010 |title=Chastity Warrants for Women Public Speakers in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction |journal=Rhetoric Society Quarterly |volume=40 |issue=4 |page=17 |doi=10.1080/02773945.2010.501050 |s2cid=143052545}}</ref> They came to a disagreement with churches that did not want the two speaking publicly due to them being women.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bahdwar |first1=Neera |title=Sarah Grimké and Angelina Grimké Weld: Abolitionists and Feminists |url=https://www.fff.org/explore-freedom/article/sarah-grimke-angelina-grimke-weld-abolitionists-feminists/ |access-date=28 September 2020 |website=The Future of Freedom Foundation |date=November 2017 |publisher=FFF}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Audience response]]
* [[Crowd manipulation]]
* [[Declamation]]
* [[Debate]]
* [[Eloquence]]
* [[Eulogy]]
* [[Glossophobia]]
* [[List of speeches]]
* [[National Speech and Debate Association]]
* [[Public orator]]
* [[Persuasion]] 
* [[Rhetoric]]
* [[Speechwriter]]
* [[Speakers' bureau]]
* [[Thematic interpretation]]
* [[Toastmasters International]]
* [[:Category:Speeches by type]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Anderson, Chris. The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, 2016.
* Carnegie, Dale· Arthur R. Pell. Public Speaking for Success. 2006 
* Carnegie, Dale. Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business. 2003
* Carnegie, Dale. How to Develop Self-Confidence & Influence People by Public Speaking. New York: Pocket Books, 1926
* Collins, Philip. "The Art of Speeches and Presentations" (John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
* [[J. Berg Esenwein|Esenwein, J. Berg]] and [[Dale Carnegie|Carnegie, Dale]], ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16317 The Art of Public Speaking]'' (1915)
* Fairlie, Henry. "Oratory in Political Life," ''History Today'' (Jan 1960) 10#1 pp.&nbsp;3–13. A survey of political oratory in Great Britain from 1730 to 1960.
* Flintoff, John-Paul. "A Modest Book About How To Make An Adequate Speech" (Short Books, 2021). [https://www.amazon.co.uk/s?k=178072456X/ excerpt]
* Gold, David, and Catherine L. Hobbs, eds. ''Rhetoric, History, and Women's Oratorical Education: American Women Learn to Speak'' (Routledge, 2013).
* Heinrichs, Jay. "Thank You For Arguing" (Penguin, 2008).
* Lucas, Stephen E. ''The Art of Public Speaking'' (13th ed. McGraw Hill, 2019).
* Noonan, Peggy. "Simply Speaking" (Regan Books, 1998).
* Parry-Giles, Shawn J., and J. Michael Hogan, eds. ''The Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address'' (2010) [https://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Rhetoric-Public-Address/dp/1405178132/  excerpt]
* Sproule, J. Michael. "Inventing public speaking: Rhetoric and the speech book, 1730–1930." ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 15.4 (2012): 563–608. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/490117/summary excerpt]
* Turner, Kathleen J., Randall Osborn, et al. ''Public speaking'' (11th ed. Houghton Mifflin, 2017). [https://www.amazon.com/Public-Speaking-11th-Kathleen-Turner/dp/0134380924/ excerpt]

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Public speaking}}
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_how_to_speak_so_that_people_want_to_listen "How to speak so that people want to listen"], a June 2013 [[TED (conference)|TED Talk]]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Public speaking| ]]
[[Category:Performing arts]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]