Editing Psilocybe cubensis

{{Short description|Species of fungus}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Cubensis_Xalapa.jpg
| genus = Psilocybe
| species = cubensis
| authority = ([[Franklin Sumner Earle|Earle]]) [[Rolf Singer|Singer]]
| synonyms_ref = 
| synonyms = ''Stropharia cubensis'' <small>Earle</small><br />
''Stropharia cyanescens'' <small>Murrill</small><br />
''Naematoloma caerulescens'' <small>Pat.</small><br />
''Hypholoma caerulescens'' <small>(Pat.) Sacc. & Trotter</small>
}}
{{Mycomorphbox 
| name = ''Psilocybe cubensis''
| whichGills = adnate 
| whichGills2= adnexed 
| capShape = convex
| capShape2=flat 
| hymeniumType=gills
| stipeCharacter=ring
| ecologicalType=saprotrophic
| sporePrintColor=purple
| howEdible=psychoactive 
}}

'''''Psilocybe cubensis''''', commonly known as the '''magic mushroom''', '''shroom''', '''golden halo''', '''golden teacher''', '''cube''', or '''gold cap''', is a species of [[psilocybin mushroom]] of moderate potency whose principal [[Psychoactive compound|active compounds]] are [[psilocybin]] and [[psilocin]]. It belongs to the fungus family [[Hymenogastraceae]] and was previously known as '''''Stropharia cubensis'''''.  It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom due to its wide distribution and ease of cultivation.

==Taxonomy==
The species was [[species description|first described]] in 1906 as ''Stropharia cubensis'' by American [[mycologist]] [[Franklin Sumner Earle]] in [[Cuba]].<ref name="Earle1906">{{cite journal |last=Earle |first=Franklin Summer |year=1906 |title=Algunos hongos cubanos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=upZBAQAAIAAJ |journal=Información Anual Estación Central Agronomica Cuba |language=es |volume=1 |pages=225–242 [240–241]}}</ref> In 1907, it was identified as ''Naematoloma caerulescens'' in [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]] (now Vietnam) by  French pharmacist and mycologist [[Narcisse Théophile Patouillard]],<ref name="Patouillard1907">{{cite journal |last=Patouillard |first=Narcisse Théophile |year=1907 |title=Champignons nouveaux du Tonkin |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9786980q/f123 |journal=Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France |language=fr |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=69–79}}</ref> while in 1941, it was called ''Stropharia cyanescens'' by [[William Alphonso Murrill]] near [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]] in [[Florida]].<ref name="Murrill1941">{{cite journal |last=Murrill |first=William Alphonso |date=1941 |title=Some Florida Novelties |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0033/003/0279.htm |journal=Mycologia |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=279–287 |doi=10.2307/3754763 |jstor=3754763}} {{closed access}}</ref> German-born mycologist [[Rolf Singer]] moved the species into the genus ''[[Psilocybe]]'' in 1949, giving it the binomial name ''Psilocybe cubensis''.<ref name="guzmanchapter" /> The [[synonym (biology)|synonyms]] were later also assigned to the species ''Psilocybe cubensis''.<ref name="urlMycoBank: Naematoloma caerulescens">{{cite web |title=''Naematoloma caerulescens'' Pat. 1907 |url=http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=521843 |access-date=2010-10-18 |work=MycoBank |publisher=International Mycological Association}}</ref><ref name="urlMycoBank: Stropharia cyanescens">{{cite web |title=''Stropharia cyanescens'' Murrill 1941 |url=http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=290107 |access-date=2010-10-18 |work=MycoBank |publisher=International Mycological Association}}</ref>

The name '' Psilocybe '' is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] roots ''psilos'' (ψιλος) and ''kubê'' (κυβη),<ref>{{cite book |last=Cornelis |first=Schrevel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2eUIAAAAQAAJ&q=%CE%BA%CF%8D%CE%B2%CE%B7&pg=PA358 |title=Schrevelius' Greek lexicon, tr. into Engl. with numerous corrections |year=1826 |page=358 |access-date=2011-10-04}}</ref> and translates as "bare head". ''Cubensis'' means "coming from Cuba", and refers to the type locality published by Earle.

Singer divided ''P. cubensis'' into three varieties: the nominate, which usually had a brownish cap, Murrill's ''cyanescens'' from Florida, which generally had a pale cap, and var ''caerulascens'' from Indochina with a more yellowish cap.<ref name="singer1958" />

''Psilocybe cubensis'' is commonly known as gold top, golden top or gold cap in Australia, sacred mushroom<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 2022 |title=Sacred Mushrooms |url=https://www.naturezadivina.com.br/cogumelos-sagrados |access-date=1 March 2022 |website=Natureza Divina}}</ref> or blue mushroom in Brazil, and San Ysidro or Palenque mushroom in the United States and Mexico, while the term "magic mushroom" has been applied to hallucinogenic mushrooms in general.<ref name="allenmerlin1991" /> It is commonly known as "Golden teacher" in South Africa.<ref name="Nkadimeng2020">{{cite journal |last1=Nkadimeng |first1=Sanah M. |last2=Steinmann |first2=Christiaan M. L. |last3=Eloff |first3=Jacobus N. |title=Effects and safety of Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens magic mushroom extracts on endothelin-1-induced hypertrophy and cell injury in cardiomyocytes |journal=Scientific Reports |date=18 December 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=22314 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-79328-5|pmid=33339902 |pmc=7749179 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1022314N }}</ref> A common name in Thai is "Hed keequai", which translates as "mushroom which appears after water buffalo defecates".<ref name="allenmerlin92" />

Between 2013 and 2022, several samples of an unknown species of ''Psilocybe'' mushroom were collected. These samples bore similar superficial characteristics to ''P. cubensis'', as well as similar habit and habitat. [[Microscopic scale|Microscopic]] and genetic testing of these samples led to the conclusion that they were closely related but different species, estimated to have shared a common ancestor some time in the last 3 million years. The new species has provisionally named ''Psilocybe ochraceocentrata''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bradshaw |first=Alexander J. |date=December 2024 |title=Discovery of the closest free-living relative of the domesticated "magic mushroom" Psilocybe cubensis in Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386541978_Discovery_of_the_closest_free-living_relative_of_the_domesticated_magic_mushroom_Psilocybe_cubensis_in_Africa |journal=ResearchGate |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Cubensis_Xalapa_2.jpg|thumb|right|''Psilocybe cubensis'']]
The [[Pileus (mycology)|cap]] is {{convert|1.6-8|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=4}}, [[conic]] to [[wikt:convex|convex]] with a central papilla when young, becoming broadly convex to plane with age, retaining a slight umbo sometimes surrounded by a ring-shaped depression. The cap surface is [[Glossary of botanical terms#glabrous|smooth]] and sticky, sometimes with white [[universal veil]] remnants attached. The cap is brown becoming paler to almost white at the margin and fades to more golden-brown or yellowish with age. When bruised, all parts of the mushroom stain blue. The narrow grey gills are adnate to adnexed, sometimes seceding attachment, and darken to purplish-black and somewhat mottled with age. The gill edges remain whitish. The hollow white [[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]] is {{convert|4-15|cm|0|abbr=on}} high by {{convert|0.4-1.4|cm|1|abbr=on|frac=4}} thick, becoming yellowish in age.<ref name=singer1958>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3756197|jstor=3756197|title=Mycological Investigations on Teonanácatl, the Mexican Hallucinogenic Mushroom. Part II. A Taxonomic Monograph of Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes|last1=Singer|first1=Rolf|last2=Smith|first2=Alexander H.|journal=Mycologia|year=1958|volume=50|issue=2|pages=262–303}}</ref> The well-developed veil leaves a persistent white membranous ring whose surface usually becomes the same color as the gills because of falling spores.<ref name="stamets">{{cite book | title=Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World| last=Stamets| first=Paul| year=1996| pages=g. 108| publisher=Ten Speed Press| isbn=0-89815-839-7}}</ref> The fruiting bodies are 90% water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Borovicˇka |first1=J |last2=Konvalinková |first2=T |date=2019 |title=Disentangling the factors of contrasting silver and copper accumulation in sporocarps of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Amanita strobiliformis from two sites |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31400682/ |journal=Sci Total Environ|volume=694 |page=133679 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133679 |pmid=31400682 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.69433679B |s2cid=199527535 }}</ref> The mushroom has no odor and has been described as tasting [[farinaceous]], with an alkaline or metallic aftertaste. The spores are 11.5&ndash;17.3 x 8&ndash;11.5&nbsp;[[μm]], sub-ellipsoid, [[basidia]] 4-spored but sometimes 2- or 3-, pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia present.<ref name=singer1958/>

=== Similar species ===
The related species ''[[Psilocybe subcubensis]]''—found in tropical regions—is indistinguishable but has smaller spores.<ref name="allenmerlin92" /> ''[[Panaeolus semiovatus]]'' can appear similar but does not stain.<ref name="audu">{{Cite book |last=[[Audubon]] |title=Mushrooms of North America |publisher=[[Knopf]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-593-31998-7 |pages=658}}</ref>

[[File:Psilocybe.cubensis.spores-1000x.jpg|thumb|''Psilocybe cubensis'' spores, 1000x]]

==Distribution and habitat==
''Psilocybe cubensis'' is a pan-tropical species,<ref name=guzmanchapter/> occurring in the Gulf Coast states and southeastern United States, Mexico, in the Central American countries of Belize, Costa Rica, Panamá, [[El Salvador]] and Guatemala, the Caribbean countries Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guadalupe, Martinique, and Trinidad,  in the South American countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Paraguay, Uruguay and Peru, Southeast Asia,<ref name="Guzmán 1998"/> including Thailand,<ref name=allenmerlin92/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brand |first=Danielle Simone |date=2023-07-21 |title=Pink Buffalo Mushrooms Are "Smooth and Kind," Say Enthusiasts |url=https://doubleblindmag.com/thai-pink-buffalo-mushrooms/ |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=DoubleBlind Mag |language=en-US}}</ref> Vietnam, Cambodia and Malaysia, India, Australia, Fiji, and possibly Nepal and Hawaii.<ref name="Guzmán 1998">{{cite journal |last1=Guzmán |first1=Gaston | last2= Allen | first2=John W. | last3= Gartz | first3= Jochen |title=A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion |journal=Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto |year=1998 |volume=14 |page=207 |url=http://www.fungifun.org/docs/mushrooms/Psilocybe/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf}}</ref>

''Psilocybe cubensis'' is found on cow (and occasionally horse) dung, sugar cane mulch or rich pasture soil, with mushrooms appearing from February to December in the northern hemisphere, and November to April in the southern hemisphere.<ref name=singer1958/> In Asia, the species grows on water buffalo dung.<ref name=allenmerlin92/> Along with other fungi that grow on cow dung, ''P.&nbsp;cubensis'' is thought to have colonized Australia with the introduction of cattle there, 1800 of which were on the Australian mainland by 1803—having been transported there from the [[Cape of Good Hope]], Kolkata and the American west coast. In Australia, the species grows between northern Queensland to southern New South Wales.<ref name=allenmerlin1991>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/02791072.1991.10472573|title=An Ethnomycological Review of Psychoactive Agarics in Australia and New Zealand|year=1991|last1=Allen|first1=John W.|last2=Merlin|first2=Mark D.|last3=Jansen|first3=Karl L.R.|journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs|volume=23|issue=1|pages=39–69|pmid=1941366}}</ref>

In March 2018, several ''Psilocybe cubensis'' specimens were collected in [[Zimbabwe]] in the [[Wedza District]] of Mashonaland East province, approx. 120&nbsp;km &nbsp;southeast of Harare. This was the first reported occurrence of a psilocybin mushroom in Zimbabwe. The mushrooms were collected on Imire Rhino & Wildlife Conservation—a nature reserve that is home to both wildlife and cattle, as well as cattle egrets.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mushroom Observer|url=http://mushroomobserver.org/observer/show_observation/311217|access-date=2021-02-23|website=mushroomobserver.org}}</ref>

==Relationship with cattle==
[[File:Psilocybe Cubensis Imire.jpg|thumb|''Psilocybe cubensis,'' Zimbabwe]]
Because ''Psilocybe cubensis'' is intimately associated with cattle ranching,<ref>O.T. Oss, O.N. Oeric. ''Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide'', page 20. Quick American Press (1991).</ref> the fungus has found unique dispersal niches not available to most other members of the family [[Hymenogastraceae]]. Of particular interest is the [[cattle egret]] (''Bubulcus ibis''), a colonizer of Old World origin (via South America), whose range of distribution overlaps much of that of ''Psilocybe cubensis.'' Cattle egrets typically walk alongside cattle, preying on insects; they track through spore-laden vegetation and cow dung and transfer the spores to suitable habitats, often thousands of miles away during migration activities. This type of spore dispersal is known as [[zoochory]], and it enables a parent species to propagate over a much greater range than it could achieve alone. The relationship between cattle, cattle egrets, and ''Psilocybe cubensis'' is an example of [[symbiosis]]—a situation in which dissimilar organisms live together in close association.<ref>Smith, D. "The cattle egret (''Bubulcus ibis''): colonizer of Old World origin and a vector of ''Psilocybe cubensis'' spores." Stain Blue Press, Spring, Texas (1996). http://www.stainblue.com/cubensis.html</ref>

==Cultivation==
[[File:Indoor cultivation of Psilocybe cubensis.jpeg|thumb|Indoor cultivation of ''Psilocybe cubensis'']]
''Psilocybe cubensis'' grows naturally in tropical and subtropical conditions, often near cattle due to the ideal conditions they provide for the growth of the fungus. The cow usually consumes grains or grass covered with the spores of ''P.&nbsp;cubensis'' and the fungus will begin to germinate within the dung.

Mushrooms such as ''Psilocybe cubensis'' are relatively easy to cultivate indoors. First, spores are inoculated within sterilized jars or bags, colloquially known as grainspawn, containing a form of carbohydrate nutrient such as rye grains.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-10-14 |title=Cultivating Psilocybe cubensis: Suitable Substrates |url=https://psychedelicreview.com/cultivating-psilocybe-cubensis-suitable-substrates/ |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=Psychedelic Science Review |language=en-US}}</ref> After approximately one month, the spores fully colonize the grain spawn forming dense [[mycelium]], which is then planted within a bulk substrate such as a coconut husk fiber and vermiculite mixture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=LG |title=Psilocybin mushroom handbook: easy indoor & outdoor cultivation |last2=Kerry |first2=Ogame |publisher=Quick Trading |year=2006 |isbn=978-0932-55171-9}}</ref> Given proper humidity, temperature, and fresh air exchange, the substrate will produce fruiting ''Psilocybe cubensis'' bodies within a month of planting. To preserve potency after harvesting, growers often dehydrate the fruit and store them in air-tight containers in cool environments.

A study conducted in 2009 showed that mushrooms grown in the dark had higher levels of psilocybin and psilocin compared to the mushrooms grown in bright, indirect light, which had minimum levels.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-08-25 |title=Cultivating P. cubensis: Light and Tryptamine Are Key for Controlling Psilocybin and Psilocin Levels |url=https://psychedelicreview.com/cultivating-p-cubensis-light-and-tryptophan-are-key-for-controlling-psilocybin-levels/ |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=Psychedelic Science Review |language=en-US}}</ref>

Studies were conducted where an environmentally controlled wind tunnel and a computer program were used to determine the influence of humidity on the individual basidiocarps of ''P.''&nbsp;''cubensis'' which aided in mapping their growth and development. The transpiration and growth of the mushroom were heavily influenced by the humidity of the air, and the transpiration was accelerated at higher humidities while light did not affect the growth. Faster growth was observed at higher humidities. It was also discovered that misting enhanced both the growth and transpiration rates in the growing process of ''P.&nbsp;cubensis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Badham |first=Edmond R. |date=1985 |title=The Influence of Humidity upon Transpiration and Growth in Psilocybe cubensis |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3793305 |journal=Mycologia |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=932–939 |doi=10.2307/3793305 |issn=0027-5514 |jstor=3793305}}</ref>
[[File:Mushrooms growed with PF Tek.jpg|thumb|Mushrooms grown with PF-Tek]]
Small-scale cultivation of ''P.&nbsp;cubensis'' is often accomplished with "cakes" that colonize within jars, but fruit inside specially designed tubs called "shotgun fruiting chambers". The most common cake method for beginners is PF-Tek ("Psilocybe Fanaticus technique"), named after Psylocybe Fanaticus, the clandestine cultivator credited for its creation. Cakes are popular for the new cultivator because of their simplicity and low cost of startup materials. As cakes are composed of brown rice flour, vermiculite, and gypsum, they can be steam-sterilized in a large pot. Unlike cereal grains used in bulk growing, brown rice flour contains no bacterial endospores, a contamination vector requiring a pressure cooker to sterilize.

The "Spiderman Tek" is a growing method using microwavable rice sachets.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Haze |first=Dr K. Mandrake and Virginia |date=2024-06-04 |title=Spiderman Tek: A Grow Guide For Beginners |url=https://doubleblindmag.com/spiderman-tek/ |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=DoubleBlind Mag |language=en-US}}</ref>

Cultivation methods resulting in larger yields are categorized as "bulk growing". Bulk growing allows cultivators to operate on a larger scale, but require a greater investment of time, money, and knowledge. While small-scale grows utilize spore syringes to inject spore solution into cakes, bulk methods instead use grain spawn as primary nutrition for the subsequent growth. Additionally, cultivators must develop solid sterile technique in working with agar. Instead of inoculating grain with spores, growers instead germinate spores on agar plates, then transfer the resultant healthy mycelium to the grain jars. Once the grain is colonized with clean mycelial growth, users inoculate their bulk substrates with the grain in a process known as "spawning." Bulk substrates are frequently a mix of coir, vermiculite and gypsum due to not requiring pasteurization or sterilization. However, some utilize blends of manure-based substrates or straw; substrates which always require pasteurization with open-air spawning. After spawning, the healthy mycelium will colonize the bulk substrate, and given proper conditions, eventually fruit mushrooms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oss |first=O. T. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27721523 |title=Psilocybin : magic mushroom grower's guide: a handbook for psilocybin enthusiasts |date=1991 |publisher=Quick American Pub |others=O. N. Oeric |isbn=0-932551-06-8 |location=[San Francisco, Calif.?] |oclc=27721523}}</ref>

[[Terence McKenna|Terence]] and [[Dennis McKenna]] made ''P.&nbsp;cubensis'' particularly famous when they published ''Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide'' in the 1970s upon their return from the [[Amazon rainforest]], having deduced new methods (based on pre-existing techniques originally described by J.P. San Antonio)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Antonio |first1=James P. San |date=January 1971 |title=A Laboratory Method to Obtain Fruit from Cased Grain Spawn of the Cultivated Mushroom, Agaricus Bisporus |journal=Mycologia |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=16–21 |doi=10.1080/00275514.1971.12019077 |pmid=5102274}}</ref> for growing [[psilocybin mushrooms]] and assuring their audience that ''P.&nbsp;cubensis'' were amongst the easiest psilocybin-containing mushrooms to cultivate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Terence McKenna's books in print |url=http://www.levity.com/eschaton/tmUSed.html |access-date=December 17, 2015}}</ref>

The potency of cultivated specimens can vary widely per each flush (harvest). In a classic paper published by Jeremy Bigwood and M.W. Beug, it was shown that with each flush, psilocybin levels varied somewhat unpredictably but were much the same on the first flush as they were on the last flush; however, [[psilocin]] was typically absent in the first two flushes but peaked by the fourth flush, making it the most potent. Two strains were also analyzed to determine potency in caps and stems: In one strain the caps contained generally twice as much psilocybin as the stems, but the small amount of psilocin present was entirely in the stems. In the other strain, a trace of psilocin was present in the cap but not in the stem; the cap and stem contained equal amounts of psilocybin. The study concluded that the levels of psilocybin and psilocin vary by over a factor of four in cultures of ''P.&nbsp;cubensis'' grown under controlled conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bigwood |first1=Jeremy |last2=Beug |first2=Michael W. |date=1 May 1982 |title=Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) singer |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=287–291 |doi=10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9 |pmid=7201054}}</ref>

==Psychedelic and entheogenic use==
[[File:Pcubmazatapec.jpg|thumb|right|''Psilocybe cubensis'']]
Singer noted in 1949 that ''Psilocybe cubensis'' had psychoactive properties.<ref name=guzmanchapter>{{cite book |last1=Guzmán |first1=Gastón |title=Fungi from Different Environments |date=2009 |chapter=The Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Diversity, Traditions, Use and Abuse with Special Reference to the Genus Psilocybe |publisher=Science Publishers |location=Enfield, New Hampshire |isbn=978-1-57808-578-1 |url=https://fmedicine.ajums.ac.ir/_fmedicine/Documents/Fungi%20from%20different%20environments_20130420_151816.pdf#page=269 |pages=269–290 |access-date=2021-05-13 |archive-date=2021-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513113635/https://fmedicine.ajums.ac.ir/_fmedicine/Documents/Fungi%20from%20different%20environments_20130420_151816.pdf#page=269 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In Australia, the use of psychoactive mushrooms grew rapidly between 1969 and 1975.<ref name=allenmerlin1991/>

In a 1992 paper, locals and tourists in Thailand were reported to consume ''P. cubensis'' and related species in mushroom omelets—particularly in [[Ko Samui]] and [[Ko Pha-ngan]]. At times, omelets were adulterated with LSD, resulting in prolonged intoxication. A thriving subculture had developed in the region. Other localities, such as [[Hat Yai]], [[Ko Samet]], and [[Chiang Mai]], also had some reported usage.<ref name=allenmerlin92>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0378-8741(92)90020-R|title=Psychoactive mushroom use in Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan, Thailand|year=1992|last1=Allen|first1=John W.|last2=Merlin|first2=Mark D.|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=35|issue=3|pages=205–228|pmid=1548895}}</ref>

In 1996, jars of honey containing ''Psilocybe cubensis'' were confiscated at the Dutch-German border. Upon examination, it was revealed that jars of honey containing psychedelic mushrooms were being sold at Dutch coffee shops.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bogusz |first1=M. J. |last2=Maier |first2=R. D. |last3=Schäfer |first3=A. T. |last4=Erkens |first4=M. |date=1998 |title=Honey with Psilocybe mushrooms: a revival of a very old preparation on the drug market? |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9587797/ |journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine |volume=111 |issue=3 |pages=147–150 |doi=10.1007/s004140050135 |issn=0937-9827 |pmid=9587797|s2cid=34213721 }}</ref>

''P. cubensis'' is one of the most widely known of the psilocybin-containing mushrooms used for triggering [[psychedelic experience]]s after ingestion.
Its major alkaloids are:

* [[Psilocybin]] (4-phosphoryloxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine)
* [[Psilocin]] (4-hydroxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine)
* [[Baeocystin]] (4-phosphoryloxy-''N''-methyltryptamine)
* [[Norbaeocystin]] (4-phosphoryloxytryptamine)
* [[Aeruginascin]] (''N,N,N''-trimethyl-4-phosphoryloxytryptamine)

The potential psychoactivity of other compounds other than psilocybin and psilocin has been speculated but not confirmed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherwood |first1=Alexander |title=Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Tryptamines Found in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Norbaeocystin, Baeocystin, Norpsilocin, and Aeruginascin |journal=Journal of Natural Products |date=2020-02-28 |pages=461–467 |doi=10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01061 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32077284/}}</ref>

The concentrations of psilocin and psilocybin, as determined by [[high-performance liquid chromatography]], are in the range of 0.14–0.42% (wet weight) and 0.37–1.30% (dry weight) in the whole mushroom 0.17–0.78% (wet weight) and 0.44–1.35% (dry weight) in the cap, and 0.09%–0.30% (wet weight) and 0.05–1.27% (dry weight) in the stem, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsujikawa |first1=Kenji |last2=Kanamori |first2=Tatsuyuki |last3=Iwata |first3=Yuko |last4=Ohmae |first4=Yoshihito |last5=Sugita |first5=Ritsuko |last6=Inoue |first6=Hiroyuki |last7=Kishi |first7=Tohru |title=Morphological and chemical analysis of magic mushrooms in Japan |journal=Forensic Science International |date=December 2003 |volume=138 |issue=1–3 |pages=85–90 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.08.009 |pmid=14642723 }}</ref> For quickly and practically measuring the psychoactive contents of most healthy ''Psilocybe cubensis'' varieties, it can generally be assumed that there is approximately 15&nbsp;mg (+/- 5&nbsp;mg) of psilocybin per gram of dried mushroom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laussmann |first1=Tim |last2=Meier-Giebing |first2=Sigrid |date=2010 |title=Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379073809004927 |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=160–164|doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013 |pmid=20047807 }}</ref> Furthermore, due to factors such as age and storage method, the psilocybin and psilocin content of a given sample of mushrooms will vary.

Individual body composition, brain chemistry and psychological predisposition play a significant role in determining appropriate doses. For a modest psychedelic effect, a minimum of one gram of dried ''Psilocybe cubensis'' mushrooms is ingested orally, 0.25–1&nbsp;gram is usually sufficient to produce a mild effect, 1–2.5&nbsp;grams usually provides a moderate effect and 2.5&nbsp;grams and higher usually produces strong effects.<ref name="erowiddosage">{{cite web|url=https://erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_dose.shtml |title=Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault: Dosage|access-date=2006-11-26|publisher=Erowid|year=2006|author=Erowid|format=shtml}}</ref> For most people, 3.5 dried grams (1/8 oz) would be considered a high dose and may produce an intense experience; this is, however, typically considered a standard dose among recreational users. Body composition (usually weight) should be taken into account when calculating dosage. For many individuals, doses above three&nbsp;grams may be overwhelming. For a few rare people, doses as small as 0.25&nbsp;gram can produce full-blown effects normally associated with very high doses. For most people, however, that dose level would have virtually no effects.

There are many different ways to ingest ''Psilocybe cubensis''. Users may prefer to take them raw, freshly harvested, or dried and preserved. It is also possible to prepare culinary dishes such as pasta or tea with the mushrooms. However, the psychoactive compounds begin to break down rapidly at temperatures exceeding 100&nbsp;°C (212&nbsp;°F).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gotvaldová |first=Klára |date=2021 |title=Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis |url=https://www.oregon.gov/oha/PH/PREVENTIONWELLNESS/Documents/Stability%20of%20Psilocybin%20and%20Analogs.pdf |journal= Drug Testing and Analysis|volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=439–446 |doi=10.1002/dta.2950 |pmid=33119971 |s2cid=226205357 }}</ref> Another method of ingestion known as "Lemon Tekking" involves combining pulverized ''Psilocybe cubensis'' with a concentrated citrus juice with a pH of ~2. Many users believe that a considerable amount of the psilocybin will have been [[Dephosphorylation|dephosphorylated]] into psilocin, the psychoactive metabolite, by citric acid. However, this claim is not substantiated by the literature on the metabolism of psilocybin, as dephosphorylation is known to be mediated by the enzyme alkaline phosphatase in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Dinis-Oliveira | first=Ricardo Jorge | title=Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: clinical and forensic toxicological relevance | journal=Drug Metabolism Reviews | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=49 | issue=1 | date=2 January 2017 | issn=0360-2532 | doi=10.1080/03602532.2016.1278228 | pages=84–91| pmid=28074670 | s2cid=7656157 }}</ref> It is therefore more likely that citric acid mostly helps in breakdown of mushroom cells, aiding in digestion and  psilocybin release.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}
The "Lemon Tekk" method of consumption results in a more rapid onset and can offer easier digestion or reduced "come-up pressure" associated with raw consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Horita |first1=A |last2=Weber |first2=L.J. |date=1961 |title=The Enzymatic Dephosphorylation and Oxidation of Psilocybin and Psilocin by Mammalian Tissue Homogenates |journal=Biochemical Pharmacology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=47–54|doi=10.1016/0006-2952(61)90124-1 |pmid=13715852 }}</ref>

Upon ingestion, effects usually begin after approximately 20–60 minutes (depending on the method of ingestion and stomach contents) and may last from four to ten hours, depending on dosage, potency of cultivar, and individual biochemistry. Visual distortions often occur, including walls that seem to breathe, a vivid enhancement of colors, and the animation of organic shapes.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

The effects of high doses can be overwhelming depending on the particular phenotype of cubensis, grow method, and the individual. It is recommended not to eat wild mushrooms without properly identifying them as they may be [[Mushroom poisoning|poisonous]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Roger |title=Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America |year=2010 |publisher=Firefly Books |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=978-1-55407-651-2 |page=231}}</ref> In particular, similar species include mushrooms of the genus ''[[Galerina]]'' and ''[[Pholiotina rugosa]]''—all potentially deadly—and ''[[Chlorophyllum molybdites]]''. All of these grow in pastures, a similar habitat to that preferred by ''P. cubensis''.<ref name=allenmerlin1991/>
[[File:Psilocybe cubensis spore print.jpg|thumb|Spore print of ''Psilocybe cubensis'']]
In 2019, a 15-year-old boy suffered from transient kidney failure after eating ''P. cubensis'' from a cultivation kit in Canada. No one else in the group suffered any ill effects.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.mmcr.2018.12.007|title=Acute renal injury caused by confirmed Psilocybe cubensis mushroom ingestion|year=2019|last1=Austin|first1=Emily|last2=Myron|first2=Hilary S.|last3=Summerbell|first3=Richard K.|last4=MacKenzie|first4=Constance A.|journal=Medical Mycology Case Reports|volume=23|pages=55–57|pmid=30627509|pmc=6322052}}</ref>

===Legality===
{{Main|Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms}}

[[Psilocybin]] and [[psilocin]] are listed as [[Schedule I drug]]s under the United Nations 1971 [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]].<ref>{{cite report|title=List of psychotropic substances under international control|edition=29|publisher=[[International Narcotics Control Board]] |date=2018|url=https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/attachments/10458/Green_list_ENG_V18-02416.pdf}}</ref>  However, mushrooms containing psilocybin and psilocin are not illegal in some parts of the world.  For example, in Brazil they are legal, but extractions from the mushroom containing psilocybin and psilocin remain illegal. In the United States, growing or possessing ''Psilocybe cubensis'' mushrooms is illegal in all states, but it is legal to possess and buy the spores for microscopy purposes. However, as of May 8, 2019, [[Denver|Denver, Colorado]],  decriminalized it for those 21 and up. On June 4, 2019, [[Oakland, California]], followed suit, decriminalizing psilocybin-containing mushrooms as well as the [[Peyote]] cactus.<ref>{{cite news |title=Oakland second city in USA to allow 'magic mushrooms' |newspaper=[[East Bay Times]] |location=California, USA |publisher= |date=2019-06-04 |url=https://www.eastbaytimes.com/2019/06/04/oakland-second-city-in-usa-to-allow-magic-mushrooms/ |access-date=2023-02-04 }}</ref> On January 29, 2020, [[Santa Cruz, California]], decriminalized naturally occurring psychedelics, including psilocybin mushrooms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doubleblindmag.com/breaking-news-santa-cruz-decriminalize-nature-entheogenic-plants-and-fungi/|title=Breaking: Santa Cruz City Council Votes to Decriminalize Entheogenic Plants and Fungi|date=2020-01-29|website=DoubleBlind Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-30}}</ref> On November 3, 2020, the state of Oregon decriminalized possession of psilocybin mushrooms for recreational use and granted licensed practitioners permission to administer psilocybin mushrooms to individuals age 21 years and older.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oregon measure 109 |url=https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_109,_Psilocybin_Mushroom_Services_Program_Initiative_(2020) |website=Ballotpedia.org |publisher=Ballotpedia |access-date=10 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Oregon measure 110 |url=https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_110,_Drug_Decriminalization_and_Addiction_Treatment_Initiative_(2020) |website=Ballotpedia.org |publisher=Ballotpedia |access-date=10 November 2020}}</ref>

In 1978, the Florida Supreme Court ruled in ''Fiske vs Florida'' that possession of psilocybin mushrooms is not illegal, in that the mushrooms cannot be considered a "container" for psilocybin based on how the law is written, i.e., it does not specifically state that psilocybin mushrooms themselves are illegal, but that the hallucinogenic constituents in them are. According to this decision, the applicable statute as framed imparts no information as to which plants may contain psilocybin in its natural state and does not advise a person of ordinary intelligence that this substance is contained in a particular variety of mushroom. The statute, therefore, cannot constitutionally be applied to the appellant.<ref name="JustiaLaw2020">{{cite web |title=Fiske v. State |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/florida/supreme-court/1978/50796-0.html |website=Justia Law |access-date=21 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919004247/http://law.justia.com/cases/florida/supreme-court/1978/50796-0.html |archive-date=19 September 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="PsychedelicScienceReview2020">{{cite news |title=Florida Court Rules Psilocybin Mushrooms Are Not a 'Container' for Psilocybin Based on How the Law is Written |url=https://psychedelicreview.com/event/fiske-v-florida/ |website=Psychedelic Science Review |access-date=21 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821162155/https://psychedelicreview.com/event/fiske-v-florida/ |archive-date=21 August 2020 |date=2020 }}</ref>

The production, sale and possession of magic mushrooms is illegal in Canada.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/substance-use/controlled-illegal-drugs/magic-mushrooms.html | title=Psilocybin and psilocin (Magic mushrooms) | date=12 January 2012 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Fungi}}
* [[List of psilocybin mushrooms]]
* [[List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals]]
* [[Botanical identity of soma-haoma]]
* [[Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States]]

==References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Guzman, G. The Genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species. Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia Heft 74. J. Cramer, Vaduz, Germany (1983) [now out of print].
* Guzman, G. "Supplement to the genus Psilocybe." Bibliotheca Mycologica 159: 91-141 (1995).
* Haze, Virginia & Mandrake, K. ''The Psilocybin Mushroom Bible: The Definitive Guide to Growing and Using Magic Mushrooms''. Green Candy Press: Toronto, Canada, 2016. {{ISBN|978-1937866-28-0}}.
* {{cite book | first=L.G. | last=Nicholas |author2=Ogame, Kerry | year=2006| title=Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation|publisher=Quick American Archives| isbn= 0-932551-71-8}}
* {{cite book | first=O.T. | last=Oss |author2=O.N. Oeric | year=1976 | title=Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide | publisher=Quick American Publishing Company | isbn=0-932551-06-8}}
* {{cite book | first=Paul | last=Stamets |author2=Chilton, J.S. | year=1983 | title=Mushroom Cultivator, The| publisher=Agarikon Press | location=Olympia | isbn=0-9610798-0-0}}
* {{cite book | first=Paul | last=Stamets | year=1996 | title=Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World | publisher=Ten Speed Press | location=Berkeley | isbn=0-9610798-0-0}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Psilocybe cubensis}}
* [http://www.stainblue.com/ The Ones That Stain Blue] Studies in ethnomycology including the contributions of Maria Sabina, Dr. Albert Hofmann and Dr. Gaston Guzman.
** [http://www.stainblue.com/cubensis.html ''Psilocybe cubensis'' drawings and information]
* [http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms.shtml Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault]
* [https://psilocybe-cubensis.info/ Mushroom John's Tale of the Shrooms: Psilocybe cubensis]

{{Hallucinogenic mushrooms}}
{{Psychedelics}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q690450}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Fungi described in 1906]]
[[Category:Psychoactive fungi]]
[[Category:Psilocybe|cubensis]]
[[Category:Psychedelic tryptamine carriers]]
[[Category:Soma (drink)]]
[[Category:Fungus species]]