Editing Pseudotsuga macrocarpa

{{Short description|Species of conifer}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2018}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Bigcone Douglas-fir at mtbaldy.jpg
| image_caption = Bigcone Douglas-fir at [[Mount San Antonio]]
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Farjon, A. |date=2013 |title=''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'' |volume=2013 |page=e.T34025A2840746 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T34025A2840746.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Pseudotsuga
| species = macrocarpa
| authority = ([[George Vasey (botanist)|Vasey]]) [[Heinrich Mayr|Mayr]]<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Conifer Specialist Group|year=1998|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/34025/0|title=''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa''|access-date=11 May 2006}}</ref>
| range_map =  Pseudotsuga macrocarpa range map.jpg
| range_map_caption = Natural range
| synonyms = ''Tsuga macrocarpa'' <small>([[George Vasey (botanist)|Vasey]]) [[John Gill Lemmon|Lemmon]]</small><br />''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' subsp.'' macrocarpa'' <small>([[George Vasey (botanist)|Vasey]]) [[Edward Murray (botanist)|E. Murray]]</small><br />''Pseudotsuga douglasii'' var.'' macrocarpa'' <small>([[George Vasey (botanist)|Vasey]]) [[Georg Engelmann|Engelm.]]</small><br />''Pseudotsuga californica'' <small>[[Fernande Flou|Flous]]</small><br />''Abies macrocarpa'' <small>[[George Vasey (botanist)|Vasey]]</small><br />''Abies douglasii'' var.'' macrocarpa'' <small>([[George Vasey (botanist)|Vasey]]) [[George Vasey (botanist)|Vasey]]</small>
}}

'''''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa''''', commonly called the '''bigcone spruce''' or '''bigcone Douglas-fir''', is an [[evergreen]] [[conifer]] native to the mountains of [[southern California]]. It is notable for having the largest (by far) [[conifer cone|cone]]s in the genus ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'', hence the name.

The tree occurs from the [[San Rafael Mountains]] in central [[Santa Barbara County, California|Santa Barbara County]] and the [[Tehachapi Mountains]] of southwestern [[Kern County, California|Kern County]], south through the [[Transverse Ranges]], to the [[Cuyamaca Mountains]] in [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]]. The tree is shade-tolerant and prefers to grow on slopes.

==Name==
''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'' is a [[Pseudotsuga|Douglas-fir]]. The name "bigcone spruce", though confusing as it is not a [[spruce]] species, is often still used,<ref>{{cite book |author=Bailey, L.H. |author2=Bailey, E.Z. |author3=the staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium |year=1976 |title=Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-0-02-505470-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/hortusthirdconci00bail }}</ref>{{sfn|McDonald|1990}} and occurs in place names.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topoquest.com/map.php?lat=34.72610&lon=-119.84681&datum=nad83&zoom=4|title=Topoquest}}</ref>

==Description==
''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'' typically grows from {{convert|15|–|30|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height and {{convert|56|-|155|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} in trunk diameter.{{sfn|Howard|1992}} The growth form is straight, with a conical crown from {{convert|12|–|30|m|ft|abbr=on}} broad, and a strong and spreading root system. The [[bark (botany)|bark]] is deeply ridged, composed of thin, woodlike plates separating heavy layers of cork; bark of trees over {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter is from {{convert|15|–|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} thick. The main branches are long and spreading with pendulous side shoots.

The [[leaves]] are needle-like, {{convert|2.5|–|4.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long,{{sfn|Flora of North America}} and are shed when about five years old. The female [[Conifer cone|cones]] are from {{convert|11|–|17|cm|in|abbr=on}} long,{{sfn|McDonald|1990}} larger and with thicker scales than those of other [[douglas-fir]]s, and with exserted tridentine bracts. The [[seed]]s are large and heavy, 10&nbsp;mm long and 8&nbsp;mm broad, with a short rounded wing 13&nbsp;mm long;{{sfn|McDonald|1990}} they may be [[bird]] or [[mammal]] dispersed as the wing is too small to be effective for wind dispersal. Trees start producing seeds at about 20 years of age.

The largest known individual of this species is {{convert|53|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall, {{convert|231|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter, and is estimated to be from 600 to 700 years of age.

==Distribution==
''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'' is restricted to the [[California montane chaparral and woodlands]] and [[California coastal sage and chaparral]] ecoregions of [[California]]. It prefers a [[Mediterranean climate]], characterized by hot dry summers and wet, mild winters. Annual rainfall during a 30-year period on a bigcone Douglas-fir site in the [[San Gabriel Mountains]] averaged {{convert|75|cm|in|abbr=on}} and ranged from {{convert|25|–|125|cm|in|abbr=on}}.

Bigcone Douglas-fir occurs between {{convert|300|-|2,700|m|ft|abbr=on}}. At low elevation, it occurs near streams in moist, shaded canyons and draws where aspects are mostly north and east. At elevations from {{convert|1,350|-|1,700|m|ft|abbr=on}}, aspects include south- and east-facing slopes. At these elevations, it also grows on sloping hillsides, ridges, and benches. At higher [[elevation]]s, it occurs on south and west aspects on all types of terrain. The average angle of [[slope]] on which it grows is 35 degrees, ranging from level to 90 degrees, although these extremes are uncommon.

Ranges the tree is found in, south to north, include:<ref>[http://www.calflora.org/entry/observ.html#srch=t&taxon=Pseudotsuga+macrocarpa&lpcli=t&cc=LAX&cch=t&inat=r Calflora: Los Angeles County distribution map]</ref><ref>[http://www.calflora.org/entry/observ.html#srch=t&taxon=Pseudotsuga+macrocarpa&lpcli=t&cc=VEN&cch=t&inat=r Calflora: Ventura County distribution map]</ref>
*[[Peninsular Ranges]]
**[[Cuyamaca Mountains]]
**[[Palomar Mountains]]
**[[Santa Ana Mountains]]
**[[San Jacinto Mountains]]
*[[Transverse Ranges]]
**[[San Bernardino Mountains]]
**[[San Gabriel Mountains]]
**[[Santa Susana Mountains]]
**[[San Emigdio Mountains]]
**[[Topatopa Mountains]]
**[[Santa Ynez Mountains]]
**[[San Rafael Mountains]]
**[[Sierra Madre Mountains (California)|Sierra Madre Mountains]]

[[Image:Pseudotsuga macrocarpa cone.jpg|thumb|left|Bigcone Douglas-fir cone (left), with a [[coast Douglas-fir]] cone for comparison]]

==Ecology==
''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'', has several features to tolerate and survive [[wildfire]], notably the very thick bark, and the presence of numerous adventitious buds on the upper side of the branches; this enables the trees to survive even crown fires which burn off all the branchlets, the apparently dead trees becoming green again the following spring. Wildfire frequencies in the [[chaparral]] habitats in which it often grows typically range from 15 to 50 year intervals. Bigcone Douglas-fir is closely associated with canyon live oak (''Quercus chrysolepis'') and often establishes itself in its shade; after about 50 years, it emerges above the oak canopy.

[[File:Pseudotsuga macrocarpa LytleCreek2.jpg|thumb|right|''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'' showing branch regeneration after a crown fire through [[epicormic shoots]]. Note the charred tree trunks.]]

The number of plant associates in bigcone Douglas-fir communities is usually small. 
* Common overstory associates include:  [[bigleaf maple]] (''Acer macrophyllum''), [[Umbellularia californica|California bay laurel]] (''Umbellularia californica''), [[gray pine]] (''Pinus sabiniana''), and [[Alnus rhombifolia|white alder]] (''Alnus rhombifolia''). 
* [[Shrub]] associates include [[Ceanothus megacarpus|bigpod ceanothus]] (''Ceanothus megacarpus''), [[Adenostoma sparsifolium|red shank]] (''Adenostoma sparsifolium''), [[Arctostaphylos glandulosa|eastwood manzanita]] (''Arctostaphylos glandulosa''), [[toyon]] (''Heteromoles arbutifolia''), several species of [[Salvia|sage]] (''Salvia''), and [[Quercus dumosa|coastal sage scrub oak]] (''Quercus dumosa'').
* Ground cover associates are usually sparse, and may include [[Eriogonum fasciculatum|California buckwheat]] (''Eriogonum fasciculatum''), wild onion (''Allium'' spp.), [[Penstemon ternatus|scarlet beardtongue]] (''Penstemon ternatus''), [[giant chain fern]] (''Woodwardia fimbriata''), and [[bracken|western bracken]] (''[[Pteridium aquilinum]]'' var. ''pubescens'').

===Fire ecology===
{{See also|Fire ecology}}
''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'' populations are suspected to be declining due to possibly larger and more extreme [[wildfire|wildland fires]] with greater frequencies. Major wildfires within its range, since 2003, have clearly proven a reduced extent when compared to early 1930s extents derived from historical aerial photos. Although historical information has provided the opportunity to detect stand level patch changes, post-fire resprouting of older more mature trees and natural regeneration and recruitment of the species into higher canopy has yet to be adequately quantified.

One tree species in direct competition with bigcone is ''[[Calocedrus decurrens]]'', with preliminary post-fire regeneration of this species exponentially greater than bigcone. One or two years after the Station fire in 2009 on the Angeles National Forest, there was an estimated 20:1 cedar:bigcone seedling density in fixed radius plots on Mount Wilson. It may be more appropriate to perform population stability estimates up to five years or much later (i.e. 20 yrs) after a large conflagration due to the potential for immediate and delayed post-fire sprouting and regeneration and interplant competition, as well as the well-noted strategy of seed germination in shrub understories, which is likely to escape detection by surveyors until much later in its life.

Research related to the role of mycorrhizae and its relationship to seed establishment needs evaluated in these vegetation communities due to the suspected role it has with the relationship with water, especially in water-limited systems such as those in the wildlands of southern California. In addition, an aggressive seed cone collection strategy should be drafted for this species which includes extensive collection during large cone production years such as 2013, and should include a tracking system to determine correlations to climatic conditions in order to develop a foundation from which to perform species viability assessments w/ varying future climate scenarios.

This tree is being considered for more extensive plantings in semiarid locales. Its favorable qualities include resistance to drought, fire, [[insect]]s, decay, and damage from [[ozone]], and its aggressive rooting system and tolerance to variable growing medium. The needles of older trees sometimes fade to yellow, drop, and trees appear dead only to sprout with renewed vigor within two years. The reason is unknown, although drought or insects may be possible causes.

==Uses==

===Wildlife===
Bigcone Douglas-fir stands provide habitat for [[black-tailed deer]], [[American black bear|black bear]], and various small animals. These trees provide preferred spring habitat for black bear in the [[San Bernardino Mountains]].

The seeds are eaten by various rodents and birds.

===Restoration species===
Bigcone Douglas-fir is used for [[Drainage area|watershed]] and [[habitat restoration]]. The Los Angeles County Department of Forestry has extensively planted the tree over a 50-year period for that purpose.

Some [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s of ''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'' (Bigcone Douglas-fir) × ''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii]]'' (Coast Douglas-fir) show promise for planting on drier restoration sites within the ''P. menziesii''−Douglas-fir natural range. These hybrids produce wood of comparable quality to that of Douglas-fir and have the drought tolerance of bigcone Douglas-fir.

===Timber===
There is no current commercial market for bigcone Douglas-fir wood due to limited distribution and access. It is heavy, hard, and fine grained but not durable. There is less sapwood than heartwood, and the latter contains pockets of [[resin]].

In the past, the wood was used locally for fuel and [[lumber]].

==See also==
*[[California mixed evergreen forest]] — ''ecoregion''.
*[[California chaparral and woodlands]] — ''ecoregion''.
**[[California montane chaparral and woodlands]] — ''subecoregion''.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{FEIS |type=tree |genus=Pseudotsuga |species=macrocarpa |last=Howard |first=Janet L. |date=1992 }}
* {{eFloras|1 |first=Barney |last=Lipscomb |volume=2 |ref={{harvid|Flora of North America}}}}
* {{Silvics |volume=1 |genus=Pseudotsuga |species=macrocarpa |first=Philip M. |last=McDonald }}

==External links==
*{{Commons-inline|italic=y}}
*{{Calflora|Pseudotsuga macrocarpa |link=1}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051001012502/http://www.conifers.org/pi/ps/macrocarpa.htm Conifers.org, Gymnosperm Database: ''Pseudotsuga macrocarpa'']

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1425070}}

[[Category:Pseudotsuga|macrocarpa]]
[[Category:Endemic flora of California]]
[[Category:Trees of Northern America]]
[[Category:Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands]]
[[Category:Natural history of the Peninsular Ranges]]
[[Category:Natural history of the Transverse Ranges]]
[[Category:San Gabriel Mountains|~]]
[[Category:Flora and fauna of the San Jacinto Mountains]]
[[Category:San Bernardino Mountains|~]]
[[Category:Santa Susana Mountains|~]]
[[Category:Angeles National Forest|~]]
[[Category:Cleveland National Forest|~]]
[[Category:Los Padres National Forest|~]]
[[Category:San Bernardino National Forest|~]]