Editing Probus (emperor)

{{short description|Roman emperor from 276 to 282}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=October 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = Probus Musei Capitolini MC493.jpg
| image_size   =
| alt          = White, long head statue
| caption      = Over-life-sized marble bust in the [[Capitoline Museums]], [[Rome]]{{sfn|Wood|p=128 (note 70)}}{{sfn|Fittschen|Zanker|p=}}
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign        = {{circa}} June 276 – September 282{{sfn|Peachin|p=47}}
| predecessor  = [[Tacitus (emperor)|Tacitus]] and [[Florian (emperor)|Florian]]
| successor    = [[Carus]]
| birth_date   = between 230 and 235{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=736}}
| birth_place  = [[Sirmium]], [[Pannonia Inferior]], modern day [[Serbia]]
| death_date   = September 282 (aged 50){{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=736}}
| death_place  = Sirmium
| burial_place = 
| issue        = Had descendants{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=736}}
| full name    = Marcus Aurelius Probus
| regnal name  = Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Probus Augustus
| father       = Dalmatius<ref name="auto">Victor, 37:1</ref>
}}

'''Marcus Aurelius Probus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|r|oʊ|b|ə|s}}; 230–235 – September 282) was [[Roman emperor]] from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated invasions of barbarian tribes on almost every sector of the frontier.<ref>[[Edward Gibbon]] (1932), ''[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', The Modern Library, ch. XII, p. 284</ref>

After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire, Probus was forced to handle several internal revolts but demonstrated leniency and moderation to the vanquished wherever possible.<ref>Gibbon, pp. 289, 290</ref> Despite the military basis of his power, he presented himself as a constitutional monarch who respected the authority of the [[Roman Senate]].<ref name="Gibbon, p. 283">Gibbon, p. 283</ref>

Upon defeating the Germans, Probus re-erected the fortifications of emperor [[Hadrian]] between the Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting the [[Agri Decumates]],<ref>Gibbon, p. 287</ref> and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense of the frontiers.<ref>Gibbon, p. 288</ref> Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war, which would be carried out under his successor [[Carus]].<ref name="Gibbon, p. 292">Gibbon, p. 292</ref>

==Early life==
Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) in [[Sirmium]] (modern day [[Sremska Mitrovica]], [[Serbia]]), [[Pannonia Inferior]],<ref name="roman-emperors.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/probus.htm|title=Roman Emperors - DIR probus|work=roman-emperors.org|date=8 August 2023 }}</ref> the son of Dalmatius.<ref name="auto"/> According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232.<ref>Gibbon, p. 282, note</ref> The ''[[Historia Augusta]]'' gives his father's name as Maximus and claims that his mother was of higher status than his father, that he had a sister named Claudia, that he was related to emperor [[Claudius Gothicus]], his personal wealth was modest and his nearest kin unimportant.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Emperors and Biography: Studies in the 'Historia Augusta'. |last=Syme |first=Ronald |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1971 |isbn=9780198143574 |pages=217, 233, 299}}</ref> Probus had a brother named [[Dometius of Byzantium]] who was the [[Bishop of Byzantium]] from about 272 until his death in 284. Besides his best known ''[[Nomen gentilicium|nomina]]'' Aurelius which can be found on most inscriptions, papyri and coinage, as well as Equitius attested on his coins from Ticinum and Pseudo-[[Aurelius Victor]], the ''Historia Augusta'' gives him Valerius and Malalas Aelius.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Aurelian and Probus: The Soldier Emperors Who Saved Rome |last=Syvänne |first=Ilkka |publisher=Pen and Sword Military |year=2020 |isbn=9781526767530 |pages=34}}</ref>

==Military career==
[[File:Napoli, museo archeologico (18171814650).jpg|left|thumb|Marble bust of Probus in the [[Museo Archeologico (Naples)|Museum of Naples]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Duruy |first=Victor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AU4yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA333 |title=History of Rome: And of the Roman People, from Its Origin to the Invasion of the Barbarians |date=1886 |publisher=Dana, Estes & Company |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Syvänne |first=Ilkka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7nD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT323 |title=Aurelian and Probus: The Soldier Emperors Who Saved Rome |date=2020-06-24 |publisher=Pen and Sword Military |isbn=978-1-5267-6751-6 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Probus entered the army around 25 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed at a very young age as a [[military tribune]] by the emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], in recognition of his latent ability, {{citation needed|date=August 2018}} he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over the [[Sarmatia]]ns on the [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyria]]n frontier.<ref name="Gibbon, p. 282">Gibbon, p. 282</ref> During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers as [[Claudius II|Claudius]], [[Aurelian]] and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay, while [[Gaul]] was overrun by the [[Franks]], [[Rhaetia]] by the [[Alemans]], [[Thrace]] and the [[Mediterranean]] by the [[Goths]], and the east by [[Shapur I]].<ref>Gibbon, ch. X., pp. 226, 227</ref> Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconquering [[Egypt]] from [[Zenobia]] in 273 A.D. Emperor [[Tacitus (emperor)|Tacitus]], upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 6–7</ref> Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death in 276, in his camp in [[Asia Minor]].<ref name="Gibbon, p. 282"/><ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 10:1</ref>

== As emperor ==
[[File:ProbusCoin.jpg|thumb|[[Antoninianus]] of Probus minted in 280. The reverse depicts the solar divinity [[Sol Invictus]] riding a [[quadriga]].Legend: PROBVS P. F. AVG.]]
[[Florian (emperor)|Florian]], the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of [[Cilicia]].<ref>Gibbon, p. 281</ref><ref name="auto1">Zosimus, 1:32</ref> In contrast to Florian, who ignored the wishes of the Senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The Senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions.<ref name="Gibbon, p. 283"/> Probus  next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of ''Gothicus''.{{cn|date=June 2024}} However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire.<ref>Gibbon, p. 284</ref>

[[File:5299 - Brescia - S. Giulia - Ritratto di Marco Aurelio Probo - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 25 Giu 2011.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Gilded bronze head of Probus from [[Brescia]] in northern Italy.{{sfn|McCann|p=90 n. 34; "Bronze portraits also found in Brescia, which have been tentatively identifies as Claudius II (268-270) and Probus (276-282)."}}<ref>{{cite book |author=[[J. Paul Getty Museum]]|year=1990|title=Small Bronze Sculpture from the Ancient World|pages=309–310; [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3981 Inv. No. 350], [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3982 351], [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3983 352], [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=3984 353]|publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=9780892361762 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeZFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109}}</ref>]]
In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in [[Gaul]] against the [[Alemanni]] and [[Lugii|Longiones]]; both tribes had advanced through the [[Neckar]] valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory.<ref>Southern, pg. 129</ref> Meanwhile, his generals defeated the [[Franks]] and these operations were directed to clearing [[Gaul]] of Germanic invaders (Franks and [[Burgundians]]), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of ''Gothicus Maximus'' and ''Germanicus Maximus''.<ref name="roman-emperors.org"/> Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the [[Lugii]] were extirpated.<ref>Gibbon, p. 286</ref>

After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the [[Rhine]] to campaign successfully against the barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by [[Hadrian]] in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and [[Danube]], in the territory of [[Swabia]]. Probus advanced possibly as far as the Elbe, but ultimately decided against annexing all Germany to the Roman Empire and instead accepted the submission of nine major tribes, who provided recruits for his army. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.<ref>Gibbon, pp. 286-288</ref>

The army discipline which [[Aurelian]] had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.<ref>Gibbon, p. 291</ref> One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of [[vineyard]]s in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts,{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=408}} in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands.<ref>"120-Interregnum," The History of Rome</ref>

In 279–280, Probus was, according to [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], in [[Raetia]], [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Lycia]], where he fought the [[Vandals]].<ref name="auto1"/> In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the [[Blemmyes]] in [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the [[Nile]], where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 9:3–4</ref><ref>Gibbon, Ibid.</ref>
[[File:Probus_sol.jpg|thumb|Coin of c. 280 AD depicting Probus and [[Sol Invictus]]. The inscription reads: IMP·C·PROBUS·INVIC·P·F·AUG ("Emperor Caesar Probus, Unconquered, Pious, Blessed")]]
In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, [[Julius Saturninus]], [[Proculus]] and [[Bonosus (emperor)|Bonosus]].<ref>Victor, 37:2</ref> The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/probus.htm#N_17_|title=Roman Emperors - DIR probus|work=roman-emperors.org|date=8 August 2023 }}</ref> Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Britain with the assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The reign of the Emperor Probus|last=Crees|first=James|publisher=University of London Press|year=1911|pages=122}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus und seine Zeit|last=Kreucher|first=Gerald|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|year=2003|isbn=3515083820|location=Stuttgart|pages=[https://archive.org/details/derkaisermarcusa0000kreu/page/164 164]|url=https://archive.org/details/derkaisermarcusa0000kreu/page/164}}</ref> During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated a [[roman triumph|triumph]].<ref name=":0" />
[[File:INC-2020-a Ауреус. Проб. Ок. 276—282 гг. (аверс).png|thumb|Gold [[aureus]] of Probus, marked: IMP C MAVR PROBVS P AVG.]]
[[File:Probus gold coin.jpg|thumb|Gold coin of Probus in military armour. Legend: IMP. PROBVS AVG.]]
Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 20:1</ref> He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city.

=== Assassination ===
Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to [[Joannes Zonaras]], the commander of the [[Praetorian Guard]] [[Carus|Marcus Aurelius Carus]] had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops.<ref>Zonaras, 12:29</ref>

Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at [[Sirmium]] (September/October 282).<ref>Victor, 37:4</ref> According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Probi'', 20:2-3</ref> Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army.<ref name="Gibbon, p. 292"/> Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.<ref>Historia Augusta, ''Vita Cari'', 6:1</ref>

== Legacy ==
According to the favorable treatment of [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] (whose account is largely derived from the ''Augustan History''), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome.<ref>Gibbon, p. 293</ref> While his successor [[Carus]] (Imp. 282–284) simply disdained to seek the Senate's confirmation of his title, the latter's successor [[Diocletian]] (Imp. 284–305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman Senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere,  Probus' victories continued the succession of martial [[Illyria]]n emperors begun by [[Claudius Gothicus]], which restored the military supremacy of Rome after defeats sustained during the Crisis of the Third Century.<ref name="Gibbon, p. 282"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
===Ancient sources===
* [[Aurelius Victor]], [http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm Epitome de Caesaribus]
* [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20031222152525/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#17 Breviarium ab urbe condita]}}
* [[Historia Augusta]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Probus*.html Life of Probus]
* [[Joannes Zonaras]], Compendium of History [https://web.archive.org/web/20080521191250/http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/1049415 extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284]
* [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus01_book1.htm Historia Nova]

===Modern sources===
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/probus.htm Mc Mahon, Robin, "Probus (276–282 A.D.) and Rival Claimants (Proculus, Bonosus, and Saturninus) of the 280s", ''DIR'']
* Dennis, Anthony J., "Antoniniani of the Roman Emperor Probus", Vol. 9, No. 11 '''The Celator''' November, 1995.
* {{cite book |last1=Fittschen |year=1985 |first1=Klaus |last2=Zanker |first2=Paul |title=Katalog der römischen Porträts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom. 1. Kaiser-und Prinzenbildnisse |language=de |trans-title=Catalogue of Roman Portraits in the Capitoline Museums and other Municipal Museums of the City of Rome |publisher=Philipp von Zabern |place=Mainz |isbn=3-8053-0596-6 |name-list-style=amp |url={{googlebooks|PgRPAAAAYAAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link2=Paul Zanker |ref={{sfnref|Fittschen|Zanker}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |year=1971 |first=A.H.M. |author2=J.R. Martindale |author3=J. Morris |title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-07233-6 |url={{googlebooks|uOHw4idqAeYC|plainurl=y}} |name-list-style=amp |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |author-link2=John Robert Martindale |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |ref={{sfnref|Jones|Martindale|Morris}} }}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Kreucher |first=Gerald |title=Der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus und seine Zeit |date=2003 |publisher=F. Steiner |url=https://archive.org/details/derkaisermarcusa0000kreu |place=Stuttgart |isbn=3515083820}}
* {{cite book |last=McCann |year=1968 |first=Anna Marguerite |title=The Portraits of Septimius Severus (A.D. 193–211) |series=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=30 |pages=4–222 |publisher=American Academy in Rome, University of Michigan Press |doi=10.2307/4238661 |jstor=4238661 |issn=0065-6801 |url={{googlebooks|JM0zAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Anna Marguerite McCann |ref={{sfnref|McCann}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Peachin |year=1990 |first=Michael |title=Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284 |publisher=Gieben |place=Amsterdam |isbn=90-5063-034-0 |url={{googlebooks|rM4iAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=y}} |ref={{sfnref|Peachin}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Southern |first=Pat |title=The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-23944-3 |pages=125}}
* [[Gibbon, Edward]] (1888) ''[[History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]''
* {{cite book |last=Wood |year=1987 |first=Susan |section=Child-Emperors and Heirs to Power in Third-Century Portraiture |editor=Jiří Frel |editor2=Arthur Houghton |editor3=Marion True |title=Ancient Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum: Volume 1 |series=Occasional Papers on Antiquities |volume=4 |publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum |place=Malibu, CA, US |pages=115–136 |isbn=0-89236-071-2 |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.getty.edu/publications/virtuallibrary/0892360712.html |ref={{sfnref|Wood}} }}
'''Attribution:'''
* {{EB1911|wstitle=Probus, Marcus Aurelius|volume=22|page=408}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Probus}}
* {{cite CE1913|last=Hoeber |first=Karl |wstitle=Marcus Aurelius Probus |volume=12 |short=x}}
* [http://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=Probus Probus], article at NumisWiki

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{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Florian (emperor)|Florian]] }}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
        | years=276–282 }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Carus]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Tacitus (emperor)|Tacitus]]|before2=Aemilianus}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=277–279|regent1= Paulinus,<br />[[Virius Lupus (consul 278)|Virius Lupus]],<br />Nonnius Paternus}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Messalla (consul 280)|Messalla]]|after2=[[Gratus (consul 280)|Gratus]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Messalla (consul 280)|Messalla]]|before2=[[Gratus (consul 280)|Gratus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=281–282|regent1= [[Junius Tiberianus (consul 281)|Junius Tiberianus]],<br />Victorinus}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Carus]]|after2=[[Carinus]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Probus, Marcus Aurelius}}
[[Category:Probus| ]]
[[Category:230s births]]
[[Category:282 deaths]]
[[Category:3rd-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Aurelii|Probus, Marcus]]
[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Gothicus Maximus]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard]]
[[Category:People from Sirmium]]
[[Category:Roman pharaohs]]
[[Category:Illyrian emperors]]
[[Category:Damnatio memoriae]]
[[Category:Romans from Pannonia]]