Editing Primary Chronicle

{{Short description|12th-century chronicle of Kievan Rus'}}
{{italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox Medieval text
| name                 = ''Primary Chronicle''
| alternative title(s) = ''Tale of Bygone Years''<br />{{lang|ru|Povest' vremennykh let}}{{efn|name=PVL}}
| author(s)            = Traditionally thought to have been be [[Nestor the Chronicler|Nestor]], now considered unknown
| language             = [[Church Slavonic]]
| date                 = {{circa|1113}}
| genre                = 
| period covered       = From [[biblical times]] to 1117 CE
| image                = 14 2 List of Radzivill Chron.jpg
| caption              = Sheet from [[Radziwiłł Chronicle]]
| width                = 250px
| manuscript(s)        = 5 main surviving codices:{{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Laurentian Codex]]'' (1377){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Hypatian Codex]]'' ({{circa}} 1425){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Radziwiłł Chronicle]]'' ({{circa}} 1500){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Academic Chronicle]]'' ({{circa}} 1500){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Khlebnikov Codex]]'' ({{circa}} 1575){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
}}

The '''''Primary Chronicle''''', shortened from the common '''''Russian Primary Chronicle'''''{{efn|''Primary Chronicle''{{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}{{sfn|Martin|2007|p=97}}{{sfn|Isoaho|2018|p=637}} is shortened from ''Russian Primary Chronicle'',{{sfn|Lunt|1988|p=251}} the title given by Samuel Hazzard Cross for his English translation of ''The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text.'' (1930).{{sfn|Lunt|1988|p=251}} Alternatively, it has been named ''Rus' Primary Chronicle''.{{sfn|Lunt|1995|p=335}}}} ({{langx|cu|Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ|translit=Pověstĭ vremęnĭnyxŭ lětŭ}},{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{Langx|be|Аповесць мінулых часоў|Apoviesć minulych časoŭ}}|{{Langx|ru|Повесть временных лет|translit=Povest' vremennykh let}}|{{Langx|uk|Повість минулих літ|Povist' mynulykh lit}}}}}} commonly transcribed '''''Povest' vremennykh let''''' ('''PVL'''),{{efn|name=PVL|English-language scholarly publications often only transcribe the title to [[Latin script]] without translating it, leading to ''Povest' vremennykh let'',{{sfn|Dimnik|2004|p=255}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|1981|p=11}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=32}}{{sfn|Isoaho|2018|p=637}} or ''Povest' vremennyx let'',{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=341}} and abbreviate it as ''PVL''.{{sfn|Ostrowski|1981|p=11}}{{sfn|Dimnik|2004|p=255}}{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=32}}{{sfn|Isoaho|2018|p=637}}}} {{lit|'''Tale of Bygone Years'''}}),{{sfn|Dimnik|2004|p=255}}{{sfn|Martin|2007|p=97}} is a [[Rus' chronicle|chronicle]] of [[Kievan Rus']] from about 850 to 1110. It is believed to have been originally compiled in or near [[Kiev]] in the 1110s. Tradition ascribed its compilation to the monk [[Nestor the Chronicler|Nestor]] ('''''Nestor's Chronicle''''') beginning in the 12th century,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPovisthDAvremennykhlitIT.htm|last=Zhukovsky | first=A. |title=Povist' vremennykh lit – The Tale of Bygone Years|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine|year =2001|publisher=Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies | access-date=27 February 2025}}</ref> but this is no longer believed to have been the case.

The title of the work, {{lang|ru|Povest' vremennykh let}} ("Tale of Bygone Years") comes from the opening sentence of the [[Laurentian Codex|''Laurentian'' text]]:{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|pp=3–4}} "These are the narratives of bygone years regarding the origin of the land of Rus', the first princes of Kiev, and from what source the land of Rus' had its beginning".{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=51}} The work is considered a fundamental source for the earliest history of the [[East Slavs]].<ref>{{cite journal| title=On Interpreting the Russian Primary Chronicle: The Year 1037| author=Horace G. Lunt |journal=The Slavic and East European Journal |volume=32 | number= 2| date=Summer 1988 | pages=251–264 | doi=10.2307/308891 | jstor=308891 |quote=The major source of information about early East Slavic history is Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ (=PVL) Americans usually know it as the Russian Primary Chronicle, for that is the title Samuel Hazzard Cross gave to his 1930 translation into English."}}</ref>

The content of the chronicle is known today from the several surviving versions and codices, revised over the years, slightly varying from one another. Because of several identified chronological issues and numerous logical incongruities pointed out by historians over the years, its reliability as a historical source has been strictly scrutinized by experts in the field. (See {{Section link||Assessment and critique}}.)

== Authorship and composition ==
=== Authorship ===
[[File:The_Historian_Nestor.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Historian Nestor'' by [[Leo Mol]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://uartlib.org/downloads/VitrajiLeoMol_uartlib.org.pdf|title=Mol, Leo}}</ref>|alt=]] 
Tradition long regarded the first compilation as the work of a monk named [[Nestor the Chronicler|Nestor]] ({{circa}} 1056 – {{circa}} 1114), known to have written other works such as ''Life of the Venerable Theodosius''.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=6}} Writers of the time spoke of the ''Chronicle of Nestor'',{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=3}} and of the author as Nestor "the Chronicler". Based on the 1661 ''[[Kyiv Caves Patericon|Paterik]]'' of the [[Kyiv Pechersk Lavra|Kyiv Monastery of the Caves]], late 17th-century writers began to assert that Nestor "the Chronicler" wrote many of the surviving [[Rus' chronicle]]s,{{sfn|Tolochko|2007|p=31}} including the ''Primary Chronicle'', the ''[[Kievan Chronicle]]'' and the ''[[Galician–Volhynian Chronicle]]'',{{sfn|Tolochko|2007|p=47}} even though many of the events they described took place in the 12th and 13th century, long after Nestor's death {{circa}} 1114.{{sfn|Tolochko|2007|p=47}} Another reason given for belief in Nestorian authorship was the word нестера in the opening lines of the ''[[Khlebnikov Codex]]'' (discovered in 1809{{sfn|Maiorov|2018|p=339}}), which some readers took to refer to Nestor "the Chronicler".{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=17}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|1981|p=28}} But as Ostrowski (1981) pointed out: "The word нестера was added in the ''[[Khlebnikov Codex]]'', and thus cannot be used as evidence for the name of the compiler of the PVL."{{sfn|Ostrowski|1981|p=28}} The word is not found in any of the other five main versions of the PVL,{{sfn|Ostrowski|1981|p=28}}{{efn|The often careless [[Vasily Tatishchev]] (1686–1750) claimed that three ''Chronicle'' texts that were somehow "lost" later also identified "Nestor" as the author.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=17}} Modern scholars distrust all such "[[Tatishchev information]]" unless they are supported by another extant source.{{sfn|Tolochko|2005|pp=458–468}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|pp=36, 38, 47}}}} and is thus an [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] inserted into the text by an editor, perhaps guessing at the author's name.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2003|pp=xvii–xviii}} From the 1830s to around 1900, there was fierce academic debate about Nestor's authorship, but the question remained unresolved, and belief in Nestorian authorship persisted.{{sfn|Tolochko|2007|pp=32–33}} The [[internal evidence]] of the PVL and the known works of Nestor often contradict one another, while the contents barely coincide in places where they seemingly should, so modern scholars have concluded that Nestor was not the author.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|pp=6–12}}{{efn|'In any case, the internal evidence of the ''Povest{{'}}'', along with the lack of coincidence of its contents with Nestor's works wherever the two are related, is distinctly opposed to the tradition of Nestorian authorship.'{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=12}}}}

A more likely candidate as author is [[Sylvester of Kiev]], [[hegumen]] ([[abbot]]) of the [[Vydubychi Monastery|St. Michael's Monastery in Vydubychi]] (a village near [[Kyiv]]), who may have compiled several sources in the year 1116.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2003|p=xvii}} This attribution is based on the fact that the ''[[Laurentian Codex|Laurentian]]'' text ends on page 286, lines 1 to 7, with the [[Colophon (publishing)|colophon]] "I wrote down (''napisakh'') this chronicle",{{sfn|Ostrowski|2003|p=xvii}}{{efn|{{langx|cu|Игуменъ силивестръ стаг михаила· написах книгы си лѣтописець·|Igumenʺ silivestrʺ stag mikhaila· napisakh knigy si lětopisecʹ·|Abbot Silivestr" of St. Michael's Abbey – I wrote this chronicle [lit. "book of year writings"].{{sfn|Ostrowski|Birnbaum|2014|loc=286.1–2}}}}}} after which he requests the readers to remember him in their prayers.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2003|p=xvii}} Alternately, the real author may have been some other unnamed monk from the [[Kyiv Pechersk Lavra|Kyiv Monastery of the Caves]] mentioned in the title, and Sylvester completed his work, or was a very early editor or copyist of the PVL.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2003|p=xvii}}

=== Editions ===
[[:pl:Władysław Duczko|Wladyslaw Duczko]] (2004) argued that one of the central aims of the ''Chronicle's'' narrative is to 'give an explanation how the [[Rurikid]]s came to power in the lands of the Slavs, why the dynasty was the only legitimate one and why all the princes should terminate their internal fights and rule in peace and brotherly love.'{{sfn|Duczko|2004|p=202}} 

In the year 1116, Nestor's text was extensively edited by the [[hegumen]] [[Sylvestr of Kiev|Sylvester]] who appended his name at the end of the chronicle. As [[Vladimir II Monomakh]] was the patron of the village of [[Vydubychi]] (now a neighborhood of Kyiv) where Sylvester's monastery was situated, the new edition glorified Monomakh and made him the central figure of later narrative.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=17}} This second version of Nestor's work is preserved in the [[Laurentian Codex]] (see {{Section link||Surviving manuscripts}}).{{cn|date=September 2022}}

A third edition followed two years later, centered on Monomakh's son and heir, [[Mstislav the Great]]. The author of this revision could have been Greek, for he corrected and updated much data on Byzantine affairs. This revision of Nestor's work is preserved in the [[Hypatian Codex]] (see {{Section link||Surviving manuscripts}}).{{cn|date=September 2022}}

=== Composition ===
The organization, style, and narrative flow of the ''Primary Chronicle'' shows signs of compilation, different historical elements are brought together into a single cohesive historical account.{{sfn|Duczko|2004|p=202}} Studies by Russian [[Philology|philologist]] [[Aleksey Shakhmatov]] and his followers have demonstrated that the ''PVL'' is not a single literary work but an amalgamation of a number of ancestors accounts and documents.{{sfn|Isoaho|2018|p=642}} In compiling the ''Chronicle'', some of Nestor's original sources definitely included but were not limited to:{{cn|date=September 2022}}

* The chronological table in the ''Primary Chronicle'' was derived from the ''Chronographikon Syntomon'' written by patriarch [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople]] (died 829){{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=30}}
* the [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] annals of [[John Malalas]], a Greek chronicler, who in 563 produced an 18+book work of  myth and truth intertwined.{{cn|date=September 2022}}
* the Byzantine annals of the monk [[George Hamartolus]] (literally "the Sinner", as he called himself; also known as "George the Monk"){{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=43–44}} who tried to adhere strictly to truth, and whose works are the only contemporary source for the period 813–842{{cn|date=September 2022}}
*[[bylina|byliny<!-- plural of bylina -->]],{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=18}} traditional East Slavic oral epic narrative poems
*[[Norse saga]]s{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=43}}
* several Greek religious texts{{cn|date=September 2022}}
*[[Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (disambiguation)|Rus'–Byzantine treaties]]{{cn|date=September 2022}}{{sfn|Duczko|2004|p=202}} 
* oral tradition, but how much "is very difficult to tell".{{sfn|Duczko|2004|pp=202–203}} 
There probably were no "earlier local chronicles".{{sfn|Duczko|2004|p=202}} The hypothesis that a local chronicle was written before the late 980s at the St Elias church in Kiev "has to remain an unproven speculation".{{sfn|Duczko|2004|p=202}}

Linguistically speaking, the ''Primary Chronicle'' is written in [[Old East Slavic]], with strong [[Old Church Slavonic]] (early South Slavic) elements.{{sfn|Thuis|2015|p=246}} Although these two languages were quite similar up to the early 12th century, with few phonological, morphological and lexical differences at that point, scholars have noted a general pattern of religious passages and moral teachings featuring strong Old Church Slavonic elements, whereas entries on events in specific years are dominated by Old East Slavic elements.{{sfn|Thuis|2015|p=246}} Nevertheless, there are no clear linguistic boundaries between the two, as profane (secular) passages sometimes feature Old Church Slavonicisms, while devotional passages sometimes feature Old East Slavicisms.{{sfn|Thuis|2015|pp=246–247}} In the view of many modern linguistics, the authors (and editors) of the ''Primary Chronicle'' probably considered the language they wrote in to be one single language.{{sfn|Thuis|2015|p=247}} However, this literary language likely differed significantly from the Old East Slavic spoken [[lingua franca]] in contemporary Kiev, which appears to have been an amalgamation of several Old East Slavic dialects, with relatively few Old Church Slavonic influences.{{sfn|Thuis|2015|p=247}}

== Surviving manuscripts ==
{{Main|Textual criticism of the Primary Chronicle}}
{{See also|Textual variants in the Primary Chronicle}}
Because the original of the chronicle as well as the earliest known copies are lost, it is difficult to establish the original content of the chronicle. The six main manuscripts preserving the ''Primary Chronicle'' which scholars study for the purpose of [[textual criticism]] are:{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}}{{efn|According to Gippius (2014), the six main manuscripts can be divided in three groups of two: Laurentian/Trinity (LT), Radziwiłł/Academic (RA), and Hypatian/Khlebnikov (HX). Gippius considered the last group the "southern, Kievan branch" and the other four the "Vladimir-Suzdal branch".{{sfn|Gippius|2014|pp=342–343}}}}
* ''[[Laurentian Codex]]''{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}} (1377){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Hypatian Codex]]''{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}} ({{circa}} 1425){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Radziwiłł Chronicle]]''{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}} ({{circa}} 1500){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Academic Chronicle]]''{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}} ({{circa}} 1500){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Khlebnikov Codex]]''{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}} ({{circa}} 1575){{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}}
* ''[[Trinity Chronicle]]''{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}} ({{circa}} 1450; excluded by some scholars who count only "five main witnesses"{{sfn|Lunt|1994|p=10}})

=== Laurentian Codex ===
The ''[[Laurentian Codex]]'' was compiled in [[Principality of Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal|Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal]] by the [[Nizhny Novgorod|Nizhegorodian]] monk Laurentius for the Prince [[Dmitry Konstantinovich]] in 1377. The original text he used was a codex (since lost) compiled in 1305 for the Grand Prince of Vladimir, [[Mikhail of Tver]]. The account continues until 1305, but the years 898–922, 1263–83 and 1288–94 are missing for reasons unknown. The manuscript was acquired by the famous [[Aleksei Musin-Pushkin|Count Musin-Pushkin]] in 1792 and subsequently presented to the [[National Library of Russia]] in [[Saint Petersburg]].{{cn|date=September 2022}}

=== Hypatian Codex ===
The [[Hypatian Codex]] dates to the 15th century. It incorporates much information from the lost 12th-century ''[[Kievan Chronicle]]'' and 13th-century ''[[Galician–Volhynian Chronicle]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChronicles.htm|title=Chronicles|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>  The language of this work is the East Slavic version of [[Church Slavonic language]] with many additional irregular east-slavisms (like other east-Slavic codices of the time). Whereas the Laurentian (Muscovite) text traces the Kievan legacy through to the Muscovite princes, the Hypatian text traces the Kievan legacy through the rulers of the [[Halych]] principality. The Hypatian codex was rediscovered in Kiev in the 1620s, and a copy was made for Prince Kostiantyn Ostrozhsky<!--No-one after 1608 in Russian Wiki-->. A copy was found in Russia in the 18th century at the [[Ipatiev Monastery]] of [[Kostroma]] by the Russian historian Nikolai Karamzin.{{cn|date=September 2022}}

Numerous monographs and published versions of the chronicle have been made, the earliest known being in 1767. [[Aleksey Shakhmatov]] published a pioneering [[Text linguistics|textological]] analysis of the narrative in 1908. [[Dmitry Likhachev]] and other Soviet scholars partly revisited his findings. Their versions attempted to reconstruct the pre-Nestorian chronicle, compiled at the court of [[Yaroslav the Wise]] in the mid-11th century.{{cn|date=September 2022}}

== Contents ==
=== Stories ===
The early part of the ''PVL'' features many anecdotal stories, among them:

* The supposed biblical origins of the Slavs from a son of [[Noah]] mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]];{{cn|date=September 2022}}
* the early history of the Slavs, with the banks of the [[river Danube]] in the regions of [[Hungary]], [[Illyria]], and [[Bulgaria]] described as their place of original settlement;{{cn|date=September 2022}} <!--- Although, as a result of aggression on the part of the [[Vlachs]], one group of the Slavs made their homes by the [[Vistula]] ([[Polans (eastern)|Polyanians]]), another settled on the [[Dnieper]] ([[Drevlians]] and [[Polans (eastern)|Polyanians]]), while the third resided along the Dvina (Dregovichians), and another group dwelt about the [[Lake Ilmen|Lake Il’men.]] All this migration is dated back to the time of [[Andrew the Apostle]] who visited the Slavs on Il’men.{{cn|date=September 2022}} The Polyanians built Kiev and named it after their ruler, [[Kyi]]. After the establishment of Kiev, under the rulership of [[Heraclius|Emperor Heraclius]], many of the Slavs were invaded and oppressed by the [[Bulgars]], [[Avars (Caucasus)|Avars]], and [[Pechenegs]]. At the same time, the Slavs from the Dnieper came under the predatory lordship of the [[Khazars]] and were forced to pay [[tribute]].{{cn|date=September 2022}} --->
* the legendary founding of [[Kyiv|Kiev]] by [[Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv|Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv and Lybid']];
* the labors of [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] among the [[Slavic peoples]];{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=116}}{{npsn|date=May 2023}}
* the [[calling of the Varangians]];
* the murder of [[Askold and Dir]], by which [[Oleg the Wise]] conquered Kiev;
* the death of [[Oleg of Kiev|Oleg]] in 912, the "cause" of which was allegedly foreseen by him;
* the legendary vengeance taken by [[Olga of Kiev|Olga]], the wife of [[Igor of Kiev|Igor]], on the [[Drevlians]], who had murdered her husband;<ref>Hubbs, Joanna.  ''Mother Russia, The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture''.  Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1988, p. 88</ref> (Her actions secured [[Kievan Rus']] from the Drevlians, preventing her from having to marry a Drevlian prince, and allowing her to act as regent until her young son came of age.){{cn|date=September 2022}}
* the [[Siege of Kiev (968)]] by the Pechenegs;
* the legendary [[Conversion of Vladimir the Great]];
* the [[Bolesław I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis|Kievan succession crisis]] after Vladimir's death, [[Yaroslav the Wise|Yaroslav]]'s rise to power, and the [[Battle of Listven]].

Women play a relatively minor role in the ''Primary Chronicle'', usually only as the unnamed wife or daughter of a named man.{{sfn|Raffensperger|2024|pp=20, 32}} There are very few women mentioned by their full personal (Christian) names in the PVL, including: Princess [[Olga of Kiev]], abbess [[Anna Vsevolodovna of Kiev|Ianka or Anna Vsevolodovna of Kiev]], her sister [[Eupraxia of Kiev|Eupraxia Vsevolodovna of Kiev]] (alias [[Holy Roman Empress]] Adelheid), [[Predslava Volodimerovna]], [[Predslava of Kiev|Predslava Sviatopolkovna of Kiev]], and Catherine (Katerina) Vsevolodovna (died 1108).{{sfn|Raffensperger|2024|pp=20, 32}}

=== Chronology ===
The chronology offered by the ''Primary Chronicle'' (''PVL'') is sometimes at odds with that of other documents such as the ''[[Novgorod First Chronicle]]'' (''NPL'') and [[Byzantine literature]].{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=40–43}} Sometimes the ''Primary Chronicle'' also contradicts itself, especially between narrative and chronological parts, which appear to have been written by two different authors.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44–45}} Several scholars including [[Aleksey Shakhmatov]] (1897), [[Mikhail Tikhomirov]] (1960), Ia. S. Lur’e (1970), and [[Constantin Zuckerman]] (1995) have concluded that the 9th- and 10th-century dates mentioned in the ''PVL'' were not added to the text until the 11th century, unless directly copied from the ''Chronicle'' of [[George Hamartolos|George the Monk]].{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=43–44}}

==== Opening date error ====
The historical period covered in the ''Tale of Bygone Years'' begins with [[biblical times]], in the introductory portion of the text, and concludes with the year 1117 in the chronicle's third edition. Russian philologist [[Aleksey Shakhmatov]] was the first one to discover early on that the chronology of the ''Primary Chronicle'' opens with an error. The ''Laurentian'' text of the ''Chronicle'' says: "In the year 6360 (852), the fifteenth of the indiction, at the accession of the Emperor Michael, the land of Rus' was first named".{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|pp=24, 58}} It is thus claimed that the reign of Byzantine emperor [[Michael III]] began in this year, but Byzantine sources (such as 11th-century Greek historian [[John Skylitzes]]' account<ref>{{cite book | last1=Skylitzes|  first1=John | translator-last=Wortley | translator-first=John |title=John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057: Translation and Notes | doi=10.1017/CBO9780511779657 | isbn=9780511779657 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge, MA | year=2010}}</ref> ) point out that it began on 21 January 842.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=30}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}} Shakhmatov (1897) demonstrated that an editor based himself on a miscalculation found in the ''Short History'' of [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=30}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}} Moreover, a few sentences later, the text states: 'from the birth of Christ to Constantine, 318 years; and from Constantine to Michael, 542 years. Twenty-nine years passed between the first year of Michael's reign and the accession of Oleg, Prince of Rus'.'{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=58–59}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}} However, [[Constantine the Great]] acceded in 313, not 318, and the resulting sum of 318+542 years leads to another erroneous accession of Michael III, this time in 860.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=30}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}} This then leads to an internal contradiction, when "Michael the Emperor" is said to have mounted a campaign against the Bulgars in 853–858 (6361–6366),{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=59}} which could not have happened before he became Byzantine emperor in 860 according to the latter accession date.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}}

==== Major events ====
Chronology of major events:{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=}}{{pn|date=May 2023}}
* '''852''' (6360): The principal date mentioned in the ''Primary Chronicle'', when the land of Rus' was first named in the Greek chronicle of [[George Hamartolos]]; this is evidence that the compiler used it as one of the sources for the ''Primary Chronicle''.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=24}}
* '''859''': 'The Varangians from beyond the sea imposed tribute upon the [[Chud]]s, the Slavs, the [[Merians]], the Ves', and the [[Krivichs|Krivichians]]. But the [[Khazars]] imposed it upon the [[Polans (eastern)|Polyanians]], the [[Severians]], and the Vyatichians'.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=59}}
* '''862''': The [[calling of the Varangians]]. The various tributaries of the Varangians attempted to rid themselves of the Varangian lordship, which led to quarrels among the tribes and culminated in them inviting a ''[[knyaz]]'' ("prince") from the Varangians to rule over them.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=59}}{{npsn|date=June 2023}} As a result, the three Varangian brothers [[Rurik]], [[Sineus and Truvor]] and their kinsfolk crossed the sea and settled themselves in various localities, and it is claimed that it was after these Varangians that the land of Rus' would eventually be named.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=60}}{{npsn|date=June 2023}} Around the same time, two other Varangians called [[Askold and Dir]] captured the town of Kiev.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=60}}{{npsn|date=June 2023}}
* '''866''' (6374): The [[Siege of Constantinople (860)]] by Rus' forces. According to Byzantine sources, this happened in 860, not 866.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=32}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=32}}
* '''881/2'''  (6390): Rurik's successor, [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]], sent messengers to Askold and Dir, representing himself as a stranger on his way to Greece on an errand for Oleg and for Igor', the prince's son, requesting a meeting. He then ambushed Askold and Dir, saying: "You are not princes nor even of princely stock, but I am of princely birth." Igor' was then brought forward, and Oleg announced that he was the son of Rurik. They killed Askold and Dir, and after carrying them to the hill, they buried them there, on the hill now known as Uhorska (Hungarian hill), where the castle of Ol'ma now stands.'{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=61}} Then 'Oleg set himself up as prince in Kiev'{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}} ({{langx|cu|къняжа въ Киеве|translit=kŭnyaza vŭ Kyeve}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}}) 'and declared that it should be the mother of Rus' cities.'{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=61}} According to the text's aforementioned chronology of Oleg's accession 29 years after Michael III in 860, Oleg's reign should have begun in 889 rather than 881/2.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}}
* '''883''': Prince Oleg conquers the [[Drevlians|Derevlians]].{{cn|date=February 2023}}
* '''884–885''': Prince Oleg defeats the Radimichians and the Severians, bringing them under his rule.{{cn|date=February 2023}}
* '''907''': Prince Oleg launched an incursion against the Greeks, resulting in [[Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (907)|a favorable treaty]] for Rus'. The Greek emperor Leo conceded to provide allowances for Oleg's men, award them a right to stay and trade in Constantinople free of tax, and to enter unconditional peace. This event is not mentioned in Byzantine sources.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=32}}
* '''912''': After Oleg's prophetic death from a snakebite, prince Igor succeeded him as the ruler of Rus' and was neither “successful in his military campaigns nor popular with people.”{{cn|date=February 2023}} According to the ''Novgorod First Chronicle'', Oleg died in 922; if Oleg (Helgi) is the same person as HLGW, "king of the Rus'", in the ''[[Schechter Letter|Genizah Letter]]'', he would still have been alive in the 940s.{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=42–43}}
* '''Ca. 945''': Prince Igor was murdered in the act of uprising by the Derevlians. His wife [[Olga of Kiev|Olga]] assumed the throne following her husband's death and brought revenge upon Igor's murderers. Some of the Derevlians were burned in their homes, others were buried alive, while the remaining were simply slaughtered. Olga later ruled as a regent for her young son [[Sviatoslav I of Kiev|Svyatoslav]], who went on to have an extensive military career as an adult, venturing East against the Khazars and the Bulgars.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''972''':  Svyatoslav was killed in a Pecheneg ambush while returning from one of his frequent campaigns against the Greeks.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''973''': The reign of [[Yaropolk I of Kiev|Yaropolk]] began and was complicated by quarrels with his two brothers, [[Oleg of Drelinia|Oleg]] and [[Vladimir the Great|Vladimir]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''978–980''': Yaropolk proved himself victorious against his brother Oleg but died at the hands of men of his other brother Vladimir. After inheriting the throne, Vladimir initially upheld pagan practices and worshipped [[Perun]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''986–988''': The [[conversion of Volodimer]]: Vladimir was baptized into [[Orthodoxy]], which later became referred to as the "Baptism of Rus'" because it was followed by a widespread [[Christianization of Kievan Rus']].{{cn|date=June 2023}} The entire conversion story covers a large chunk of the ''Primary Chronicle'': pages 84–121, or 37 out of a total of 286 pages (12.9%) of the entire text.{{sfn|Ostrowski|Birnbaum|2014|loc=0.1–286, 7pp}}
* '''1015''': Following Vladimir's death, [[Sviatopolk I of Kiev|Svyatopolk]] inherited the title of the Prince of Kiev and became known as [[Svyatopolk the Accursed]] for his violent actions towards his siblings.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''1019''': Svyatopolk was overthrown by his brother [[Yaroslav the Wise]], whose reign brought an end to the unified kingdom of Rus but laid the foundation for the development of the written tradition in the [[Kievan Rus']].{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''1054''': After Yaroslav's death, the kingdom was split into five princedoms with [[Izyaslav I|Izyaslav]] ruling in Kiev, [[Svyatoslav of Chernigov|Svyatoslav]] in [[Chernihiv|Chernigov]], [[Igor Yaroslavich|Igor]] in [[Principality of Volhynia|Volodymyr]], [[Vsevolod I of Kiev|Vsevolod]] in [[Pereiaslav]], and [[Rostislav of Tmutarakan|Rostislav]] in [[Tmutarakan]]’.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''1076''': Vsevolod held a victory over his four rivals and became the [[Grand Prince of Kiev]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''1093''': After Vsevolod’s death, [[Sviatopolk II of Kiev|Svyatopolk]] reigned over the Kievan Rus.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
* '''1113''': Rise to power of [[Vladimir II Monomakh|Vladimir Monomakh]], whose religious testament and prayers were appended at the end of the ''Chronicle'' by monk [[Sylvester of Kiev|Sylvester]], working from [[St. Michael's Monastery|St. Michael’s monastery]] in 1116.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

== Christian elements ==
[[File:Radzivill chronicle 123.jpg|alt=Radziwill Chronicle|thumb|398x398px|The baptism of Prince Vladimir I in Korsun in 988 (from the ''[[Radziwiłł Chronicle]]'']]
The ''Primary Chronicle'' is vibrant with Christian themes and biblical allusions, which are often said to reflect the text’s [[Monasticism|monastic]] authorship. Aleksandr Koptev remarks that the ''Chronicle'' belongs to the genre of [[Christian literature]].<ref>Koptev, Aleksandr. [[doi:10.1080/00806765.2010.530802.|“The Story of ‘Chazar Tribute’: A Scandinavian Ritual Trick in the Russian Primary Chronicle.”]] ''Scando-Slavica'' 56, no. 2 (December 2010): 212.</ref> In the introduction, the chronicler explores the biblical origin of the Slavic people, and traces their heritage back to Noah. On numerous occasions throughout the text, the chronicler discusses the pagan Slavs in a condescending manner, saying “for they were but pagans, and therefore ignorant.”{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=65}}{{npsn|date=May 2023}} Later in the ''Chronicle'', one of the most pivotal moments of the narrative is [[Vladimir the Great]]'s conversion to [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]], which ignited extensive [[Christianization]] of [[Kievan Rus']].{{cn|date=September 2022}}

=== Biblical origin ===
The ''Primary Chronicle'' traces the history of the Slavic people all the way back to the times of [[Noah]], whose three sons inherited the Earth:

* '''[[Shem]]''' inherited the eastern region: [[Persia]], [[Bactria]], [[Syria]], [[Media (region)|Media]], [[Babylon]], [[Shem|Cordyna]], [[Assyria]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Elymais]], [[India]], [[Coele-Syria|Coelesyria]], [[Commagene]], [[Phoenicia]].{{cn|date=September 2022}}
* '''[[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]]''' inherited the southern region: [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Numidia]], [[Massy (Biblical region)|Massy]]ris, [[Mauretania|Maurentania]], [[Cilicia]], [[Pamphylia]], [[Mysia]], [[Lycaonia]], [[Phrygia]], [[Camalaniugan|Camalia]], [[Lycia]]. [[Caria]], [[Lydia]], [[Moesia]], [[Troaș River|Troas]], [[Thessaly|Aeolia]], [[Bithynia]], [[Sardinia]], [[Crete]], [[Cyprus]].{{cn|date=September 2022}}
* '''[[Japheth]]''' gained north-western territories: [[Armenia]], [[Great Britain|Britain]], [[Illyria]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Ionia]], [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Media (region)|Media]], [[Paphlagonia]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Scythia]], and [[Thessaly]].{{cn|date=September 2022}}

The [[Varangians]], the [[Swedes]], the [[Normans]], the [[Rus' people|Rus]], and others were named as descendants of Japheth. In the very beginning, humanity was united into a single nation, but after the fall of the [[Tower of Babel]], the [[Slavic race]] was derived from the line of Japheth, “since they are the Noricians, who are identified with the Slavs.”{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=52}}{{npsn|date=May 2023}}

=== Korsun legend ===
{{Main|Conversion of Volodimer}}
According to the so-called "Korsun legend", presented in the ''Chronicle'' just preceding the [[conversion of Volodimer]], the Prince took possession of the Greek city of [[Chersonesos Taurica|Korsun]] ([[Chersonesus]]) in the [[Crimean peninsula|Crimean Peninsula]], in an attempt to gain certain benefits from [[Basil I|Emperor Basil]]. Following Vladimir's successful conquest of the city, he demanded that the Emperor's 'unwedded' sister be given up for marriage with him. Upon hearing the news from Korsun, emperor Basil responded that "It is not meet for Christians to be given in marriage to pagans. If you are baptized, you shall have her to wife, inherit the kingdom of God, and be our companion in faith."{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=112}}{{npsn|date=May 2023}} The legend concludes with Vladimir's embrace of Christianity at the [[Church of St. Basil (Korsun)|church of St. Basil]] in Korsun and his marriage to the Emperor's sister, [[Anna Porphyrogenita]].{{cn|date=September 2022}}

=== Archaeological findings ===
For centuries after the ''Chronicle’s'' creation, the legend's factuality was subject to extensive debate. Many historians, [[Antiquarian|antiquarians]], and archaeologists had attempted to determine the actual location of Vladimir's conversion by synthesizing textual evidence of the ''Chronicle'' with material evidence from Crimea. Their efforts became known in the realms of historical discipline as the “archaeology of the Korsun legend.”<ref name=":2">Mara Kozelsky. “Ruins into Relics: The Monument to Saint Vladimir on the Excavations of Chersonesos, 1827-57.” ''The Russian Review'', no. 4 (2004): 656-670.</ref> This search culminated under [[Archbishop]] Innokentii's diocesan administration (1848–57), when in the [[Chersonesus|ruins of Chersonesos]], archaeologists unearthed the foundations of three churches and determined that the one containing the richest findings was allegedly used for the baptism of the Kievan Prince.<ref>Romey, Kristin M., and Ludmila Grinenko. “Legacies of a Slavic Pompeii.” ''Archaeology'' 55, no. 6 (2002): 21.</ref> The unearthed material evidence proved sufficient to pinpoint the real location of the legend's events with reasonable accuracy.<ref name=":2" /> 

In the early 1860s, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] began construction of [[Chersonesus Cathedral|The Saint Vladimir Cathedral in Chersonesos]], which has been destroyed on three separate occasions after first being erected and was renovated each time thereafter. The cathedral last faced destruction during the [[October Revolution]] and was not restored until the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]]. It has been argued that by honoring Vladimir the Great and his contribution to the Eastern Orthodoxy, the cathedral serves the purpose of validating Russia's historical ties with the Crimean Peninsula, the accounts of which are preserved by the ''Chronicle''.<ref name=":2" />

==Assessment and critique==
{{Further|Textual criticism of the Primary Chronicle}}
Unlike many other medieval chronicles written by European monks, the ''Tale of Bygone Years'' is unique as the only written testimony on the earliest history of East Slavic people.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=23}} Its comprehensive account of the history of [[Kievan Rus|Rus']] is unmatched in other sources, but important correctives are provided by the ''[[Novgorod First Chronicle]]''.<ref>[[Serge Aleksandr Zenkovsky|Zenkovsky, Serge A.]]: ''Medieval Russia’s epics, chronicles, and tales.'' A Meridian Book, Penguin Books, New York, 1963, p. 77</ref> It is also valuable as a prime example of the [[Old East Slavic#Old East Slavic literature|Old East Slavonic literature]].{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=}}{{pn|date=May 2023}}

However, its reliability has been widely called into question and placed under careful examination by contemporary specialists in the field of the Old East Slavonic history. The first doubts about trustworthiness of the narratives were voiced by [[Nikolay Karamzin]] in his ''[[History of the Russian State]]'' (1816–26), which brought attention to Nestor's questionable chronology and style of prose.<ref>Karamzin, Nikolaj Mihajlovič. ''Istoriâ gosudarstva Rossijskogo''. Moskva: OLMA Media Group, 2012, v. I, Chapter II.</ref> Building upon Karamzin's observations, further inquiries into the philology of the ''Rus Primary Chronicle'' shined more light on various weaknesses in the text's composition. According to [[Dmitry Likhachov]] (1950), the chronicle exhibits the presence of plentiful "fillers" that were added ''post factum'' and, in effect, "destroyed the narrative's logical progression."<ref>Likhachov, Dmitry. ''[https://www.livelib.ru/book/1001185740-velikoe-nasledie-klassicheskie-proizvedeniya-literatury-drevnej-rusi-zametki-o-russkom-dmitrij-lihachev. Velikoe nasledie: Klassicheskie proizvedenija literatury Drevnej Rusi. Zametki o russkom]''. Moscow, Russia: Logos, 2007, p. 342.</ref>

According to [[Aleksey Shakhmatov]] (1916), some of the incongruities are a direct result of the fact that "the ruling [[Grand Prince of Kiev|Princes of Kiev]] had their own [[propagandists]] who rewrote the annals to make political claims that best suited their own purposes."{{sfn|Isoaho|2018|p=642}} Shakhmatov further described the ''Tale of Bygone Years'' as a literary creation that fell under heavy influence of the Church and the State.<ref>Konstantonovich, Konstantin, and Aleksey Shakhmatov. [https://www.prlib.ru/item/358033 ''Povest’ Vremennikh Let.  Introduction''.] Petrograd, Russia: Izdanie Arheograficheskoj Komissii, 1916, v. I.</ref> 
Dmitry Likhachov famously wrote in his 1950 critique of the ''Rus Primary Chronicle'', "No other country in the world is cloaked in such contradictory myths about its history as Russia, and no other nation in the world interprets its history as variously as do the Russian people."<ref name="Likhachov 1993">Likhachev, D.S, Deming Brown, and et al. “Russian Culture in the Modern World.” ''Russian Social Science Review'' 34, no. 1 (1 February 1993): 70.</ref> The need to interpret the ''Chronicle'', mentioned by Likhachov as essential to making sense of its narrative, stems from the facts that the text was initially compiled and edited by multiple authors with different agendas and that it had to be translated from Old East Slavic language, which proved to be an arduous task.<ref name="Likhachov 1993"/>

[[Harvard University|Harvard]] linguist [[Horace G. Lunt]] (1988) found it important to "admit freely that we are speculating" when tales – such as [[Yaroslav the Wise]] being more than just "a patron of Slavonic books" – are reconstructed and the logical incongruities of the text are faced.{{sfn|Lunt|1988|p=261}} 

Polish historian Wladyslaw Duczko (2004) concluded that the compiler of the ''Primary Chronicle'' 'manipulated his sources in the usual way: information that was not compatible was left aside, while the elements that should be there but did not exist, were invented.'{{sfn|Duczko|2004|p=202}} Russian historian and author [[Igor Danilevsky]] mentioned that the ''Rus Primary Chronicle'' was more concerned with exploring the religious significance of the events rather than conveying to the reader the information about how it actually happened.<ref name=":3">Danilevskiy, I.N. ''[http://noogen.su/_oldroot/danilevsky-diss.pdf Povest’ vremennyh let: Germenevticheskie osnovy izuchenija letopisnyh tekstov]''. Monography - Moscow: Aspekt-Press, 2004, p. 133.</ref> As a result, a sizable portion of the text was directly borrowed from earlier works that contained a religious undertone like some Byzantine sources, and most notably, the [[Bible]].<ref name=":3" /> The protagonists are frequently identified with biblical personages and so are ascribed certain relevant qualities and deeds that did not necessarily match the reality.<ref name=":3" />

Ukrainian historian [[Oleksiy Tolochko]] in 2015 upheld the conclusion reached by his many predecessors that the ''Chronicle’s'' contents are more or less fictional. Tolochko argued that some of the tales, like the story of the [[Rurik dynasty|Rurikid]] clan's entry into Kiev, were invented "so as to produce a meaningful reconstruction of past events and include these well-known names" in the author's "historical scenario."{{sfn|Isoaho|2018|p=643}} Tolochko called the ''Rus Primary Chronicle'' an outstanding work of literature with an untrustworthy story and concluded that "there is absolutely no reason to continue basing our knowledge of the past on its content."<ref>Romensky A.A. [[doi:10.24411/2219-8857-2017-00024|“Primary Rus’ Without The Primary Chronicle: New Round Of Debate About The Early History Of Eastern Europe]] (Book Review: Tolochko A. P. 2015. Ocherki Nachalnoj Rusi. Kiev; Saint Petersburg: 'Laurus' Publ.).” ''Materialy Po Arheologii i Istorii Antičnogo i Srednevekovogo Kryma'', no. 9 (2017): 543.</ref>

Paul Bushkovitch (2012) from [[Yale University]] writes “the author was serving his rulers, identifying princes and people and leaving historians with a muddle virtually impossible to sort out.”<ref name="Bushkovitch">{{Cite book|title=A Concise History of Russia|last=Bushkovitch|first=Paul|publisher=Cambridge Press|year=2012|pages=4}}</ref> He also mentions that there are discrepancies when overlapping Scandinavian history with the narrative of the ''Primary Chronicle''. For example, “archeological evidence does not fit the legends of the ''Primary Chronicle”'' such as: “in Scandinavia itself, there were no sagas of Viking triumphs and wars in Russia to match those recounting the conquest of Iceland and the British Isles”. The credibility of the ''Primary Chronicle'' should be taken with a grain of salt for its undertone of being a political tool to justify rule.<ref name="Bushkovitch"/>

== Translations ==
[[August Ludwig von Schlözer]] produced a German translation with commentary of the ''Povest' vremennykh let'' through 980 in five volumes (''Hecтopъ. Russische Annalen in ihrer Slavonischen Grund–Sprache''. Göttingen, 1802–1809).{{sfn|Maiorov|2018|p=322}}

In 1930, [[Harvard University|Harvard]] professor Samuel Hazzard Cross published an English translation of the Laurentian Codex's version of the PVL under the title ''The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text.'', which became very influential amongst American readers.{{sfn|Lunt|1988|p=10}} Cross was working on a revised edition when he died; it was completed and published by [[Georgetown University]] professor Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor in 1953.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|loc=Preface}} By the early 21st century, ''Primary Chronicle'' had become the common shortened English name for the text shared by the surviving five main manuscripts of the PVL.{{sfn|Isoaho|2018|p=637}} Nevertheless, Cross' translation was often found  inaccurate, with Waugh (1974) writing that Perfecky (1973) had produced a more reliable English translation of the ''[[Galician–Volhynian Chronicle]]'' than how Cross translated the PVL.{{sfn|Waugh|1974|p=769–771}}

The 2001 German translation by Ludolf Müller has been called 'without doubt the best available rendering of the PVL into a modern language'.{{sfn|Gippius|2014|p=342}} The 2015 Dutch translation by Hans Thuis (begun with Victoria van Aalst since 2000) was based on the main six textual witnesses, scholarly publications by Müller, Likhachev and Ostrowski, and by comparison to the German translation of Trautmann (1931), the English translation of Cross & Sherbowitz-Wetzor (1930, 1953), the Russian translation of Likhachev (1950), and the German translation of Müller (2001).{{sfn|Thuis|2015|pp=281–282}}

==See also==
* ''[[Academic Chronicle]]''
* [[Freising manuscripts]]
* ''[[Ioachim Chronicle]]''
* [[Izbornyk]]
* [[Nestor the Chronicler]]
* ''[[Russkaya Pravda]]''

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
=== Primary sources ===
==== Critical editions of original texts ====
* {{citation| url = http://litopys.org.ua/lavrlet/lavr.htm | work  = Полное собрание русских летописей (ПСРЛ)| volume =1 |script-title=ru:Лаврентьевская летопись | trans-title=The Laurentian Chronicle.  | year = 1928 |publisher = USSR Academy of Sciences | language = ru | type = online edition}}, from the ''[[Laurentian Codex]]''
*{{citation| url = http://litopys.org.ua/ipatlet/ipat.htm | work =  Полное собрание русских летописей (ПСРЛ) |  volume =2 |script-title=ru:Ипатьевская летопись | trans-title  =Ipatiev Chronicle | language = ru |year =  1908 | publisher = Imperial Archaeological Commission}},  from the ''[[Hypatian Codex]]''
*{{citation |url=http://litopys.org.ua/novglet/novg.htm |script-title=ru:Новгородская первая летопись старшего и младшего изводов |trans-title=Novgorod First Chronicle Older and Younger Editions |publisher=USSR Academy of Sciences |year=1950 |language=ru}}, from the ''[[Novgorod First Chronicle]]''
* {{cite book | editor-first = Donald | editor-last = Ostrowski | url = http://hudce7.harvard.edu/~ostrowski/pvl/ | title=The Povest' vremennykh let: An Interlinear Collation and Paradosis. 3 volumes. |date=2003 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |language=ru, en | access-date = 23 March 2002 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050309022812/http://hudce7.harvard.edu/~ostrowski/pvl/ | archive-date = 9 March 2005 | url-status = dead }} (assoc. ed. David J. Birnbaum (Harvard Library of Early Ukrainian Literature, vol. 10, parts 1–3) – This 2003 Ostrowski et al. edition includes an ''interlinear collation'' including the ''five main manuscript witnesses'', as well as a new ''paradosis'' ("a proposed best reading").
* {{Cite web |url=http://pvl.obdurodon.org/pvl.html |title=Rus' primary chronicle critical edition – Interlinear line-level collation |last1=Ostrowski |first1=Donald |last2=Birnbaum |first2=David J. |work=pvl.obdurodon.org |date=7 December 2014 |access-date=17 May 2023 |lang=cu}} – A 2014 improved digitised version of the 2002/2003 Ostrowski et al. edition.

==== Translations of original texts ====
;Modern English
* {{Cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Samuel Hazzard |last2=Sherbowitz-Wetzor |first2=Olgerd P. |date=1953 |title=The Russian Primary Chronicle, Laurentian Text. Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor |url=https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=The Mediaeval Academy of America |pages=325 |isbn= |access-date=26 January 2023}} (First edition published in 1930. The first 50 pages are a scholarly introduction.)
** {{Cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Samuel Hazzard |last2=Sherbowitz-Wetzor |first2=Olgerd P. |orig-year=1953 |title=SLA 218. Ukrainian Literature and Culture. Excerpts from The Rus' Primary Chronicle (Povest vremennykh let, PVL) |publisher=Electronic Library of Ukrainian Literature, University of Toronto |date=2013 |url=http://sites.utoronto.ca/elul/English/218/PVL-selections.pdf |location=Toronto |pages=16 |access-date=26 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530225833/http://www.utoronto.ca/elul/English/218/PVL-selections.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2014}}
* {{citation | url = http://www.uoregon.edu/~kimball/chronicle.htm | title = Excerpts from "Tales of Times Gone By" [Povest' vremennykh let] | publisher = University of Oregon | type = Lecture Notes | access-date = 10 October 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081207013842/http://www.uoregon.edu/~kimball/chronicle.htm | archive-date = 7 December 2008 | url-status = dead }}.
;Modern Russian
* {{Cite web
|url=http://expositions.nlr.ru/LaurentianCodex/eng/index.php
|title= Laurentian Codex 1377: digitisation of the Laurentian Codex, including transliteration and translation into modern Russian, with an introduction in English
|publisher=National Library of Russia
|year=2012
|language=cu, ru
}}
; Modern German
* {{Cite book |last1=Müller |first1=Ludolf |authorlink1= |date=2001 |title=Die Nestorchronik: die altrussische Chronik, zugeschrieben dem Mönch des Kiever Höhlenklosters Nestor, in der Redaktion des Abtes Silvestr aus dem Jahre 1116, rekonstruiert nach den Handschriften Lavrentevskaja, Radzivilovskaja, Akademiceskaja, Troickaja, Ipatevskaja und Chlebnikovskaja |url=https://digi20.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb00043511_00001.html |location=Munich |publisher=Wilhelm Fink Verlag |pages=366 |isbn=377053428X |access-date=24 March 2024 |language=de}} 
* Trautmann, Reinhold, ''Die altrussische Nestorchronik'' (Leipzig 1931, Wiesbaden 1948), pp. 76. Leipzig: Markert & Petters. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. (based only on the ''Laurentian Codex'').
; Modern Dutch
* {{Cite book |last=Thuis |first=Hans |date=2015 |title=Nestorkroniek. De oudste geschiedenis van het Kievse Rijk |url=https://www.vantilt.nl/boeken/nestorkroniek/ |location=Nijmegen |publisher=Uitgeverij Vantilt |pages=304 |isbn=9789460042287 |language=nl}}
; Modern Spanish
* {{Cite book |last1=García de la Puente |first1=Inés |authorlink1=Inés García de la Puente |date=2019 |title=Relato de los años pasados. Edición preparada por Inés García de la Puente |location=Madrid |publisher=Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos |pages=296 |isbn=978-8422020721 |language=es}}

=== Literature ===
* {{Cite journal |last1=Dimnik |first1=Martin |date=January 2004 |title=The Title "Grand Prince" in Kievan Rus' |url=https://doi.org/10.1484/J.MS.2.306512 |journal=Mediaeval Studies |volume=66 |issue= |pages=253–312 |doi=10.1484/J.MS.2.306512}}
* {{Cite book |last=Duczko |first=Władysław |date=2004 |title=Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEawXSP4AVwC |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=290 |isbn=9789004138742 |access-date=19 February 2023}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Gippius |first1=Alexey A. |date=2014 |title=Reconstructing the original of the Povesť vremennyx let: a contribution to the debate |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43945126 |journal=Russian Linguistics |publisher=Springer |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=341–366 |doi= 10.1007/s11185-014-9137-y|jstor=43945126 |s2cid=255017212 |access-date=17 May 2023}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Isoaho |first=Mari |authorlink=Mari Isoaho |date=2018 |title=Shakhmatov's Legacy and the Chronicles of Kievan Rus' |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/701570/pdf |journal=[[Kritika (journal)|Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History]] |publisher=Slavica Publishers |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=637–648 |doi=10.1353/kri.2018.0033 |s2cid=159688925 |access-date=25 September 2022}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Horace G. |authorlink1=Horace Lunt |date=Summer 1988 |title=On Interpreting the Russian Primary Chronicle: The Year 1037 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/308891 |journal=The Slavic and East European Journal |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=251–264 |doi= 10.2307/308891|jstor=308891 |access-date=6 May 2023}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Horace G. |date=June 1994 |title=Lexical Variation in the Copies of the Rus´ "Primary Chronicle": Some Methodological Problems |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036551 |journal=Ukrainian Philology and Linguistics |publisher=Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute |volume=18 |issue=1–2 |pages=10–28 |doi= |jstor=41036551 |access-date=5 May 2023}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Horace G. |title=What the Rus' Primary Chronicle Tells Us about the Origin of the Slavs and of Slavic Writing |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |date=1995 |volume=19 |pages=335–357 |jstor=41037009 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41037009 |issn=0363-5570}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Maiorov |first1=Alexander V. |date=November 2018 |title="I Would Sacrifice Myself for my Academy and its Glory!" August Ludwig von Schlözer and the Discovery of the ''Hypatian Chronicle'' |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27072372 |journal=[[Russian History (Brill journal)|Russian History]] |publisher=Brill |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=319–340 |doi= 10.1163/18763316-04504002|jstor=27072372 |s2cid=191820897 |access-date=19 May 2023}}
* {{cite book |title=Medieval Russia: 980–1584. Second Edition. E-book |last=Martin |first=Janet |url=https://www.ebooks.com/en-us/book/802816/medieval-russia-980-1584/janet-martin/ |year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-511-36800-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Donald |authorlink1=Donald Ostrowski |date=March 1981 |title=Textual Criticism and the Povest' vremennykh let: Some Theoretical Considerations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41035890 |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |publisher=Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=11–31 |doi= |jstor=41035890 |access-date=6 May 2023}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Ostrowski |first1=Donald |date=2018 |title=Was There a Riurikid Dynasty in Early Rus'?  |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/css/52/1/article-p30_2.xml |journal=Canadian-American Slavic Studies |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=30–49 |doi=10.1163/22102396-05201009}}
* {{cite book |last=Raffensperger |first=Christian |title=Name Unknown: The Life of a Rusian Queen |publisher=Routledge |date=2024 |pages=232 |isbn=978-1-04-003014-1 |doi=10.4324/9781003325185}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tolochko |first1=Oleksiy |date=2005 |title="История Российская" Василия Татищева: источники и известия "Istoriia Rossiiskaia" Vasiliia Tatishcheva: istochniki i izvestiia |trans-title=Vasily Tatishchev's "History of Russia": Sources and Information |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArhpAAAAMAAJ |location=Moscow |publisher=Новое литературное обозрение Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie |pages=543 |isbn=9795867933462 |access-date=17 May 2023}} (also published at Kritika, Kyiv, 2005)
* {{Cite journal |last=Tolochko |first=Oleksiy |date=2007 |title=On "Nestor the Chronicler" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41304501 |journal=[[Harvard Ukrainian Studies]] |publisher=Harvard University |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=31–59 |doi= |jstor=41304501 |access-date=30 September 2022}}
* {{cite journal| first=Daniel Clarke |last=Waugh | author-link = Daniel Waugh (historian) |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |title=Review |volume=33 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1974 |pages=769–771  |doi=10.2307/2494516 | jstor=2494516|s2cid=163559666 |doi-access=free}}

=== Further reading ===
* {{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=Nora Kershaw |author-link=Nora Kershaw Chadwick |year=1946 |title=The Beginnings of Russian History: An Enquiry into Sources |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofruss035158mbp |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-404-14651-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=García De La Puente |first=Inés |authorlink=Inés García de la Puente |title=Single Combats in the PVL. An Indo-European Comparative Analysis |journal=Studi Slavistici |date=1 December 2006 |doi=10.13128/STUDI_SLAVIS-2143 |pages=19–30}}
* {{cite journal |last=García de la Puente |first=Inés |authorlink=Inés García de la Puente |title=What Route Does the Povest' vremennykh let Really Describe? |journal=The Russian Review |publisher=Wiley |volume=69 |issue=3 |year=2010 |issn=0036-0341 |jstor=25677245 |pages=373–387 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9434.2010.00572.x |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25677245 |access-date=11 May 2024}}
* Velychenko, Stephen (1992). ''National history as cultural process: A survey of the interpretations of Ukraine's past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian historical writing from the earliest times to 1914''. Edmonton. {{ISBN|0-920862-75-6}}.
* Velychenko, Stephen (2007). "Nationalizing and Denationalizing the Past. Ukraine and Russia in Comparative Context". ''Ab Imperio'' (1).

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[[Category:Primary Chronicle| ]]
[[Category:1110s books]]
[[Category:12th-century history books]]
[[Category:Old East Slavic chronicles]]
[[Category:Old Church Slavonic literature]]
[[Category:Christian literature]]
[[Category:Slavic history]]