Editing Post-traumatic stress disorder

{{Short description|Mental disorder associated with trauma}}
{{Redirect2|PTSD|Post traumatic|the Mike Shinoda album|Post Traumatic|other uses|PTSD (disambiguation)|C-PTSD|Complex post-traumatic stress disorder}}
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{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Post-traumatic stress disorder
| image = 
| image_size = 
| caption = 
| field = [[Psychiatry]], [[clinical psychology]]
| symptoms = Disturbing thoughts, feelings, or [[dreams]] related to the event; mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues; efforts to avoid trauma-related situations; increased [[fight-or-flight response]]<ref name=DSM5/>
| complications = [[Suicide]]; [[cardiac]], [[respiratory]], [[musculoskeletal]], [[gastrointestinal]], and [[immunological]] disorders<ref name=BMJ2015/>
| onset = 
| duration = > 1 month{{efn|At least 1 month of symptoms for clinical diagnosis is required, while symptoms may persist from 6 months to multiple years.<ref name=DSM5/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder|url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd |access-date=2024-01-13 |website=www.nimh.nih.gov |language=en}}</ref>}}
| causes = Exposure to a traumatic event<ref name=DSM5/>
| risks = 
| diagnosis = Based on symptoms<ref name=BMJ2015/>
| differential = 
| prevention = 
| treatment = Counseling, medication,<ref name=NIH2016/> [[MDMA-assisted psychotherapy]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Notice of final decision to amend (or not amend) the current Poisons Standard – June 2022 ACMS #38 – Psilocybine and MDMA |url=https://www.tga.gov.au/resources/publication/scheduling-decisions-final/notice-final-decision-amend-or-not-amend-current-poisonls-standard-june-2022-acms-38-psilocybine-and-mdma |website=Therapeutic Goods Administration, Department of Health and Aged Care, Australian Government |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref> [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s<ref name="Berger-2009"/>
| prognosis = 
| frequency = 8.7% ([[Prevalence#Lifetime prevalence|lifetime risk]]); 3.5% ([[Prevalence#Period prevalence|12-month risk]]) (US)<ref>{{Cite book |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 |date=2013 |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |isbn=978-0-89042-555-8 |location=Arlington, VA |oclc=830807378 |edition=5th |page=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/276 276] |url= https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/276}}</ref>
| deaths = 
| alt = 
}}
<!-- Definition and symptoms -->

'''Post-traumatic stress disorder''' ('''PTSD'''){{efn|Acceptable variants of this term exist; see the ''[[#Terminology|Terminology]]'' section in this article.}} is a [[mental disorder]] that develops from experiencing a [[Psychological trauma|traumatic]] event, such as [[sexual assault]], [[domestic violence]], [[child abuse]], [[warfare]] and its associated traumas, natural disaster, [[traffic collision]], or other threats on a person's life or well-being.<ref name="DSM5">{{cite book |author=American Psychiatric Association|author-link=American Psychiatric Association |year=2013 |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |location=Arlington, VA |edition=5th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/271 271–80] |isbn=978-0-89042-555-8 |url= https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355967 |title=Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) – Symptoms and causes |website=[[Mayo Clinic]] |access-date=2019-10-08}}</ref> Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or [[dreams]] related to the events, mental or physical [[distress (medicine)|distress]] to [[Psychological trauma|trauma]]-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the [[fight-or-flight response]].<ref name="DSM5" /><ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name="Forman-Hoffman_2018">{{Cite report |title=Psychological and Pharmacological Treatments for Adults With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review Update |last1=Forman-Hoffman |first1=Valerie |last2=Cook Middleton |first2=Jennifer |date=2018-05-17 |publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) |doi=10.23970/ahrqepccer207 |language=en |last3=Feltner |first3=Cynthia |last4=Gaynes |first4=Bradley N. |last5=Palmieri Weber |first5=Rachel |last6=Bann |first6=Carla |last7=Viswanathan |first7=Meera |last8=Lohr |first8=Kathleen N. |last9=Baker |first9=Claire |url=https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/topics/ptsd-adult-treatment-update/research-2018 |doi-access=free |pmid=30204376 |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710011511/https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/topics/ptsd-adult-treatment-update/research-2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as [[misophonia]].<ref name="DSM5" /> Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through [[play (activity)|play]].<ref name="DSM5" />

<!-- Cause and diagnosis -->
Most people who experience traumatic events do not develop PTSD.<ref name=BMJ2015/> People who experience interpersonal violence such as rape, other sexual assaults, being kidnapped, stalking, physical abuse by an intimate partner, and childhood abuse are more likely to develop PTSD than those who experience non-[[assault]] based trauma, such as accidents and [[natural disasters]].<ref name=Zoladz>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zoladz PR, Diamond DM |title=Current status on behavioral and biological markers of PTSD: a search for clarity in a conflicting literature |journal=[[Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews]] |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=860–895 |date=June 2013 |pmid=23567521 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.024 |s2cid=14440116}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kessler RC, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Benjet C, Bromet EJ, Cardoso G, Degenhardt L, de Girolamo G, Dinolova RV, Ferry F, Florescu S, Gureje O, Haro JM, Huang Y, Karam EG, Kawakami N, Lee S, Lepine JP, Levinson D, Navarro-Mateu F, Pennell BE, Piazza M, Posada-Villa J, Scott KM, Stein DJ, Ten Have M, Torres Y, Viana MC, Petukhova MV, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Koenen KC |title=Trauma and PTSD in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys |journal=[[European Journal of Psychotraumatology]] |volume=8 |issue=sup5 |pages=1353383 |date=2017-10-27 |pmid=29075426 |pmc=5632781 |doi=10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383 |quote=As detailed in another recent WMH report, conditional risk of PTSD after trauma exposure is 4.0%, but varies significantly by trauma type. The highest conditional risk is associated with being raped (19.0%), physical abuse by a romantic partner (11.7%), being kidnapped (11.0%), and being sexually assaulted other than rape (10.5%). In terms of broader categories, the traumas associated with the highest PTSD risk are those involving ''intimate partner or sexual violence'' (11.4%), and ''other traumas'' (9.2%), with aggregate conditional risk much lower in the other broad trauma categories (2.0–5.4%) [citations omitted; emphasis added].}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Darves-Bornoz JM, Alonso J, de Girolamo G, de Graaf R, Haro JM, Kovess-Masfety V, Lepine JP, Nachbaur G, Negre-Pages L, Vilagut G, Gasquet I |title=Main traumatic events in Europe: PTSD in the European study of the epidemiology of mental disorders survey |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=455–462 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18956444 |doi=10.1002/jts.20357 |quote=In univariate analyses adjusted on gender, six events were found to be the most significantly associated with PTSD ( p < .001) among individuals exposed to at least one event. They were being raped (OR = 8.9), being beaten up by spouse or romantic partner (OR = 7.3), experiencing an undisclosed private event (OR = 5.5), having a child with serious illness (OR = 5.1), being beaten up by a caregiver (OR = 4.5), or being stalked (OR = 4.2)" [OR = odds ratio]. }}</ref> 

<!-- Prevention and treatment -->
Prevention may be possible when [[trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy|counselling]] is targeted at those with early symptoms, but is not effective when provided to all trauma-exposed individuals regardless of whether symptoms are present.<ref name=BMJ2015/> The main [[Treatments for PTSD|treatments]] for people with PTSD are [[counselling]] (psychotherapy) and medication.<ref name=NIH2016/><ref name=Haa2015>{{cite journal |vauthors=Haagen JF, Smid GE, Knipscheer JW, Kleber RJ |title=The efficacy of recommended treatments for veterans with PTSD: A metaregression analysis |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=40 |pages=184–94 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26164548 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2015.06.008|hdl=1874/330054 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Antidepressants]] of the [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]] or [[Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors|SNRI]] type are the first-line medications used for PTSD and are moderately beneficial for about half of people.<ref name="Berger-2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Berger W, Mendlowicz MV, Marques-Portella C, Kinrys G, Fontenelle LF, Marmar CR, Figueira I |title=Pharmacologic alternatives to antidepressants in posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review |journal=[[Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=169–80 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19141307 |pmc=2720612 |doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.12.004}}</ref> Benefits from medication are less than those seen with counselling.<ref name=BMJ2015/> It is not known whether using medications and counselling together has greater benefit than either method separately.<ref name=BMJ2015>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bisson JI, Cosgrove S, Lewis C, Robert NP |title=Post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=[[BMJ]] |volume=351 |pages=h6161 |date=November 2015 |pmid=26611143 |pmc=4663500 |doi=10.1136/bmj.h6161}}</ref><ref name="pmid20614457">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hetrick SE, Purcell R, Garner B, Parslow R |title=Combined pharmacotherapy and psychological therapies for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |issue=7 |pages=CD007316 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20614457 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007316.pub2|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/84458/1/Hetrick-2010-Combined%20pharmacotherapy%20and%20psyc.pdf }}</ref> Medications, other than some SSRIs or SNRIs, do not have enough evidence to support their use and, in the case of [[benzodiazepine]]s, may worsen outcomes.<ref name=Gui2015>{{cite journal |vauthors=Guina J, Rossetter SR, DeRHODES BJ, Nahhas RW, Welton RS |title=Benzodiazepines for PTSD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=[[Journal of Psychiatric Practice]] |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=281–303 |date=July 2015 |pmid=26164054 |doi=10.1097/pra.0000000000000091 |s2cid=24968844|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Hos2015>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoskins M, Pearce J, Bethell A, Dankova L, Barbui C, Tol WA, van Ommeren M, de Jong J, Seedat S, Chen H, Bisson JI |title=Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |volume=206 |issue=2 |pages=93–100 |date=February 2015 |pmid=25644881 |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148551 |quote=Some drugs have a small positive impact on PTSD symptoms |doi-access=free}}</ref>

<!-- Epidemiology and history -->
In the United States, about 3.5% of adults have PTSD in a given year, and 9% of people develop it at some point in their life.<ref name=DSM5/> In much of the rest of the world, rates during a given year are between 0.5% and 1%.<ref name=DSM5/> Higher rates may occur in regions of [[armed conflict]].<ref name=BMJ2015/> It is more common in women than men.<ref name=NIH2016>{{cite web |title=Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml |website=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] |access-date=10 March 2016 |date=February 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309184015/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml |archive-date=9 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-30 |title=Study: PTSD among college students jumps, especially during COVID shutdowns |url=https://health.wusf.usf.edu/health-news-florida/2024-07-30/study-ptsd-among-college-students-jumps-especially-during-covid-shutdowns |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=Health News Florida |language=en}}</ref>

Symptoms of trauma-related mental disorders have been documented since at least the time of the [[ancient Greeks]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Carlstedt R |title=Handbook of Integrative Clinical Psychology, Psychiatry, and Behavioral Medicine Perspectives, Practices, and Research. |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Pub. Co. |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8261-1095-4 |page=353 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Tkdm1vRFbUC&pg=PA353 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> A few instances of evidence of post-traumatic illness have been argued to exist from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, such as the diary of [[Samuel Pepys]], who described intrusive and distressing symptoms following the 1666 [[Fire of London]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=O'Brien S |title=Traumatic Events and Mental Health |date=1998 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=7}}</ref> During the [[world war]]s, the condition was known under various terms, including "[[shell shock]]", "war nerves", neurasthenia and '[[Combat stress reaction|combat neurosis]]'.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Herman J |title=Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence – From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror |date=2015 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-09873-6 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ABhpCQAAQBAJ |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>[https://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2015/06/05/after_war_an_interview_with_author_nancy_sherman_108023.html After War: A Conversation with Author Nancy Sherman], by John Waters, Real Clear Defense, 4 June 2015</ref> The term "post-traumatic stress disorder" came into use in the 1970s, in large part due to the diagnoses of U.S. military veterans of the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Klykylo WM |title=Clinical child psychiatry |date=2012 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK |isbn=978-1-119-96770-5 |chapter=15 |edition=3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8eMEkxzkYC&pg=PT411 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> It was officially recognized by the [[American Psychiatric Association]] in 1980 in the third edition of the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM-III).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Friedman MJ |title=Finalizing PTSD in DSM-5: getting here from there and where to go next |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=548–56 |date=October 2013 |pmid=24151001 |doi=10.1002/jts.21840}}</ref>
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== Signs and symptoms ==
[[Image:Art of War, Service members use art to relieve PTSD symptoms DVIDS579803.jpg|thumb|Service members use art to relieve PTSD symptoms.]]
{{See also|Psychological stress and sleep}}
Symptoms of PTSD generally begin within the first three months after the inciting traumatic event, but may not begin until years later.<ref name="DSM-5-TR">
{{cite book |title=APA Releases Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR) |date=March 2022 |page=683 |edition=5th |url=https://archive.org/details/dsm-5-tr/page/n683/ |access-date=2025-01-12 |quote=Symptoms usually begin within the first 3 months after the trauma, although there may be a delay of months, or even years, before full criteria for the diagnosis are met. There is abundant evidence for what DSM-IV called "delayed onset" but is now called "delayed expression," with the recognition that some symptoms typically appear immediately and that the delay is in meeting full criteria.}}
</ref><ref name="NIH2016" /> In the typical case, the individual with PTSD persistently avoids either trauma-related thoughts and emotions or discussion of the traumatic event and may even have amnesia of the event ([[dissociative amnesia]]).<ref name="DSM5" /> However, the event is commonly relived by the individual through intrusive, recurrent recollections, dissociative episodes of reliving the trauma ("[[Flashback (psychology)|flashbacks]]"), and nightmares (50 to 70%).<ref name="Waltman_2018"/><ref name=DSM4>{{cite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |location=Washington, DC |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-89042-061-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstati00amer}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}};</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Rebecca C |title=The primary care PTSD screen (PC-PTSD): development and operating characteristics. |url=https://depts.washington.edu/fammed/improvingopioidcare/wp-content/uploads/sites/12/2018/02/Prins-2003.pdf |website=Washington University |publisher=Primary Care Psychiatry |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> While it is common to have symptoms after any traumatic event, these must persist to a sufficient degree (i.e., causing dysfunction in life or clinical levels of distress) for longer than one month after the trauma to be classified as PTSD (clinically significant dysfunction or distress for less than one month after the trauma may be [[acute stress disorder]]).<ref name=DSM5 /><ref name="Rothschild 2000">{{cite book |vauthors=Rothschild B |title=The Body Remembers: The Psychophysiology of Trauma and Trauma Treatment |year=2000 |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-70327-6}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Kaplan HI, Sadock BJ |title=Kaplan and Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences, clinical psychiatry |edition=7th |veditors=Grebb JA |publisher=[[Williams & Williams]] |year=1994 |location=Baltimore |pages=606–609}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref><ref name="surgeon4">{{cite book |year=1999 |chapter=Chapter 4 |vauthors=Satcher D |author-link=David Satcher |title=Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General |publisher=[[Surgeon General of the United States]] |chapter-url=http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/toc.html#chapter4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702092029/http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/toc.html#chapter4 |archive-date=2010-07-02}}</ref> Some following a traumatic event experience [[post-traumatic growth]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bernstein M, [[Betty Pfefferbaum|Pfefferbaum B]] |s2cid=21721645 |title=Posttraumatic Growth as a Response to Natural Disasters in Children and Adolescents |journal=[[Current Psychiatry Reports]] |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=37 |date=May 2018 |pmid=29766312 |doi=10.1007/s11920-018-0900-4}}</ref>

=== Associated medical conditions ===
Trauma survivors often develop depression, anxiety disorders, and mood disorders in addition to PTSD.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Donnell ML, Creamer M, Bryant RA, Schnyder U, Shalev A |title=Posttraumatic disorders following injury: an empirical and methodological review |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=587–603 |date=July 2003 |pmid=12788111 |doi=10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00036-9}}</ref> More than 50% of those with PTSD have co-morbid [[anxiety disorder|anxiety]], [[mood disorders|mood]], or [[substance use disorder]]s.<ref name="Shalev 2017" />

[[Substance use disorder]], such as [[alcohol use disorder]], commonly co-occur with PTSD.<ref name="Maxmen2002-348">{{cite book |title=Psychotropic drugs: fast facts |vauthors=Maxmen JS, Ward NG |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-393-70301-6 |edition=3rd |place=New York |page=348}}</ref> Recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder or other anxiety disorders may be hindered, or the condition worsened, when substance use disorders are [[comorbid]] with PTSD. Resolving these problems can bring about improvement in an individual's mental health status and anxiety levels.<ref name="Cohen-1995">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen SI |title=Alcohol and benzodiazepines generate anxiety, panic and phobias |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine]] |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=73–7 |date=February 1995 |pmid=7769598 |pmc=1295099}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Spates R, Souza T |year=2007 |title=Treatment of PTSD and Substance Abuse Comorbidity |url=http://www.baojournal.com/BAT%20Journal/VOL-9/BAT%209-1.pdf |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=11–26 |doi=10.1037/h0100643 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106235005/http://www.baojournal.com/BAT%20Journal/VOL-9/BAT%209-1.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2014}}</ref>

PTSD has a strong association with [[tinnitus]],<ref name="Cima et al. (2019)">{{cite journal|vauthors=Cima R, Mazurek B, Haider H, Kikidis D, Lapira A, Noreña A, Horare D|year=2019|title=A multidisciplinary European guideline for tinnitus: diagnostics, assessment, and treatment|journal=HNO|volume=67|issue=Suppl 1 |pages=10–42 |doi=10.1007/s00106-019-0633-7|pmid=30847513 |s2cid=71145857 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and speculation exists that PTSD may cause some tinnitus seen in association with the condition.<ref name="Mazurek et al. (2022)">{{cite journal|vauthors=Mazurek B, Haupt H, Olze H, Szczepeck A|year=2022|title=Stress and tinnitus—from bedside to bench and back|journal= Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience|volume=6|issue=47|page=47 |doi=10.3389/fnsys.2012.00047|pmid=22701404 |pmc=3371598 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In children and adolescents, there is a strong association between emotional regulation difficulties (e.g., mood swings, anger outbursts, [[Tantrum|temper tantrums]]) and post-traumatic stress symptoms, independent of age, gender, or type of trauma.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Villalta L, Smith P, Hickin N, Stringaris A |s2cid=4731753 |title=Emotion regulation difficulties in traumatized youth: a meta-analysis and conceptual review |journal=[[European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry]] |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=527–544 |date=April 2018 |pmid=29380069 |doi=10.1007/s00787-018-1105-4 |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/87273928/Emotion_regulation_difficulties_in_VILLALTA_Publishedonline27January2018_GREEN_AAM.pdf}}</ref>

[[Moral injury]], the feeling of moral distress such as a shame or guilt following a moral transgression, is associated with PTSD but is distinguished from it. Moral injury is associated with shame and guilt, while PTSD is associated with anxiety and fear.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hall NA, Everson AT, Billingsley MR, Miller MB |title=Moral injury, mental health and behavioural health outcomes: A systematic review of the literature |journal=[[Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=92–110 |date=January 2022 |pmid=33931926 |doi=10.1002/cpp.2607 |s2cid=233471425}}</ref>{{Rp|page=2,8,11}}

== Risk factors ==
[[File:Goya-Guerra (09).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|''[[The Disasters of War|No quieren (They do not want to)]]'' by [[Francisco Goya]] (1746–1828) depicts an elderly woman wielding a knife in defense of a younger woman being assaulted by a soldier.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Robinson M |title=Review of Francisco Goya's Disasters of War |url=http://voices.yahoo.com/review-francisco-goyas-disasters-war-40022.html |website=Yahoo Contributor Network |date=May 27, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728204606/http://voices.yahoo.com/review-francisco-goyas-disasters-war-40022.html |archive-date=2014-07-28}}{{unreliable source?|date=January 2014}}</ref>]]
Persons considered at risk for developing PTSD include combat military personnel, survivors of natural disasters, concentration camp survivors, and survivors of violent crime. Persons employed in occupations that expose them to violence (such as soldiers) or disasters (such as [[emergency service]] workers) are also at risk.<ref name="ASD-PTSD">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fullerton CS, Ursano RJ, Wang L |title=Acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in disaster or rescue workers |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=161 |issue=8 |pages=1370–6 |date=August 2004 |pmid=15285961 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1370 |citeseerx=10.1.1.600.4486}}</ref> Other occupations at an increased risk include police officers, firefighters,<ref>Mascarelli, Amanda interview of Stanley, Ian H., ''[https://theconversation.com/acute-stress-and-early-signs-of-ptsd-are-common-in-firefighters-and-other-first-responders-heres-what-to-watch-out-for-247365 Acute stress and early signs of PTSD are common in firefighters and other first responders − here’s what to watch out for]'', [[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]], January 17, 2025 — note link to free PTSD Coach and to National Center for PTSD</ref> first responders, ambulance personnel, health care professionals, train drivers, divers, journalists, and sailors, as well as people who work at banks, post offices, or in stores.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Skogstad M, Skorstad M, Lie A, Conradi HS, Heir T, Weisæth L |title=Work-related post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=Occupational Medicine |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=175–82 |date=April 2013 |pmid=23564090 |doi=10.1093/occmed/kqt003 |doi-access=}}</ref> The intensity of the traumatic event is also associated with a subsequent risk of developing PTSD, with experiences related to witnessed death, or witnessed or experienced torture, injury, bodily disfigurement, [[traumatic brain injury]] being highly associated with the development of PTSD. Similarly, experiences that are unexpected or in which the victim cannot escape are also associated with a high risk of developing PTSD.<ref name="Shalev 2017" />

=== Trauma ===
{{main|Psychological trauma}}
{{See also|Psychological resilience}}PTSD has been associated with a wide range of traumatic events. The risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic event varies by trauma type<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vieweg WV, Julius DA, Fernandez A, Beatty-Brooks M, Hettema JM, Pandurangi AK |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder: clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment |journal=The American Journal of Medicine |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=383–90 |date=May 2006 |pmid=16651048 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.09.027|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |vauthors=Dekel S, Gilbertson MW, Orr SP, Rauch SL, Wood NE, Pitman RK |veditors=Stern TA, Fava M, Wilens TE, Rosenbaum JF |title=Massachusetts General Hospital comprehensive clinical psychiatry |publisher=Elsevier |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-323-29507-9 |edition=Second |location=London |pages=380–392 |chapter=Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |oclc=905232521}}</ref> and is the highest following exposure to [[sexual violence]] (11.4%), particularly [[rape]] (19.0%).<ref name="Kessler_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kessler RC, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Benjet C, Bromet EJ, Cardoso G, Degenhardt L, de Girolamo G, Dinolova RV, Ferry F, Florescu S, Gureje O, Haro JM, Huang Y, Karam EG, Kawakami N, Lee S, Lepine JP, Levinson D, Navarro-Mateu F, Pennell BE, Piazza M, Posada-Villa J, Scott KM, Stein DJ, Ten Have M, Torres Y, Viana MC, Petukhova MV, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Koenen KC |title=Trauma and PTSD in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys |journal=[[European Journal of Psychotraumatology]] |volume=8 |issue=sup5 |pages=1353383 |date=2017-10-27 |pmid=29075426 |pmc=5632781 |doi=10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383}}</ref> Men are more likely to experience a traumatic event (of any type), but women are more likely to experience the kind of high-impact traumatic event that can lead to PTSD, such as [[Violence|interpersonal violence]] and [[sexual assault]].<ref name="UK20052">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56494/|title=Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care|last=National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK)|year=2005| id =NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 26|publisher=Gaskell (Royal College of Psychiatrists) |isbn=978-1-904671-25-1|series=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance}}</ref>

Motor vehicle collision survivors, both children and adults, are at an increased risk of PTSD.<ref name="Lin_2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin W, Gong L, Xia M, Dai W |title=Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder among road traffic accident survivors: A PRISMA-compliant meta-analysis |journal=Medicine |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=e9693 |date=January 2018 |pmid=29505023 |pmc=5779792 |doi=10.1097/md.0000000000009693}}</ref><ref name="Dai_2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dai W, Liu A, Kaminga AC, Deng J, Lai Z, Wen SW |title=Prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Children and Adolescents following Road Traffic Accidents: A Meta-Analysis |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=63 |issue=12 |pages=798–808 |date=August 2018 |pmid=30081648 |pmc=6309043 |doi=10.1177/0706743718792194}}</ref> Globally, about 2.6% of adults are diagnosed with PTSD following a non-life-threatening traffic accident, and a similar proportion of children develop PTSD.<ref name="Kessler_2017" /> Risk of PTSD almost doubles to 4.6% for life-threatening auto accidents.<ref name="Kessler_2017" /> Females were more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD following a [[Traffic collision|road traffic accident]], whether the accident occurred during childhood or adulthood.<ref name="Lin_2018" /><ref name="Dai_2018" />

Post-traumatic stress reactions have been studied in children and adolescents.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bisson JI, Berliner L, Cloitre M, Forbes D, Jensen TK, Lewis C, Monson CM, Olff M, Pilling S, Riggs DS, Roberts NP, Shapiro F |title=The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies New Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Methodology and Development Process |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=475–483 |date=August 2019 |doi=10.1002/jts.22421 |pmid=31283056 |url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/120985/1/Binder3.pdf |hdl=10852/77258 |s2cid=195830995 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The rate of PTSD might be lower in children than adults, but in the absence of therapy, symptoms may continue for decades.<ref name="UK2005">{{Cite book |last=National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK) |title=Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care |publisher=Gaskell (Royal College of Psychiatrists) |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56494/ |year=2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908143630/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56494/ |archive-date=2017-09-08 |isbn=978-1-904671-25-1 |series=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance No. 26}}</ref> One estimate suggests that the proportion of children and adolescents having PTSD in a non-wartorn population in a developed country may be 1% compared to 1.5% to 3% of adults.<ref name="UK2005" /> On average, 16% of children exposed to a traumatic event develop PTSD, with the incidence varying according to type of exposure and gender.<ref name="AlisicZalta2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alisic E, Zalta AK, van Wesel F, Larsen SE, Hafstad GS, Hassanpour K, Smid GE |title=Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: meta-analysis |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |volume=204 |issue=5 |pages=335–40 |year=2014 |pmid=24785767 |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.113.131227 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/101391/1/BJP-2014-Alisic-335-40.pdf |doi-access=free}}</ref> Similar to the adult population, risk factors for PTSD in children include: female [[gender]], exposure to disasters (natural or man-made), negative coping behaviors, or lacking proper [[social support]] systems.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lai BS, Lewis R, Livings MS, La Greca AM, Esnard AM |title=Posttraumatic Stress Symptom Trajectories Among Children After Disaster Exposure: A Review |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=571–582 |date=December 2017 |pmid=29193316 |pmc=5953201 |doi=10.1002/jts.22242}}</ref>

Predictor models have consistently found that childhood trauma, chronic adversity, neurobiological differences, and familial stressors are associated with risk for PTSD after a traumatic event in adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Koenen KC, Moffitt TE, Poulton R, Martin J, Caspi A |title=Early childhood factors associated with the development of post-traumatic stress disorder: results from a longitudinal birth cohort |journal=[[Psychological Medicine]] |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=181–92 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17052377 |pmc=2254221 |doi=10.1017/S0033291706009019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lapp KG, Bosworth HB, Strauss JL, Stechuchak KM, Horner RD, Calhoun PS, Meador KG, Lipper S, Butterfield MI |title=Lifetime sexual and physical victimization among male veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=Military Medicine |volume=170 |issue=9 |pages=787–90 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16261985 |doi=10.7205/MILMED.170.9.787 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Otte C, Neylan TC, Pole N, Metzler T, Best S, Henn-Haase C, Yehuda R, Marmar CR |s2cid=35801179 |title=Association between childhood trauma and catecholamine response to psychological stress in police academy recruits |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=27–32 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15607297 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.009}}</ref> It has been difficult to find consistently aspects of the events that predict, but [[Dissociation (psychology)#Peritraumatic dissociation|peritraumatic dissociation]] has been a fairly consistent predictive indicator of the development of PTSD.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" /> Proximity to, duration of, and severity of the trauma make an impact. It has been speculated that interpersonal traumas cause more problems than impersonal ones,<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Janoff-Bulman R |title=Shattered Assumptions: Toward a New Psychology of Trauma |place=New York |publisher=Free Press |year=1992}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref> but this is controversial.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scheeringa MS |title=Untangling Psychiatric Comorbidity in Young Children Who Experienced Single, Repeated, or Hurricane Katrina Traumatic Events |journal=Child and Youth Care Forum |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=475–492 |date=2015 |doi=10.1007/s10566-014-9293-7 |pmid=26213455 |pmc=4511493}}</ref> The risk of developing PTSD is increased in individuals who are exposed to [[physical abuse]], physical [[assault]], or [[kidnapping]].<ref name="Kessler95" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu H, Petukhova MV, Sampson NA, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Andrade LH, Bromet EJ, de Girolamo G, Haro JM, Hinkov H, Kawakami N, Koenen KC, Kovess-Masfety V, Lee S, Medina-Mora ME, Navarro-Mateu F, O'Neill S, Piazza M, Posada-Villa J, Scott KM, Shahly V, Stein DJ, Ten Have M, Torres Y, Gureje O, Zaslavsky AM, Kessler RC |title=Association of DSM-IV Posttraumatic Stress Disorder With Traumatic Experience Type and History in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys |journal=[[JAMA Psychiatry]] |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=270–281 |date=March 2017 |pmid=28055082 |pmc=5441566 |doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3783}}</ref> Women who experience physical violence are more likely to develop PTSD than men.<ref name="Kessler95" />

==== Intimate partner and sexual violence ====
{{main|Intimate partner violence}}{{see also|Rape trauma syndrome}}An individual that has been exposed to [[domestic violence]] is predisposed to the development of PTSD. There is a strong association between the development of PTSD in mothers that experienced domestic violence during the [[perinatal]] period of their pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Howard LM, Oram S, Galley H, Trevillion K, Feder G |title=Domestic violence and perinatal mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[PLOS Medicine]] |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=e1001452 |date=2013 |pmid=23723741 |pmc=3665851 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001452 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Those who have experienced sexual assault or rape may develop symptoms of PTSD.<ref name="Hoffman20162">{{cite book |title=Williams Gynecology |veditors=Hoffman BL, Schorge JO, Bradshaw KD, Halvorson LM, Schaffer JI, Corton MM |date=2016 |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] Professional |isbn=978-0-07-184909-8 |edition=3rd}}</ref><ref name="Suris20042">{{cite journal |vauthors=Surís A, Lind L, Kashner TM, Borman PD, Petty F |s2cid=14118203 |title=Sexual assault in women veterans: an examination of PTSD risk, health care utilization, and cost of care |journal=[[Psychosomatic Medicine]] |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=749–56 |date=2004 |pmid=15385701 |doi=10.1097/01.psy.0000138117.58559.7b |citeseerx=10.1.1.508.9827}}</ref> The likelihood of sustained symptoms of PTSD is higher if the rapist confined or restrained the person, if the person being raped believed the rapist would kill them, the person who was raped was very young or very old, and if the rapist was someone they knew. The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms is also higher if people around the survivor ignore (or are ignorant of) the rape or blame the rape survivor.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mason F, Lodrick Z |title=Psychological consequences of sexual assault |journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=27–37 |date=February 2013 |pmid=23182852 |doi=10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.08.015 }}</ref>

==== War-related trauma, refugees ====
{{See also|Veteran|Refugee health}}
Military service in combat is a risk factor for developing PTSD.<ref name="Shalev 2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shalev A, Liberzon I, Marmar C |title=Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=376 |issue=25 |pages=2459–2469 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28636846 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1612499}}</ref> Around 22% of people exposed to combat develop PTSD; in about 25% of military personnel who develop PTSD, its appearance is delayed.<ref name="Shalev 2017" />

Refugees are also at an increased risk for PTSD due to their exposure to war, hardships, and traumatic events. The rates for PTSD within refugee populations range from 4% to 86%.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hollifield M, Warner TD, Lian N, Krakow B, Jenkins JH, Kesler J, Stevenson J, Westermeyer J |title=Measuring trauma and health status in refugees: a critical review |journal=[[JAMA]] |volume=288 |issue=5 |pages=611–21 |date=August 2002 |pmid=12150673 |doi=10.1001/jama.288.5.611}}</ref> While the stresses of war affect everyone involved, displaced persons have been shown to be more so than others.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Porter M, Haslam N |s2cid=41804120 |title=Forced displacement in Yugoslavia: a meta-analysis of psychological consequences and their moderators |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=817–34 |date=October 2001 |pmid=11776427 |doi=10.1023/A:1013054524810}}</ref>

Challenges related to the overall psychosocial well-being of refugees are complex and individually nuanced. Refugees have reduced levels of well-being and a high rate of mental distress due to past and ongoing trauma. Groups that are particularly affected and whose needs often remain unmet are women, older people, and unaccompanied minors.<ref name="UNESCO_2018">{{Cite book |last=[[UNESCO]] |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261278 |title=A Lifeline to learning: leveraging mobile technology to support education for refugees |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-3-100262-5}}</ref> Post-traumatic stress and depression in refugee populations also tend to affect their educational success.<ref name="UNESCO_2018" />

==== Unexpected death of a loved one ====
Sudden, unexpected death of a loved one is the most common traumatic event type reported in cross-national studies.<ref name="Kessler_2017"/><ref name="Atwoli_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Atwoli L, Stein DJ, King A, Petukhova M, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Bromet EJ, de Girolamo G, Demyttenaere K, Florescu S, Maria Haro J, Karam EG, Kawakami N, Lee S, Lepine JP, Navarro-Mateu F, O'Neill S, Pennell BE, Piazza M, Posada-Villa J, Sampson NA, Ten Have M, Zaslavsky AM, Kessler RC |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with unexpected death of a loved one: Cross-national findings from the world mental health surveys |journal=[[Depression and Anxiety]] |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=315–326 |date=April 2017 |pmid=27921352 |pmc=5661943 |doi=10.1002/da.22579}}</ref> However, the majority of people who experience this type of event will not develop PTSD. An analysis from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys found a 5.2% risk of developing PTSD after learning of the unexpected death of a loved one.<ref name="Atwoli_2017" /> Because of the high prevalence of this type of traumatic event, unexpected death of a loved one accounts for approximately 20% of PTSD cases worldwide.<ref name="Kessler_2017" />

==== Life-threatening or severe illness ====
Medical conditions associated with an increased risk of PTSD include cancer,<ref name="cancer.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/coping/survivorship/new-normal/ptsd-hp-pdq |title=Cancer-Related Post-traumatic Stress |website=National Cancer Institute |access-date=2017-09-16 |date=January 1980}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Swartzman S, Booth JN, Munro A, Sani F |s2cid=1828418 |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder after cancer diagnosis in adults: A meta-analysis |journal=[[Depression and Anxiety]] |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=327–339 |date=April 2017 |pmid=27466972 |doi=10.1002/da.22542 |url=https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/en/publications/04e54111-8d61-418b-b36b-62fc4b496470 |type=Submitted manuscript|doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/b8651f89-9611-4f50-8766-3d5b64b8be23 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cordova MJ, Riba MB, Spiegel D |title=Post-traumatic stress disorder and cancer |journal=The Lancet. Psychiatry |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=330–338 |date=April 2017 |pmid=28109647 |pmc=5676567 |doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30014-7}}</ref> heart attack,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Edmondson D, Richardson S, Falzon L, Davidson KW, Mills MA, Neria Y |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder prevalence and risk of recurrence in acute coronary syndrome patients: a meta-analytic review |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=e38915 |date=2012 |pmid=22745687 |pmc=3380054 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0038915 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...738915E |doi-access=free}}</ref> and stroke.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Edmondson D, Richardson S, Fausett JK, Falzon L, Howard VJ, Kronish IM |title=Prevalence of PTSD in Survivors of Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attack: A Meta-Analytic Review |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e66435 |date=2013-06-19 |pmid=23840467 |pmc=3686746 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0066435 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...866435E |doi-access=free}}</ref> 22% of cancer survivors present with lifelong PTSD like symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Abbey G, Thompson SB, Hickish T, Heathcote D |title=A meta-analysis of prevalence rates and moderating factors for cancer-related post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Psycho-Oncology]] |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=371–81 |date=April 2015 |pmid=25146298 |pmc=4409098 |doi=10.1002/pon.3654 }}</ref> Intensive-care unit (ICU) hospitalization is also a risk factor for PTSD.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Davydow DS, Gifford JM, Desai SV, Needham DM, Bienvenu OJ |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder in general intensive care unit survivors: a systematic review |journal=[[General Hospital Psychiatry]] |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=421–34 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18774425 |pmc=2572638 |doi=10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2008.05.006}}</ref> Some women experience PTSD from their experiences related to [[breast cancer]] and [[mastectomy]].<ref name="ArnaboldiRiva2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arnaboldi P, Riva S, Crico C, Pravettoni G |title=A systematic literature review exploring the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and the role played by stress and traumatic stress in breast cancer diagnosis and trajectory |journal=Breast Cancer: Targets and Therapy |volume=9 |pages=473–485 |year=2017 |pmid=28740430 |pmc=5505536 |doi=10.2147/BCTT.S111101 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Liu e0177055">{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu C, Zhang Y, Jiang H, Wu H |title=Association between social support and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among Chinese patients with ovarian cancer: A multiple mediation model |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e0177055 |date=2017-05-05 |pmid=28475593 |pmc=5419605 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0177055 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1277055L |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="cancer.gov"/> Loved ones of those who experience life-threatening illnesses are also at risk for developing PTSD, such as parents of a child with chronic illnesses.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-06704-015 |title=PsycNET |journal=Health Psychology |date=2009 |doi=10.1037/a0014512 |pmid=19450045 |access-date=2018-09-30 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=379–388 | vauthors = Cabizuca M, Marques-Portella C, Mendlowicz MV, Coutinho ES, Figueira I }}</ref>

===== Psychosis spectrum conditions =====
Research exists which demonstrates that survivors of [[Psychosis|psychotic episodes]], which exist in diseases such as [[schizophrenia]], [[schizoaffective disorder]], [[bipolar I disorder]], and others, are at greater risk of developing PTSD. This is often due to the experiences one may have during and after psychosis. Such traumatic experiences include, but are not limited to, [[Psychiatric survivors movement|experiences in psychiatric hospitals]], police interactions, social stigma, and embarrassment due to psychotic behavior, suicidal behavior and attempts, distressing delusions and hallucinations, and the fear of losing control or actual loss of control. The incidence of PTSD in survivors of psychosis may be as low as 11% and as high at 67%.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buswell G, Haime Z, Lloyd-Evans B, Billings J | title = A systematic review of PTSD to the experience of psychosis: prevalence and associated factors | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 9 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33413179 | pmc = 7789184 | doi = 10.1186/s12888-020-02999-x | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shaw K, McFarlane A, Bookless C | title = The phenomenology of traumatic reactions to psychotic illness | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 185 | issue = 7 | pages = 434–441 | date = July 1997 | pmid = 9240361 | doi = 10.1097/00005053-199707000-00003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lu W, Mueser KT, Rosenberg SD, Yanos PT, Mahmoud N | title = Posttraumatic Reactions to Psychosis: A Qualitative Analysis | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 8 | pages = 129 | date = 2017-07-19 | pmid = 28769826 | pmc = 5515869 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00129 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===== Cancer =====
Prevalence estimates of cancer‐related PTSD range between 7% and 14%,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abbey |first1=Gareth |last2=Thompson |first2=Simon BN |last3=Hickish |first3=Tamas |last4=Heathcote |first4=David |date=2014-05-20 |title=A meta-analysis of prevalence rates and moderating factors for cancer-related post-traumatic stress disorder. |journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology |volume=32 |issue=15_suppl |pages=e20557 |doi=10.1200/jco.2014.32.15_suppl.e20557 |issn=0732-183X|url=http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/24879/9/A%20meta-analysis%20of%20prevalence%20rates%20and%20moderating%20factors%20for%20cancer-related%20post-traumatic%20stress%20disorder.pdf }}</ref> with an additional 10% to 20% of patients experiencing subsyndromal post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Andrykowski |first1=Michael A. |last2=Cordova |first2=Matthew J. |last3=Studts |first3=Jamie L. |last4=Miller |first4=Thomas W. |date=1998 |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder after treatment for breast cancer: Prevalence of diagnosis and use of the PTSD Checklist--Civilian Version (PCL--C) as a screening instrument. |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=586–590 |doi=10.1037/0022-006x.66.3.586 |pmid=9642900 |issn=0022-006X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shelby |first1=Rebecca A. |last2=Golden-Kreutz |first2=Deanna M. |last3=Andersen |first3=Barbara L. |date=2008-04-10 |title=PTSD diagnoses, subsyndromal symptoms, and comorbidities contribute to impairments for breast cancer survivors |journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=165–172 |doi=10.1002/jts.20316 |pmid=18404636 |issn=0894-9867|pmc=2435300 }}</ref> Both PTSD and PTSS have been associated with increased distress and impaired quality of life,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shand |first1=Lyndel K. |last2=Cowlishaw |first2=Sean |last3=Brooker |first3=Joanne E. |last4=Burney |first4=Sue |last5=Ricciardelli |first5=Lina A. |date=2014-11-12 |title=Correlates of post-traumatic stress symptoms and growth in cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Psycho-Oncology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=624–634 |doi=10.1002/pon.3719 |pmid=25393527 |issn=1057-9249}}</ref> and have been reported in newly diagnosed patients as well as in long‐term survivors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Sophia K. |last2=Zimmerman |first2=Sheryl |last3=Williams |first3=Christianna S. |last4=Benecha |first4=Habtamu |last5=Abernethy |first5=Amy P. |last6=Mayer |first6=Deborah K. |last7=Edwards |first7=Lloyd J. |last8=Ganz |first8=Patricia A. |date=2011-12-01 |title=Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Long-Term Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Survivors: Does Time Heal? |journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology |volume=29 |issue=34 |pages=4526–4533 |doi=10.1200/jco.2011.37.2631 |pmid=21990412 |issn=0732-183X|pmc=3236652 }}</ref>

The PTSD Field Trials for the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition'' ([[DSM-IV]]), revealed that 22% of cancer survivors present with lifetime cancer-related PTSD (CR-PTSD), endorsing cancer diagnosis and treatment as a traumatic stressor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alter |first1=Carol L. |last2=Pelcovitz |first2=David |last3=Axelrod |first3=Alan |last4=Goldenberg |first4=Barbara |last5=Harris |first5=Helene |last6=Meyers |first6=Barbara |last7=Grobois |first7=Brian |last8=Mandel |first8=Francine |last9=Septimus |first9=Aliza |last10=Kaplan |first10=Sandra |date=March–April 1996 |title=Identification of PTSD in Cancer Survivors |journal=Psychosomatics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=137–143 |doi=10.1016/S0033-3182(96)71580-3 |doi-access=free|pmid=8742542 }}</ref>

Therefore, as the number of people diagnosed with cancer increases and cancer survivorship improves, cancer-related PTSD becomes a more prominent issue, and thus, providing for cancer patients' physical and psychological needs becomes increasingly important.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dimitrov |first1=Lilia |last2=Moschopoulou |first2=Elisavet |last3=Korszun |first3=Ania |date=2019-04-05 |title=Interventions for the treatment of cancer-related traumatic stress symptoms: A systematic review of the literature |journal=Psycho-Oncology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=970–979 |doi=10.1002/pon.5055 |pmid=30847978 |issn=1057-9249|url=https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/58881 }}</ref>

==== Pregnancy-related trauma ====
{{Main|Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder}}
Women who experience [[miscarriage]] are at risk of PTSD.<ref name=Christiansen2017>{{cite journal |vauthors=Christiansen DM |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents following infant death: A systematic review |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=51 |pages=60–74 |date=February 2017 |pmid=27838460 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2016.10.007}}</ref><ref name="kirs2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kersting A, Wagner B |title=Complicated grief after perinatal loss |journal=[[Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience]] |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=187–94 |date=June 2012 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2012.14.2/akersting |pmid=22754291 |pmc=3384447}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Daugirdaitė V, van den Akker O, Purewal S |title=Posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic stress disorder after termination of pregnancy and reproductive loss: a systematic review |journal=[[Journal of Pregnancy]] |volume=2015 |pages=646345 |date=2015 |pmid=25734016 |pmc=4334933 |doi=10.1155/2015/646345 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Those who experience subsequent miscarriages have an increased risk of PTSD compared to those experiencing only one.<ref name="Christiansen2017" /> PTSD can also occur after childbirth and the risk increases if a woman has experienced trauma prior to the pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ayers S, Bond R, Bertullies S, Wijma K |title=The aetiology of post-traumatic stress following childbirth: a meta-analysis and theoretical framework |journal=[[Psychological Medicine]] |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=1121–34 |date=April 2016 |pmid=26878223 |doi=10.1017/s0033291715002706 |doi-access=free|url=https://sussex.figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/The_aetiology_of_post-traumatic_stress_following_childbirth_a_meta-analysis_and_theoretical_framework/23434271/1/files/41147231.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=James S |title=Women's experiences of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after traumatic childbirth: a review and critical appraisal |journal=[[Archives of Women's Mental Health]] |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=761–71 |date=December 2015 |pmid=26264506 |pmc=4624822 |doi=10.1007/s00737-015-0560-x}}</ref> Prevalence of PTSD following normal childbirth (that is, excluding stillbirth or major complications) is estimated to be between 2.8 and 5.6% at six weeks postpartum,<ref name="Olde20062">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olde E, van der Hart O, Kleber R, van Son M |title=Posttraumatic stress following childbirth: a review |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16176853 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.002 |hdl=1874/16760 |s2cid=22137961 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> with rates dropping to 1.5% at six months postpartum.<ref name="Olde20062" /><ref name="Alder20062">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alder J, Stadlmayr W, Tschudin S, Bitzer J |s2cid=21859634 |title=Post-traumatic symptoms after childbirth: what should we offer? |journal=[[Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology]] |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=107–12 |date=June 2006 |pmid=16808085 |doi=10.1080/01674820600714632}}</ref> Symptoms of PTSD are common following childbirth, with prevalence of 24–30.1%<ref name="Olde20062"/> at six weeks, dropping to 13.6% at six months.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Montmasson H, Bertrand P, Perrotin F, El-Hage W |title=[Predictors of postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder in primiparous mothers] |journal=Journal de Gynécologie, Obstétrique et Biologie de la Reproduction |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=553–60 |date=October 2012 |pmid=22622194 |doi=10.1016/j.jgyn.2012.04.010|s2cid=196363612 |url=https://hal-univ-tours.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02526438/file/2012_Montmasson_JGYN_VF.pdf }}</ref> [[Emergency childbirth]] is also associated with PTSD.<ref>{{cite book |title=Perinatal Mental Health: a Clinical Guide |vauthors=Martin C |publisher=M & K Pub |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-907830-49-5 |location=Cumbria, England |page=26}}</ref>

==== Natural disasters ====
{{excerpt|Extreme weather post-traumatic stress disorder}}

=== Genetics ===
{{Main|Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder}}
There is evidence that susceptibility to PTSD is [[hereditary]]. Approximately 30% of the variance in PTSD is caused from [[Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder|genetics]] alone.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" /> For twin pairs exposed to combat in Vietnam, having a monozygotic (identical) twin with PTSD was associated with an increased risk of the co-twin's having PTSD compared to twins that were dizygotic (non-identical twins).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=True WR, Rice J, Eisen SA, Heath AC, Goldberg J, Lyons MJ, Nowak J |title=A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms |journal=[[Archives of General Psychiatry]] |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=257–264 |date=April 1993 |pmid=8466386 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820160019002}}</ref> Women with a smaller hippocampus might be more likely to develop PTSD following a traumatic event based on preliminary findings.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Quidé Y, Andersson F, Dufour-Rainfray D, Descriaud C, Brizard B, Gissot V, Cléry H, Carrey Le Bas MP, Osterreicher S, Ogielska M, Saint-Martin P, El-Hage W |title=Smaller hippocampal volume following sexual assault in women is associated with post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica]] |volume=138 |issue=4 |pages=312–324 |date=October 2018 |pmid=29952088 |doi=10.1111/acps.12920 |s2cid=49484570|url=https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/7adab476-9896-47fa-9619-3fc31f2e66d9/download }}</ref> Research has also found that PTSD shares many genetic influences common to other psychiatric disorders. Panic and generalized anxiety disorders and PTSD share 60% of the same genetic variance. Alcohol, nicotine, and [[drug dependence]] share greater than 40% genetic similarities.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" /> Neuroscientist Dr. Rachel Yehuda researched how psychological trauma can travel across generations, specifically focusing on trans-generational trauma with Holocaust survivors and their offspring. The researchers in her study focused on a stress gene called FKBP5 that is linked to PTSD. The results of this study underscore the genetic components of PTSD as they showed an effect on methylation of the FKBP5 gene both on the parents who experienced trauma in concentration camps, as well as their offspring.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yehuda |first=Rachel |last2=Lehrner |first2=Amy |date=2018-09-07 |title=Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: putative role of epigenetic mechanisms |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6127768/#wps20568-sec-0005 |journal=World Psychiatry |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |doi=10.1002/wp |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250302142100/https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6127768/ |archive-date=2025-03-02}}</ref>

== Pathophysiology ==

=== Neuroendocrinology ===
PTSD symptoms may result when a traumatic event causes an over-reactive adrenaline response, which creates deep neurological patterns in the brain. These patterns can persist long after the event that triggered the fear, making an individual hyper-responsive to future fearful situations.<ref name="Rothschild 2000" /><ref name="secret">{{cite AV media |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/outreach/episode4.html |publisher=PBS |title=The Secret Life of the Brain (Series), episode 4 |year=2001 |access-date=2014-01-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202181815/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/outreach/episode4.html |archive-date=2014-02-02 }}</ref> During traumatic experiences, the high levels of stress hormones secreted suppress [[hypothalamus|hypothalamic]] activity that may be a major factor toward the development of PTSD.<ref name="PTSD fact and fiction">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zohar J, Juven-Wetzler A, Myers V, Fostick L |s2cid=206142172 |title=Post-traumatic stress disorder: facts and fiction |journal=[[Current Opinion in Psychiatry]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=74–7 |date=January 2008 |pmid=18281844 |doi=10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f269ee}}</ref>

PTSD causes [[biochemistry|biochemical]] changes in the brain and body, that differ from other psychiatric disorders such as [[major depression]]. Individuals diagnosed with PTSD respond more strongly to a [[dexamethasone suppression test]] than individuals diagnosed with [[clinical depression]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Golier JA, Grossman R, Bierer LM |s2cid=21615196 |title=Effects of trauma exposure on the cortisol response to dexamethasone administration in PTSD and major depressive disorder |journal=[[Psychoneuroendocrinology]] |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=389–404 |date=April 2004 |pmid=14644068 |doi=10.1016/S0306-4530(03)00052-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Grossman R, Golier JA, Wong C |s2cid=21403230 |title=The cortisol and glucocorticoid receptor response to low dose dexamethasone administration in aging combat veterans and holocaust survivors with and without posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=393–403 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12242055 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01357-4}}</ref>

Most people with PTSD show a low secretion of [[cortisol]] and high secretion of [[catecholamine]]s in [[urine]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Heim C, Ehlert U, Hellhammer DH |s2cid=25151441 |title=The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders |journal=[[Psychoneuroendocrinology]] |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–35 |date=January 2000 |pmid=10633533 |doi=10.1016/S0306-4530(99)00035-9}}</ref> with a [[norepinephrine]]/cortisol ratio consequently higher than comparable non-diagnosed individuals.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mason JW, Giller EL, Kosten TR, Harkness L |s2cid=24585702 |title=Elevation of urinary norepinephrine/cortisol ratio in posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |volume=176 |issue=8 |pages=498–502 |date=August 1988 |pmid=3404142 |doi=10.1097/00005053-198808000-00008}}</ref> This is in contrast to the normative [[fight-or-flight response]], in which both catecholamine and cortisol levels are elevated after exposure to a stressor.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bohnen N, Nicolson N, Sulon J, Jolles J |title=Coping style, trait anxiety and cortisol reactivity during mental stress |journal=[[Journal of Psychosomatic Research]] |volume=35 |issue=2–3 |pages=141–7 |year=1991 |pmid=2046048 |doi=10.1016/0022-3999(91)90068-Y |citeseerx=10.1.1.467.4323}}</ref>

Brain catecholamine levels are high,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Geracioti TD, Baker DG, Ekhator NN, West SA, Hill KK, Bruce AB, Schmidt D, Rounds-Kugler B, Yehuda R, Keck PE, Kasckow JW |title=CSF norepinephrine concentrations in posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=158 |issue=8 |pages=1227–30 |date=August 2001 |pmid=11481155 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1227}}</ref> and [[corticotropin-releasing factor]] (CRF) concentrations are high.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sautter FJ, Bissette G, Wiley J, Manguno-Mire G, Schoenbachler B, Myers L, Johnson JE, Cerbone A, Malaspina D |s2cid=35766262 |title=Corticotropin-releasing factor in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with secondary psychotic symptoms, nonpsychotic PTSD, and healthy control subjects |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=54 |issue=12 |pages=1382–8 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14675802 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00571-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |vauthors=de Kloet CS, Vermetten E, Geuze E, Lentjes EG, Heijnen CJ, Stalla GK, Westenberg HG |volume=167 |pages=287–91 |year=2008 |pmid=18037027 |doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67025-3 |isbn=978-0-444-53140-7 |series=Progress in Brain Research |title=Stress Hormones and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Basic Studies and Clinical Perspectives |chapter=Elevated plasma corticotrophin-releasing hormone levels in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder}}</ref> Together, these findings suggest abnormality in the [[hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis|hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis]].

The maintenance of fear has been shown to include the HPA axis, the [[locus coeruleus]]-[[noradrenergic]] systems, and the connections between the [[limbic system]] and [[frontal cortex]]. The HPA axis that coordinates the hormonal response to stress,<ref name="Radley 2011 481–497">{{cite journal |vauthors=Radley JJ, Kabbaj M, Jacobson L, Heydendael W, Yehuda R, Herman JP|author-link6=James P. Herman |title=Stress risk factors and stress-related pathology: neuroplasticity, epigenetics and endophenotypes |journal=Stress |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=481–97 |date=September 2011 |pmid=21848436 |pmc=3641164 |doi=10.3109/10253890.2011.604751}}</ref> which activates the LC-noradrenergic system, is implicated in the over-consolidation of memories that occurs in the aftermath of trauma.<ref name="Pitman 1989">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pitman RK |s2cid=39057765 |title=Post-traumatic stress disorder, hormones, and memory |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=221–3 |date=July 1989 |pmid=2545287 |doi=10.1016/0006-3223(89)90033-4}}</ref> This over-consolidation increases the likelihood of one's developing PTSD. The [[amygdala]] is responsible for threat detection and the conditioned and unconditioned fear responses that are carried out as a response to a threat.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" />

The HPA axis is responsible for coordinating the hormonal response to stress.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637">{{cite journal |vauthors=Skelton K, Ressler KJ, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Bradley-Davino B |title=PTSD and gene variants: new pathways and new thinking |journal=[[Neuropharmacology]] |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=628–37 |date=February 2012 |pmid=21356219 |pmc=3136568 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.013}}</ref> Given the strong cortisol suppression to [[dexamethasone]] in PTSD, HPA axis abnormalities are likely predicated on strong negative feedback inhibition of cortisol, itself likely due to an increased sensitivity of [[glucocorticoid receptor]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yehuda R |title=Biology of posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=Suppl 17 |pages=41–46 |year=2001 |pmid=11495096 |series=62}}</ref>

PTSD has been hypothesized to be a maladaptive learning pathway to fear response through a hypersensitive, hyperreactive, and hyperresponsive HPA axis.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yehuda R |s2cid=19767960 |title=Clinical relevance of biologic findings in PTSD |journal=The Psychiatric Quarterly |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=123–33 |year=2002 |pmid=12025720 |doi=10.1023/A:1015055711424}}</ref>

Low [[cortisol]] levels may predispose individuals to PTSD: Following war trauma, [[Sweden|Swedish]] soldiers serving in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] with low pre-service salivary cortisol levels had a higher risk of reacting with PTSD symptoms, following war trauma, than soldiers with normal pre-service levels.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Aardal-Eriksson E, Eriksson TE, Thorell LH |s2cid=9149956 |title=Salivary cortisol, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and general health in the acute phase and during 9-month follow-up |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=50 |issue=12 |pages=986–93 |date=December 2001 |pmid=11750895 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01253-7}}</ref> Because cortisol is normally important in restoring [[homeostasis]] after the stress response, it is thought that trauma survivors with low cortisol experience a poorly contained—that is, longer and more distressing—response, setting the stage for PTSD.

It is thought that the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system mediates the over-consolidation of fear memory. High levels of cortisol reduce noradrenergic activity, and because people with PTSD tend to have reduced levels of cortisol, it has been proposed that individuals with PTSD cannot regulate the increased noradrenergic response to traumatic stress.<ref name="PTSD fact and fiction"/> Intrusive memories and conditioned fear responses are thought to be a result of the response to associated triggers. [[Neuropeptide Y]] (NPY) has been reported to reduce the release of norepinephrine and has been demonstrated to have [[anxiolytic]] properties in animal models. Studies have shown people with PTSD demonstrate reduced levels of NPY, possibly indicating their increased anxiety levels.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" />

Other studies indicate that people with PTSD have chronically low levels of [[serotonin]], which contributes to the commonly associated behavioral symptoms such as anxiety, ruminations, irritability, aggression, suicidality, and impulsivity.<ref name="Olszewski 2005 40">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olszewski TM, Varrasse JF |title=The neurobiology of PTSD: implications for nurses |journal=[[Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services]] |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=40–7 |date=June 2005 |pmid=16018133 |doi=10.3928/02793695-20050601-09}}</ref> Serotonin also contributes to the stabilization of glucocorticoid production.

[[Dopamine]] levels in a person with PTSD can contribute to symptoms: low levels can contribute to [[anhedonia]], [[apathy]], [[Attentional control|impaired attention]], and motor deficits; high levels can contribute to [[psychosis]], [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]], and restlessness.<ref name="Olszewski 2005 40" />

Studies have also described elevated concentrations of the [[thyroid hormone]] [[triiodothyronine]] in PTSD.<ref name="Chatzitomaris_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chatzitomaris A, Hoermann R, Midgley JE, Hering S, Urban A, Dietrich B, Abood A, Klein HH, Dietrich JW |title=Thyroid Allostasis-Adaptive Responses of Thyrotropic Feedback Control to Conditions of Strain, Stress, and Developmental Programming |journal=[[Frontiers in Endocrinology]] |volume=8 |pages=163 |date=20 July 2017 |pmid=28775711 |pmc=5517413 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2017.00163 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This kind of type 2 [[Allostatic load|allostatic]] adaptation may contribute to increased sensitivity to catecholamines and other stress mediators.

Hyperresponsiveness in the norepinephrine system can also be caused by continued exposure to high stress. Overactivation of norepinephrine receptors in the prefrontal cortex can be connected to the flashbacks and nightmares frequently experienced by those with PTSD. A decrease in other norepinephrine functions (awareness of the current environment) prevents the memory mechanisms in the brain from processing the experience, and emotions the person is experiencing during a flashback are not associated with the current environment.<ref name="Olszewski 2005 40" />

There is considerable controversy within the medical community regarding the neurobiology of PTSD. A 2012 review showed no clear relationship between cortisol levels and PTSD. The majority of reports indicate people with PTSD have elevated levels of [[corticotropin-releasing hormone]], lower basal [[cortisol]] levels, and enhanced negative feedback suppression of the HPA axis by [[dexamethasone]].<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lindley SE, Carlson EB, Benoit M |s2cid=31580825 |title=Basal and dexamethasone suppressed salivary cortisol concentrations in a community sample of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=55 |issue=9 |pages=940–5 |date=May 2004 |pmid=15110738 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.12.021}}</ref>

=== Neuroimmunology ===
Studies on the peripheral immune have found dysfunction with elevated [[cytokine]] levels and a higher risk of immune-related chronic diseases among individuals with PTSD.<ref name="y574">{{cite journal |last1=Katrinli |first1=Seyma |last2=Oliveira |first2=Nayara C. S. |last3=Felger |first3=Jennifer C. |last4=Michopoulos |first4=Vasiliki |last5=Smith |first5=Alicia K. |date=2022-08-04 |title=The role of the immune system in posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=Translational Psychiatry |volume=12 |issue=1 |page= 313|doi=10.1038/s41398-022-02094-7 |issn=2158-3188 |pmc=9352784 |pmid=35927237}}</ref> [[Neuroimmune system|Neuroimmune]] dysfunction has also been found in PTSD, raising the possibility of a suppressed central immune response due to reduced activity of [[microglia]] in the brain in response to immune challenges. Individuals with PTSD, compared to controls, have lower increase in a marker of microglial activation ([[Translocator protein|18-kDa translocator protein]]) following [[lipopolysaccharide]] administration.<ref name="m591">{{cite journal |last1=Bonomi |first1=Robin |last2=Hillmer |first2=Ansel T. |last3=Woodcock |first3=Eric |last4=Bhatt |first4=Shivani |last5=Rusowicz |first5=Aleksandra |last6=Angarita |first6=Gustavo A. |last7=Carson |first7=Richard E. |last8=Davis |first8=Margaret T. |last9=Esterlis |first9=Irina |last10=Nabulsi |first10=Nabeel |last11=Huang |first11=Yiyun |last12=Krystal |first12=John H. |last13=Pietrzak |first13=Robert H. |last14=Cosgrove |first14=Kelly P. |date=2024-08-27 |title=Microglia-mediated neuroimmune suppression in PTSD is associated with anhedonia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=121 |issue=35 |pages=e2406005121 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2406005121 |pmid=39172786 |pmc=11363315 |bibcode=2024PNAS..12106005B |issn=0027-8424}}</ref> This neuroimmune suppression is also associated with greater severity of anhedonic symptoms. Researchers suggest that treatments aimed at restoring neuroimmune function could be beneficial for alleviating PTSD symptoms.<ref name="m591" />

=== Neuroanatomy ===
[[File:PTSD stress brain.gif|thumb|220px|Regions of the brain associated with stress and post-traumatic stress disorder<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-research-fact-sheet/index.shtml |title=NIMH · Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Research Fact Sheet |work=[[National Institutes of Health]] |access-date=2014-01-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140123205303/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-research-fact-sheet/index.shtml |archive-date=2014-01-23}}</ref>]]

A [[meta-analysis]] of structural MRI studies found an association with reduced total brain volume, intracranial volume, and volumes of the [[hippocampus]], [[insula cortex]], and [[anterior cingulate]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bromis K, Calem M, Reinders AA, Williams SC, Kempton MJ |title=Meta-Analysis of 89 Structural MRI Studies in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Comparison With Major Depressive Disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=175 |issue=10 |pages=989–998 |date=July 2018 |pmid=30021460 |pmc=6169727 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17111199}}</ref> Much of this research stems from PTSD in those exposed to the Vietnam War.<ref>{{Cite book |vauthors=Liberzon I, Sripada CS |volume=167 |pages=151–69 |date=2008 |pmid=18037013 |doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67011-3 |isbn=978-0-444-53140-7 |series=Progress in Brain Research |title=Stress Hormones and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Basic Studies and Clinical Perspectives |chapter=The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: A critical review}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hughes KC, Shin LM |title=Functional neuroimaging studies of post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=275–85 |date=February 2011 |pmid=21306214 |pmc=3142267 |doi=10.1586/ern.10.198}}</ref>

People with PTSD have decreased brain activity in the dorsal and rostral [[Anterior cingulate cortex|anterior cingulate]] cortices and the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]], areas linked to the experience and regulation of emotion.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Etkin A, Wager TD |title=Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=164 |issue=10 |pages=1476–88 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17898336 |pmc=3318959 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504}}</ref>

The amygdala is strongly involved in forming emotional memories, especially fear-related memories. During high stress, the [[hippocampus]], which is associated with placing memories in the correct context of space and time and memory recall, is suppressed. According to one theory, this suppression may be the cause of the [[flashbacks (psychology)|flashbacks]] that can affect people with PTSD. When someone with PTSD undergoes [[stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]] similar to the traumatic event, the body perceives the event as occurring again because the memory was never properly recorded in the person's memory.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=van der Kolk B |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder and the nature of trauma |journal=[[Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience]] |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=7–22 |date=March 2000 |pmid=22034447 |pmc=3181584 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2000.2.1/bvdkolk}}</ref>

The amygdalocentric model of PTSD proposes that the amygdala is very much aroused and insufficiently controlled by the medial [[prefrontal cortex]] and the hippocampus, in particular during [[Extinction (psychology)|extinction]].<ref name="Milad">{{cite journal |vauthors=Milad MR, Pitman RK, Ellis CB, Gold AL, Shin LM, Lasko NB, Zeidan MA, Handwerger K, Orr SP, Rauch SL |title=Neurobiological basis of failure to recall extinction memory in posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=1075–82 |date=December 2009 |pmid=19748076 |pmc=2787650 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.026}}</ref> This is consistent with an interpretation of PTSD as a syndrome of deficient extinction ability.<ref name="Milad" /><ref name="Stein">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stein MB, Paulus MP |title=Imbalance of approach and avoidance: the yin and yang of anxiety disorders |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=1072–4 |date=December 2009 |pmid=19944792 |pmc=2825567 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.023}}</ref>

The [[basolateral amygdala|basolateral]] nucleus (BLA) of the amygdala is responsible for the comparison and development of associations between unconditioned and conditioned responses to stimuli, which results in the fear conditioning present in PTSD. The BLA activates the [[central nucleus]] (CeA) of the amygdala, which elaborates the fear response, (including behavioral response to threat and elevated startle response). Descending inhibitory inputs from the [[medial prefrontal cortex]] (mPFC) regulate the transmission from the BLA to the CeA, which is hypothesized to play a role in the extinction of conditioned fear responses.<ref name="Skelton 2012 628–637" />

While as a whole, amygdala hyperactivity is reported by meta analysis of functional neuroimaging in PTSD, there is a large degree of heterogeniety, more so than in social anxiety disorder or phobic disorder. Comparing dorsal (roughly the CeA) and ventral (roughly the BLA) clusters, hyperactivity is more robust in the ventral cluster, while hypoactivity is evident in the dorsal cluster. The distinction may explain the blunted emotions in PTSD (via desensitization in the CeA) as well as the fear related component.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Goodkind M, Etkin A |veditors=Sklar P, Buxbaum J, Nestler E, Charney D |title=Neurobiology of Mental Illness |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |edition=5th |chapter=Functional Neurocircuitry and Neuroimaging Studies of Anxiety Disorders}}</ref>

In a 2007 study, [[Vietnam War]] combat veterans with PTSD showed a 20% reduction in the volume of their hippocampus compared with veterans who did not have such symptoms.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Carlson NR |date=2007 |title=Physiology of Behavior |edition=9th |publisher=[[Pearson Education]]}}</ref> This finding was not replicated in chronic PTSD patients traumatized at an [[Ramstein air show disaster|air show plane crash in 1988]] (Ramstein, Germany).<ref name="Jatzko">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jatzko A, Rothenhöfer S, Schmitt A, Gaser C, Demirakca T, Weber-Fahr W, Wessa M, Magnotta V, Braus DF |title=Hippocampal volume in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): MRI study using two different evaluation methods |journal=[[Journal of Affective Disorders]] |volume=94 |issue=1–3 |pages=121–6 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16701903 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2006.03.010 |url=http://dbm.neuro.uni-jena.de/pdf-files/Jatzko-JAD06.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019153804/http://dbm.neuro.uni-jena.de/pdf-files/Jatzko-JAD06.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-10-19}}</ref>

Evidence suggests that endogenous cannabinoid levels are reduced in PTSD, particularly [[anandamide]], and that cannabinoid receptors (CB1) are increased in order to compensate.<ref name="ECS_PTSD">{{cite journal |vauthors=Neumeister A, Seidel J, Ragen BJ, Pietrzak RH |title=Translational evidence for a role of endocannabinoids in the etiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Psychoneuroendocrinology]] |volume=51 |pages=577–84 |date=January 2015 |pmid=25456347 |pmc=4268027 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.10.012}}</ref> There appears to be a link between increased CB1 receptor availability in the amygdala and abnormal threat processing and hyperarousal, but not dysphoria, in trauma survivors.

A 2020 study found no evidence for conclusions from prior research that suggested low IQ is a risk factor for developing PTSD.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Shura RD, Epstein EL, Ord AS, Martindale SL, Rowland JA, Brearly TW, Taber KH |date=September 2020 |title=Relationship between intelligence and posttraumatic stress disorder in veterans |journal=Intelligence |language=en |volume=82 |pages=101472 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2020.101472 |issn=0160-2896 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Diagnosis ==
PTSD can be difficult to diagnose, because of:
* the subjective nature of most of the diagnostic criteria (although this is true for many mental disorders); 
* the potential for [[Malingering of post-traumatic stress disorder|over-reporting]], e.g., while seeking disability benefits, or when PTSD could be a [[mitigating factor]] at criminal sentencing<ref>{{cite journal |title=Fake Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Costs Real Money |journal={{ill|The Inquisitive Mind|de|In-Mind Magazin}} |year=2018 |vauthors=Boskovic I, Merckelbach H |volume=4 |issue=36 |url=https://www.in-mind.org/article/fake-posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-costs-real-money |access-date=2021-09-30}}</ref>
* the potential for under-reporting, e.g., stigma, pride, fear that a PTSD diagnosis might preclude certain employment opportunities;
* symptom overlap with other mental disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder;<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=First MB |title=DSM-5® Handbook of Differential Diagnosis |date=2013 |publisher=American Psychiatric Pub |isbn=978-1-58562-998-5 |page=225 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haOvBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA225 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
* association with other mental disorders such as major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder;
* substance use disorders, which often produce some of the same signs and symptoms as PTSD; and 
* substance use disorders can increase vulnerability to PTSD or exacerbate PTSD symptoms or both; and
* PTSD increases the risk for developing substance use disorders.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brady |first1=Kathleen |title=Substance Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |date=October 2004 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=206–209 |doi=10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00309.x |s2cid=145248041 }}</ref>
*the differential expression of symptoms culturally (specifically with respect to avoidance and numbing symptoms, distressing dreams, and somatic symptoms)<ref>{{Citation |title=Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders |date=2013-05-22 |work=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |doi=10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm07 |isbn=978-0-89042-555-8 |s2cid=148757484 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse}}</ref>

=== Screening ===
There are a number of PTSD screening instruments for adults, such as the PTSD Checklist for ''DSM-5'' (PCL-5)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp |title=PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) |date=11 May 2017 |website=[[National Center for PTSD]]}}</ref><ref name="PCL-5">{{cite journal |vauthors=Blevins CA, Weathers FW, Davis MT, Witte TK, Domino JL |title=The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and Initial Psychometric Evaluation |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=489–98 |date=December 2015 |pmid=26606250 |doi=10.1002/jts.22059}}</ref> and the Primary Care PTSD Screen for ''DSM-5'' (PC-PTSD-5).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/DSM_5_Validated_Measures.asp |title=Primary Care PTSD Screen for DSM-5 (PC-PTSD-5) |date=7 April 2017 |website=[[National Center for PTSD]]}}</ref> The 17 item PTSD checklist is also capable of monitoring the severity of symptoms and the response to treatment.<ref name="Shalev 2017" />

There are also several screening and assessment instruments for use with children and adolescents. These include the Child PTSD Symptom Scale (CPSS),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.istss.org/assessing-trauma/child-ptsd-symptom-scale.aspx |title=Child PTSD Symptom Scale |website=[[International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies]] |access-date=14 December 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006052232/http://www.istss.org/assessing-trauma/child-ptsd-symptom-scale.aspx }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Foa EB, Johnson KM, Feeny NC, Treadwell KR |s2cid=9334984 |title=The child PTSD Symptom Scale: a preliminary examination of its psychometric properties |journal=[[Journal of Clinical Child Psychology]] |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=376–84 |date=September 2001 |pmid=11501254 |doi=10.1207/S15374424JCCP3003_9}}</ref> Child Trauma Screening Questionnaire,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nctsnet.org/content/child-trauma-screening-questionnaire |title=Child Trauma Screening Questionnaire |date=5 Sep 2013 |website=The [[National Child Traumatic Stress Network]] |access-date=14 December 2017 |archive-date=25 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225114555/http://www.nctsnet.org/content/child-trauma-screening-questionnaire }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kenardy JA, Spence SH, Macleod AC |s2cid=1320859 |title=Screening for posttraumatic stress disorder in children after accidental injury |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=1002–9 |date=September 2006 |pmid=16950991 |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-0406}}</ref> and UCLA Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index for ''DSM-IV''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.istss.org/assessing-trauma/ucla-posttraumatic-stress-disorder-reaction-index.aspx |title=UCLA Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index |website=[[International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies]] |access-date=14 December 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006052306/http://www.istss.org/assessing-trauma/ucla-posttraumatic-stress-disorder-reaction-index.aspx }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Elhai JD, Layne CM, Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ, Briggs EC, Ostrowski SA, Pynoos RS |title=Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index. part II: investigating factor structure findings in a national clinic-referred youth sample |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=10–8 |date=February 2013 |pmid=23417874 |doi=10.1002/jts.21755}}</ref>

In addition, there are also screening and assessment instruments for caregivers of very young children (six years of age and younger). These include the Young Child PTSD Screen,<ref name="Scheeringa Tulane">{{cite web |url=https://medicine.tulane.edu/departments/psychiatry/research/dr-scheeringas-lab/manuals-measures-trainings |title=Young Child PTSD Screen |vauthors=Scheeringa M |publisher=[[Tulane University]] |access-date=8 April 2018 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829161236/https://medicine.tulane.edu/departments/psychiatry/dr-scheeringas-lab/manuals-measures-trainings }}</ref> the Young Child PTSD Checklist,<ref name="Scheeringa Tulane" /> and the Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scheeringa MS, Haslett N |title=The reliability and criterion validity of the Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment: a new diagnostic instrument for young children |journal=[[Child Psychiatry and Human Development]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=299–312 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20052532 |pmc=2862973 |doi=10.1007/s10578-009-0169-2}}</ref>

=== Assessment ===
[[Evidence-based assessment]] principles, including a multimethod assessment approach, form the foundation of PTSD assessment.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bovin MJ, Marx BP, Schnurr PP |date=2015 |title=Evolving DSM Diagnostic Criteria for PTSD: Relevance for Assessment and Treatment |journal=[[Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry]] |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=86–98 |doi=10.1007/s40501-015-0032-y |quote=... the use of a multi-measure approach eliminates the bias associated with any given instrument .... |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barnes JB, Presseau C, Jordan AH, Kline NK, Young-McCaughan S, Keane TM, Peterson AL, Litz BT |title=Common Data Elements in the Assessment of Military-Related PTSD Research Applied in the Consortium to Alleviate PTSD |journal=Military Medicine |volume=184 |issue=5–6 |pages=e218–e226 |date=May 2019 |pmid=30252077 |doi=10.1093/milmed/usy226 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Weathers FW, Keane TM, Foa EB |chapter=Assessment and Diagnosis of Adults |title=Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies |edition=2nd |veditors=Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ |location=New York |publisher=Guilford |date=2009 |pages=23–61 |quote="Thus, ample resources are now available to conduct psychometrically sound assessments of trauma survivors in any context, and it is no longer defensible for clinicians to do otherwise.}}</ref>{{rp|25}} Those who conduct assessments for PTSD may use various clinician-administered interviews and instruments to provide an official PTSD diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weathers FW, Marx BP, Friedman MJ, Schnurr PP |title=Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in DSM-5: New Criteria, New Measures, and Implications for Assessment |journal=[[Psychological Injury and Law]] |date=2014 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=93–107 |doi=10.1007/s12207-014-9191-1 |s2cid=16911948}}</ref> Some commonly used, reliable, and valid assessment instruments for PTSD diagnosis, in accordance with the DSM-5, include the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for the DSM-5 (CAPS-5), PTSD Symptom Scale Interview (PSS-I-5), and [[Structured Clinical Interview for DSM|Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5]] – PTSD Module (SCID-5 PTSD Module).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Weathers FW, Bovin MJ, Lee DJ, Sloan DM, Schnurr PP, Kaloupek DG, Keane TM, Marx BP |title=The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans |journal=Psychological Assessment |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=383–395 |date=March 2018 |pmid=28493729 |pmc=5805662 |doi=10.1037/pas0000486}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Karimi M, Rahnejat AM, Dabaghi P, Taghva A, Majdian M, Donyavi V, Shahed-HaghGhadam H |title=The Psychometric Properties of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Scale–Interview Based on DSM-5, in Military Personnel Participated in Warfare |journal=[[Iranian Journal of War & Public Health]] |date=2020 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=115–124 |doi=10.29252/ijwph.12.2.115 |s2cid=235026213|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Foa EB, Tolin DF |title=Comparison of the PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview Version and the Clinician-Administered PTSD scale |journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=181–191 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10838669 |doi=10.1023/A:1007781909213 |s2cid=7913088}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=First MB, Williams JB, Karg RS, Spitzer RL |title=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 Disorders, Clinician Version (SCID-5-CV) |date=2016 |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |location=Arlington, VA |isbn=978-88-6030-885-6}}</ref>

=== In the DSM and ICD ===
PTSD was classified as an [[anxiety disorder]] in the DSM-IV, but has since been reclassified as a "trauma- and stressor-related disorder" in the [[DSM-5]].<ref name="DSM5" /> The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for PTSD include four symptom clusters: re-experiencing, avoidance, negative alterations in cognition/mood, and alterations in arousal and reactivity.<ref name="DSM5" /><ref name="NIH2016" />

The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision (ICD-10) classifies PTSD under "Reaction to severe stress, and adjustment disorders."<ref name="World Health Organization">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf |title=The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |pages=120–121 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323025330/http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf |archive-date=2014-03-23 |url-status=live |access-date=2014-01-29}}</ref> The ICD-10 criteria for PTSD include re-experiencing, avoidance, and either increased reactivity or inability to recall certain details related to the event.<ref name="World Health Organization" />

The [[ICD-11]] diagnostic description for PTSD contains three components or symptom groups (1) re-experiencing, (2) avoidance, and (3) heightened sense of threat.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/18-06-2018-who-releases-new-international-classification-of-diseases-(icd-11) |title=WHO releases new International Classification of Diseases (ICD 11) |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=2018-11-15}}</ref><ref name="Brewin_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brewin CR, Cloitre M, Hyland P, Shevlin M, Maercker A, Bryant RA, Humayun A, Jones LM, Kagee A, Rousseau C, Somasundaram D, Suzuki Y, Wessely S, van Ommeren M, Reed GM |title=A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=58 |pages=1–15 |date=December 2017 |pmid=29029837 |s2cid=4874961 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001 |url=http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/11577/1/Hyland_Review_2017.pdf}}</ref> ICD-11 no longer includes verbal thoughts about the traumatic event as a symptom.<ref name="Brewin_2017" /> There is a predicted lower rate of diagnosed PTSD using ICD-11 compared to ICD-10 or DSM-5.<ref name="Brewin_2017" /> ICD-11 also proposes identifying a distinct sub-group with [[Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (CPTSD), who have more often experienced several or sustained traumas and have greater functional impairment than those with PTSD.<ref name="Brewin_2017" />

=== Differential diagnosis ===
A diagnosis of PTSD requires that the person has been exposed to an extreme stressor. Any stressor can result in a diagnosis of [[adjustment disorder]] and it is an appropriate diagnosis for a stressor and a symptom pattern that does not meet the criteria for PTSD.

The symptom pattern for [[acute stress disorder]] must occur and be resolved within four weeks of the trauma. If it lasts longer, and the symptom pattern fits that characteristic of PTSD, the diagnosis may be changed.<ref name=DSM4 />

[[Obsessive compulsive disorder|Obsessive–compulsive disorder]] (OCD) may be diagnosed for [[intrusive thought]]s that are recurring but not related to a specific traumatic event.<ref name=DSM4 />

In extreme cases of prolonged, repeated traumatization where there is no viable chance of escape, survivors may develop [[complex post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref name="Herman1992">{{cite journal |vauthors=Herman JL |s2cid=189943097 |title=Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |date=July 1992 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=377–391 |doi=10.1007/BF00977235}}</ref> This occurs as a result of layers of trauma rather than a single traumatic event, and includes additional symptomatology, such as the loss of a coherent sense of self.<ref name="Herman1997">{{cite book |vauthors=Herman JL |title=Trauma and Recovery |date=1997 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-465-08730-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/traumarecovery00herm_0/page/119 119–122] |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/traumarecovery00herm_0/page/119}}</ref>

== Prevention ==
{{See also|Traumatic memories}}
Modest benefits have been seen from early access to [[cognitive behavioral therapy]]. [[Critical incident stress management]] has been suggested as a means of preventing PTSD, but subsequent studies suggest the likelihood of its producing negative outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Disaster-related post-traumatic stress in police officers: A field study of the impact of debriefing |journal=Stress Medicine |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=143–8 |vauthors=Carlier IV, Lamberts RD, van Uchelen AJ, Gersons BP |year=1998 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1700(199807)14:3<143::AID-SMI770>3.0.CO;2-S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mayou RA, Ehlers A, Hobbs M |title=Psychological debriefing for road traffic accident victims. Three-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |volume=176 |issue=6 |pages=589–93 |date=June 2000 |pmid=10974967 |doi=10.1192/bjp.176.6.589 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2019 Cochrane review did not find any evidence to support the use of an intervention offered to everyone, and that "multiple session interventions may result in worse outcome than no intervention for some individuals."<ref name="Roberts_2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Roberts NP, Kitchiner NJ, Kenardy J, Robertson L, Lewis C, Bisson JI |title=Multiple session early psychological interventions for the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |volume=2019 |pages=CD006869 |date=August 2019 |issue=8 |pmid=31425615 |pmc=6699654 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006869.pub3}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] recommends against the use of [[benzodiazepines]] and [[antidepressants]] in for acute stress (symptoms lasting less than one month).<ref name=WHO2013>{{cite book |title=Assessment and Management of Conditions Specifically Related to Stress |year=2013 |isbn=978-92-4-150593-2 |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/85623/1/9789241505932_eng.pdf |access-date=2014-01-29 |url-status=live |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201192439/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/85623/1/9789241505932_eng.pdf |archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref> Some evidence supports the use of [[hydrocortisone]] for prevention in adults, although there is limited or no evidence supporting [[propranolol]], [[escitalopram]], [[temazepam]], or [[gabapentin]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Amos T, Stein DJ, Ipser JC |title=Pharmacological interventions for preventing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |volume=2014 |issue=7 |pages=CD006239 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25001071 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006239.pub2|doi-access=free |pmc=11064759 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bertolini |first1=Federico |last2=Robertson |first2=Lindsay |last3=Bisson |first3=Jonathan I |last4=Meader |first4=Nicholas |last5=Churchill |first5=Rachel |last6=Ostuzzi |first6=Giovanni |last7=Stein |first7=Dan J |last8=Williams |first8=Taryn |last9=Barbui |first9=Corrado |date=2022-02-10 |editor-last=Cochrane Common Mental Disorders Group |title=Early pharmacological interventions for universal prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |language=en |volume=2022 |issue=2 |pages=CD013443 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD013443.pub2 |pmc=8829470 |pmid=35141873}}</ref>

=== Psychological debriefing ===
{{see also|Debriefing#Crisis intervention}}

Trauma-exposed individuals often receive treatment called ''psychological debriefing'' in an effort to prevent PTSD, which consists of interviews that are meant to allow individuals to directly confront the event and share their feelings with the counselor and to help structure their memories of the event.<ref name=AHRQ2013/> However, several [[Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] find that psychological debriefing is unhelpful, is potentially harmful and does not reduce the future risk of developing PTSD.<ref name="Shalev 2017" /><ref name=AHRQ2013>{{cite book |vauthors=Gartlehner G, Forneris CA, Brownley KA, Gaynes BN, Sonis J, Coker-Schwimmer E, Jonas DE, Greenblatt A, Wilkins TM, Woodell CL, Lohr KN |title=Interventions for the Prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Adults After Exposure to Psychological Trauma |chapter=Discussion |date=2013 |publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US) |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK133347 |pmid=23658936}}</ref><ref name=Feldner2007>{{cite journal |vauthors=Feldner MT, Monson CM, Friedman MJ |title=A critical analysis of approaches to targeted PTSD prevention: current status and theoretically derived future directions |journal=Behavior Modification |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=80–116 |date=January 2007 |pmid=17179532 |doi=10.1177/0145445506295057 |citeseerx=10.1.1.595.9186 |s2cid=44619491}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rose S, Bisson J, Churchill R, Wessely S |title=Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |issue=2 |pages=CD000560 |date=2002 |pmid=12076399 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000560 |pmc=7032695}}</ref> This is true for both single-session debriefing and multiple session interventions.<ref name="Roberts_2019" /> As of 2017 the [[American Psychological Association]] assessed psychological debriefing as ''No Research Support/Treatment is Potentially Harmful''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Psychological Debriefing for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder |url=https://www.div12.org/psychological-treatments/treatments/psychological-debriefing-for-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/ |website=www.div12.org |date=19 August 2014 |publisher=[[Society of Clinical Psychology]]: Division 12 of The American Psychological Association |access-date=9 September 2017}}</ref>

=== Early intervention ===
Trauma focused intervention delivered within days or weeks of the potentially traumatic event has been found to decrease PTSD symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Birur B, Moore NC, Davis LL |title=An Evidence-Based Review of Early Intervention and Prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |journal=[[Community Mental Health Journal]] |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=183–201 |date=February 2017 |pmid=27470261 |doi=10.1007/s10597-016-0047-x |s2cid=28150745}}</ref> Similar to psychological debriefing, the goal of early intervention is to lessen the intensity and frequency of stress symptoms, with the aim of preventing new-onset or relapsed mental disorders and further distress later in the healing process.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Litz B |title=Early intervention for trauma and loss: overview and working care model |journal=[[European Journal of Psychotraumatology]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=28543 |date=2015-12-01 |pmid=26073207 |pmc=4466306 |doi=10.3402/ejpt.v6.28543}}</ref>

=== Risk-targeted interventions ===
{{For|one such method|trauma risk management}}
Risk-targeted interventions are those that attempt to mitigate specific formative information or events. It can target modeling normal behaviors, instruction on a task, or giving information on the event.<ref name=Wiseman2013Rev>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wiseman T, Foster K, Curtis K |title=Mental health following traumatic physical injury: an integrative literature review |journal=[[Injury (journal)|Injury]] |volume=44 |issue=11 |pages=1383–90 |date=November 2013 |pmid=22409991 |doi=10.1016/j.injury.2012.02.015}}</ref><ref name=Kassam-Adams2013Rev>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kassam-Adams N, Marsac ML, Hildenbrand A, Winston F |title=Posttraumatic stress following pediatric injury: update on diagnosis, risk factors, and intervention |journal=[[JAMA Pediatrics]] |volume=167 |issue=12 |pages=1158–65 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24100470 |doi=10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.2741}}</ref>

== Management ==
{{further|Treatments for PTSD}}

Reviews of studies have found that combination therapy (psychological and pharmacotherapy) is no more effective than psychological therapy alone.<ref name="pmid20614457" />

=== Counselling ===
The approaches with the strongest evidence include behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapies such as [[exposure therapy|prolonged exposure therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Powers MB, Halpern JM, Ferenschak MP, Gillihan SJ, Foa EB |title=A meta-analytic review of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=635–41 |date=August 2010 |pmid=20546985 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.007}}</ref> [[cognitive processing therapy]] (CBT), and [[eye movement desensitization and reprocessing]] (EMDR).<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/ |title=Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Adults |last=Guideline Development Panel for the Treatment of PTSD in Adults |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |year=2017 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=ES–2 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref name="pmid23266601">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee CW, Cuijpers P |title=A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories |journal=[[Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=231–9 |date=June 2013 |pmid=23266601 |doi=10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.001 |url=http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/13100/ |type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Cahill SP, Foa EB |year=2004 |title=Advances in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Cognitive-behavioral perspectives |veditors=Taylor S |pages=267–313 |place=New York |publisher=Springer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/topics/ptsd-adult-treatment-update/research-2018 |title=Psychological and Pharmacological Treatments for Adults With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review Update |last1=Forman-Hoffman |first1=Valerie |last2=Cook Middleton |first2=Jennifer |date=2018-05-17 |publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) |doi=10.23970/ahrqepccer207 |last3=Feltner |first3=Cynthia |last4=Gaynes |first4=Bradley N. |last5=Palmieri Weber |first5=Rachel |last6=Bann |first6=Carla |last7=Viswanathan |first7=Meera |last8=Lohr |first8=Kathleen N. |last9=Baker |first9=Claire}}</ref> There is some evidence for brief eclectic psychotherapy (BEP), [[narrative exposure therapy]] (NET), and written exposure therapy.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Sloan DM, Marx BP |date=2019 |url=http://content.apa.org/books/16117-007|title=Written exposure therapy for PTSD: A brief treatment approach for mental health professionals |place=Washington |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |language=en |doi=10.1037/0000139-001 |isbn=978-1-4338-3013-6 |access-date=2022-02-13|s2cid=239337813}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=VA/DOD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Acute Stress Disorder |date=2017 |publisher=United States [[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |pages=46–47 |url=https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/ptsd/VADoDPTSDCPGFinal012418.pdf}}</ref>

A 2019 Cochrane review evaluated couples and family therapies compared to no care and individual and group therapies for the [[Treatments for PTSD|treatment of PTSD]].<ref name="Suomi_2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Suomi A, Evans L, Rodgers B, Taplin S, Cowlishaw S |title=Couple and family therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |volume=2019 |pages=CD011257 |date=December 2019 |issue=12 |pmid=31797352 |pmc=6890534 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011257.pub2}}</ref> There were too few studies on couples therapies to determine if substantive benefits were derived, but preliminary [[Randomized controlled trial|RCTs]] suggested that couples therapies may be beneficial for reducing PTSD symptoms.<ref name="Suomi_2019" />

A [[meta-analysis|meta-analytic]] comparison of EMDR and CBT found both protocols indistinguishable in terms of effectiveness in treating PTSD; however, "the contribution of the eye movement component in EMDR to treatment outcome" is unclear.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Seidler GH, Wagner FE |title=Comparing the efficacy of EMDR and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a meta-analytic study |journal=[[Psychological Medicine]] |volume=36 |issue=11 |pages=1515–22 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16740177 |doi=10.1017/S0033291706007963 |s2cid=39751799}}</ref> A meta-analysis in children and adolescents also found that EMDR was as efficacious as CBT.<ref name=MetaNSUE>{{cite journal |vauthors=Moreno-Alcázar A, Treen D, Valiente-Gómez A, Sio-Eroles A, Pérez V, Amann BL, Radua J |title=Efficacy of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing in Children and Adolescent with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |volume=8 |pages=1750 |year=2017 |pmid=29066991 |pmc=5641384 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01750 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Children with PTSD are far more likely to pursue treatment at school (because of its proximity and ease) than at a free clinic.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rolfsnes ES, Idsoe T |title=School-based intervention programs for PTSD symptoms: a review and meta-analysis |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=155–65 |date=April 2011 |pmid=21425191 |doi=10.1002/jts.20622}}</ref>

==== Cognitive behavioral therapy ====
{{Main|Trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy}}
[[File:Depicting basic tenets of CBT.jpg|thumb|The diagram depicts how emotions, thoughts, and behaviors all influence each other. The triangle in the middle represents CBT's tenet that all humans' core beliefs can be summed up in three categories: self, others, future.]]

CBT seeks to change the way a person feels and acts by changing the patterns of thinking or behavior, or both, responsible for negative emotions. Results from a 2018 systematic review found high strength of evidence that supports CBT-exposure therapy efficacious for a reduction in PTSD and depression symptoms, as well as the loss of PTSD diagnosis.<ref name="Forman-Hoffman_2018"/> CBT has been proven to be an effective [[Treatments for PTSD|treatment for PTSD]] and is currently considered the standard of care for PTSD by the [[United States Department of Defense]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Treatment of PTSD – PTSD: National Center for PTSD |url=http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/treatment/therapy-med/treatment-ptsd.asp |publisher=U.S. [[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |date=May 26, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201110743/http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/treatment/therapy-med/treatment-ptsd.asp |archive-date=December 1, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=PTSD Treatment Options |url=http://dcoe.mil/PsychologicalHealth/About_PTSD/Treatment_Options.aspx |newspaper=Defense Centers of Excellence |date=November 23, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130035254/http://dcoe.mil/PsychologicalHealth/About_PTSD/Treatment_Options.aspx |archive-date=November 30, 2016}}</ref>

In CBT, individuals learn to identify thoughts that make them feel afraid or upset and replace them with less distressing thoughts. The goal is to understand how certain thoughts about events cause PTSD-related stress.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/treatments/cognitive-behavioral-therapy.aspx |title=Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for Treatment of PTSD |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109063624/http://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/treatments/cognitive-behavioral-therapy.aspx |archive-date=2018-01-09 |access-date=2018-01-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/treatment/therapy-med/treatment-ptsd.asp |title=Treatment of PTSD – PTSD |publisher=[[National Center for PTSD]] |access-date=2018-01-08}}</ref> A study assessing an online version of CBT for people with mild-to-moderate PTSD found that the online approach was as effective as, and cheaper than, the same therapy given face-to-face.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=27 January 2023 |title=Online CBT for post-traumatic stress disorder is as effective as face-to-face therapy |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/online-cbt-for-ptsd-is-as-effective-as-face-to-face-therapy/ |journal=NIHR Evidence|doi=10.3310/nihrevidence_56507 |s2cid=257844874 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bisson JI, Ariti C, Cullen K, Kitchiner N, Lewis C, Roberts NP, Simon N, Smallman K, Addison K, Bell V, Brookes-Howell L, Cosgrove S, Ehlers A, Fitzsimmons D, Foscarini-Craggs P, Harris SR, Kelson M, Lovell K, McKenna M, McNamara R, Nollett C, Pickles T, Williams-Thomas R | title = Guided, internet based, cognitive behavioural therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: pragmatic, multicentre, randomised controlled non-inferiority trial (RAPID) | journal = BMJ | volume = 377 | pages = e069405 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 35710124 | pmc = 9202033 | doi = 10.1136/bmj-2021-069405 }}</ref> A 2021 Cochrane review assessed the provision of CBT in an Internet-based format found similar beneficial effects for [[Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors|Internet-based therapy]] as in face-to-face. However, the quality of the evidence was low due to the small number of trials reviewed.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Simon N, Robertson L, Lewis C, Roberts NP, Bethell A, Dawson S, Bisson JI | title = Internet-based cognitive and behavioural therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2021 | issue = 5 | pages = CD011710 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 34015141 | pmc = 8136365 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD011710.pub3 }}</ref>

Exposure therapy is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Grohol JM |date=2016-05-17 |title=What Is Exposure Therapy? |work=Psych Central.com |url=http://psychcentral.com/lib/2009/what-is-exposure-therapy/ |access-date=2010-07-14 |publisher=Psychcentral.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811161615/http://psychcentral.com/lib/2009/what-is-exposure-therapy/ |archive-date=2010-08-11}}</ref> that involves assisting trauma survivors to re-experience distressing trauma-related memories and reminders in order to facilitate habituation and successful emotional processing of the trauma memory. Most exposure therapy programs include both imaginal confrontation with the [[traumatic memories]] and real-life exposure to trauma reminders; this type of CBT has shown benefit in the [[Treatments for PTSD|treatment of PTSD]].<ref name="McLean 2022">{{cite journal |last1=McLean |first1=Carmen P. |last2=Levy |first2=Hannah C. |last3=Miller |first3=Madeleine L. |last4=Tolin |first4=David F. |title=Exposure therapy for PTSD: A meta-analysis |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |date=February 2022 |volume=91 |pages=102115 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102115|pmid=34954460 |s2cid=245394152 }}</ref><ref name="Shalev 2017" />

Some organizations{{which|date=December 2011}} have endorsed the need for exposure.<ref name="pmid15617511">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ursano RJ, Bell C, Eth S, Friedman M, Norwood A, Pfefferbaum B, Pynoos JD, Zatzick DF, Benedek DM, McIntyre JS, Charles SC, Altshuler K, Cook I, Cross CD, Mellman L, Moench LA, Norquist G, Twemlow SW, Woods S, Yager J |title=Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=161 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=3–31 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15617511}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Committee on Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Institute of Medicine: Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Assessment of the Evidence |place=Washington, D.C. |publisher=National Academies Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-309-10926-0}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref> The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has been actively training mental health treatment staff in [[prolonged exposure therapy]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Prolonged Exposure Therapy |date=2009-09-29 |publisher=U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs |url=http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/prolonged-exposure-therapy.asp |access-date=2010-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114064548/http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/prolonged-exposure-therapy.asp |archive-date=2009-11-14 |department=PTSD: National Center for PTSD}}</ref> and [[cognitive processing therapy]]<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Karlin BE, Ruzek JI, Chard KM, Eftekhari A, Monson CM, Hembree EA, Resick PA, Foa EB |title=Dissemination of evidence-based psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder in the Veterans Health Administration |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=663–73 |date=December 2010 |pmid=21171126 |doi=10.1002/jts.20588}}</ref> in an effort to better treat U.S. veterans with PTSD.

Recent research on contextually based [[behavior therapy#Third generation|third-generation behavior therapies]] suggests that they may produce results comparable to some of the better validated therapies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mulick PS, Landes S, Kanter JW |year=2005 |title=Contextual Behavior Therapies in the Treatment of PTSD: A Review |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=223–228 |doi=10.1037/h0100747 |url=http://www.uwm.edu/~jkanter/pdf/publication/IJBCT-1-3.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120916131249/http://www.uwm.edu/~jkanter/pdf/publication/IJBCT-1-3.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2012 |citeseerx=10.1.1.625.4407}}</ref> Many of these therapy methods have a significant element of exposure<ref name="Hassija 2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hassija CM, Gray MJ |year=2007 |title=Behavioral Interventions for Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=166–175 |doi=10.1037/h0100797 |url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ801196|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and have demonstrated success in treating the primary problems of PTSD and co-occurring depressive symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mulick PS, Naugle AE |year=2009 |title=Behavioral Activation in the Treatment of Comorbid Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=330–339 |doi=10.1037/h0100892 |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Behavioral+activation+in+the+treatment+of+comorbid+posttraumatic...-a0221920130}}</ref>

==== Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing ====
{{Main|Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing}}
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a form of psychotherapy developed and studied by [[Francine Shapiro]].<ref name="Shapiro F 1989 199–223">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shapiro F |title=Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |date=April 1989 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=199–223 |doi=10.1002/jts.2490020207}}</ref> She had noticed that, when she was thinking about disturbing memories herself, her eyes were moving rapidly. When she brought her eye movements under control while thinking, the thoughts were less distressing.<ref name="Shapiro F 1989 199–223" />

In 2002, Shapiro and Maxfield published a theory of why this might work, called adaptive information processing.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shapiro F, Maxfield L |title=Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR): information processing in the treatment of trauma |journal=[[Journal of Clinical Psychology]] |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=933–46 |date=August 2002 |pmid=12115716 |doi=10.1002/jclp.10068}}</ref> This theory proposes that eye movement can be used to facilitate emotional processing of memories, changing the person's memory to attend to more adaptive information.<ref name=VAguideline>{{cite web |last=The Management of Post-Traumatic Stress Working Group |title=VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for management of post-traumatic stress |url=http://www.healthquality.va.gov/Post_Traumatic_Stress_Disorder_PTSD.asp |access-date=2 June 2013 |publisher=Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense |page=Version 2.0 |year=2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530234757/http://www.healthquality.va.gov/Post_Traumatic_Stress_Disorder_PTSD.asp |archive-date=30 May 2013}}</ref> The therapist initiates voluntary rapid eye movements while the person focuses on memories, feelings or thoughts about a particular trauma.<ref name=UK2005/><ref name=CochraneGilliesKids>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gillies D, Taylor F, Gray C, O'Brien L, D'Abrew N |title=Psychological therapies for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |volume=12 |pages=CD006726 |date=December 2012 |pmid=23235632 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006726.pub2 |hdl=1959.13/1311467 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The therapist uses hand movements to get the person to move their eyes backward and forward, but hand-tapping or tones can also be used.<ref name=UK2005/> EMDR closely resembles [[cognitive behavior therapy]] as it combines exposure (re-visiting the traumatic event), working on cognitive processes and relaxation/self-monitoring.<ref name=UK2005/> However, exposure by way of being asked to think about the experience rather than talk about it has been highlighted as one of the more important distinguishing elements of EMDR.<ref name="Jeffries/Davis">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeffries FW, Davis P |title=What is the role of eye movements in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? a review |journal=[[Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=290–300 |date=May 2013 |pmid=23102050 |doi=10.1017/S1352465812000793 |s2cid=33309479}}</ref>

Several scientific studies have evaluated the efficacy of EMDR in adults<ref name="AHRQtreat92">{{Cite book |vauthors=Jonas DE, Cusack K, Forneris CA |title=Psychological and pharmacological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK137702/ |series=Comparative Effectiveness Reviews No. 92 |date=April 2013 |location=Rockville, MD |pmid=23658937 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118124526/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK137702/ |archive-date=2017-01-18}}</ref> as well as children and adolescents.<ref name="CochraneGilliesKids" /> There is moderate strength of evidence to support the efficacy of EMDR "for reduction in PTSD symptoms, loss of diagnosis, and reduction in depressive symptoms" according to a 2018 systematic review update.<ref name="Forman-Hoffman_2018" /> 

In children and adolescents, a recent meta-analysis of [[randomized controlled trials]] found that EMDR was at least as efficacious as CBT, and superior to waitlist or placebo.<ref name=MetaNSUE/> There was some evidence that EMDR might prevent depression.<ref name="AHRQtreat92" /> Adverse effects were largely unstudied.<ref name="AHRQtreat92" /> The benefits were greater for women with a history of sexual assault compared with people who had experienced other types of traumatizing events (such as accidents, physical assaults and war).

The eye movement component of the therapy may not be critical for benefit.<ref name="UK2005" /><ref name="VAguideline" /> 

==== Interpersonal psychotherapy ====
Other approaches, in particular involving social supports,<ref name="Brewin">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brewin CR, Andrews B, Valentine JD |title=Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults |journal=[[Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology]] |volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=748–66 |date=October 2000 |pmid=11068961 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.748 |s2cid=13749007 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/ccp/68/5/748}}</ref><ref name=Ozer>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ozer EJ, Best SR, Lipsey TL, Weiss DS |title=Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis |journal=[[Psychological Bulletin]] |volume=129 |issue=1 |pages=52–73 |date=January 2003 |pmid=12555794 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/bul/129/1/52}}</ref> may also be important. An open trial of interpersonal psychotherapy reported high rates of remission from PTSD symptoms without using exposure.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bleiberg KL, Markowitz JC |title=A pilot study of interpersonal psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=162 |issue=1 |pages=181–3 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15625219 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.162.1.181}}</ref>

=== Medication ===
Four antidepressants (sertraline, fluoxetine, paroxetine, and venlafaxine) have been shown to have a small to modest benefit over placebo.<ref name="Hos2015"/> 

==== Antidepressants ====
[[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors]] (SSRIs) and [[serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s (SNRIs) may have some benefit for PTSD symptoms.<ref name=Hos2015/><ref name=Jeffreys-2012>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeffreys M, Capehart B, Friedman MJ |title=Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: review with clinical applications |journal=[[Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development]] |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=703–715 |date=2012 |pmid=23015581 |doi=10.1682/JRRD.2011.09.0183 |quote=While evidence-based, trauma-focused psychotherapy is the preferred treatment for PTSD, pharmacotherapy is also an important treatment option. First-line pharmacotherapy agents include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and the selective serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor venlafaxine. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Williams T, Phillips NJ, Stein DJ, Ipser JC |title=Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |volume=2022 |issue=3 |pages=CD002795 |date=March 2022 |pmid=35234292 |pmc=8889888 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002795.pub3 }}</ref> [[Tricyclic antidepressants]] are equally effective, but are less well tolerated.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Puetz TW, Youngstedt SD, Herring MP |title=Effects of Pharmacotherapy on Combat-Related PTSD, Anxiety, and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=e0126529 |date=28 May 2015 |pmid=26020791 |pmc=4447407 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0126529 |veditors=Hashimoto K |quote=The cumulative evidence summarized in this review indicates that pharmacotherapy significantly reduces PTSD, anxiety, and depressive symptom severity among combat veterans with PTSD. The magnitude of the overall effects of pharmacotherapy on PTSD (Δ = 0.38), anxiety (Δ = 0.42), and depressive symptoms (Δ = 0.52) were moderate... |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1026529P}}</ref> Evidence provides support for a small or modest improvement with [[sertraline]], [[fluoxetine]], [[paroxetine]], and [[venlafaxine]].<ref name=Hos2015/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kapfhammer HP |title=Patient-reported outcomes in post-traumatic stress disorder. Part II: focus on pharmacological treatment |language=en, es, fr |journal=[[Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience]] |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=227–237 |date=June 2014 |pmid=25152660 |pmc=4140515 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2014.16.2/hkapfhammer}}</ref> Thus, these four medications are considered to be [[First-line treatment|first-line]] medications for PTSD.<ref name=Jeffreys-2012/><ref name="Berger-2009"/> The SSRIs paroxetine and sertraline are approved by the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) approved for the [[Treatments for PTSD|treatment of PTSD]].<ref name="Shalev 2017" />

==== Benzodiazepines ====
[[Benzodiazepine]]s are not recommended for the [[Treatments for PTSD|treatment of PTSD]] due to a lack of evidence of benefit and risk of worsening PTSD symptoms.<ref name="pmid22302333">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jain S, Greenbaum MA, Rosen C |title=Concordance between psychotropic prescribing for veterans with PTSD and clinical practice guidelines |journal=[[Psychiatric Services]] |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=154–60 |date=February 2012 |pmid=22302333 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.201100199}}</ref> Some authors believe that the use of benzodiazepines is contraindicated for acute stress, as this group of drugs can cause [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]].<ref name="pmid23062450">{{cite journal |vauthors=Auxéméry Y |title=[Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a consequence of the interaction between an individual genetic susceptibility, a traumatogenic event and a social context] |language=fr |journal=[[L'Encéphale]] |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=373–80 |date=October 2012 |pmid=23062450 |doi=10.1016/j.encep.2011.12.003}}</ref> Nevertheless, some use benzodiazepines with caution for short-term anxiety and insomnia.<ref name="Kapfhammer-2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kapfhammer HP |title=[Therapeutic possibilities after traumatic experiences] |journal=[[Psychiatria Danubina]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=532–45 |date=December 2008 |pmid=19011595}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book | vauthors = Reist C |date=2005 |title=Post-traumatic Stress Disorder |location= |publisher=Epocrates.com}}</ref><ref name="Maxmen2002-349">{{cite book |vauthors=Maxmen JS, Ward NG |title=Psychotropic drugs: fast facts |place=New York |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |year=2002 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-393-70301-6 |page=349}}</ref> While benzodiazepines can alleviate acute anxiety, there is no consistent evidence that they can stop the development of PTSD and may actually increase the risk of developing PTSD 2–5 times.<ref name=Gui2015/> Benzodiazepines should not be used in the immediate aftermath of a traumatic event as they may increase symptoms related to PTSD.<ref name="Shalev 2017" />

Benzodiazepines may reduce the effectiveness of psychotherapeutic interventions, and there is some evidence that benzodiazepines may actually contribute to the development and chronification of PTSD. For those who already have PTSD, benzodiazepines may worsen and prolong the course of illness, by worsening psychotherapy outcomes, and causing or exacerbating aggression, depression (including suicidality), and substance use.<ref name=Gui2015/> Drawbacks include the risk of developing a [[benzodiazepine dependence]], [[Drug tolerance|tolerance]] (i.e., short-term benefits wearing off with time), and [[benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome|withdrawal syndrome]]; additionally, individuals with PTSD (even those without a history of alcohol or drug misuse) are at an increased risk of [[benzodiazepine misuse|abusing benzodiazepines]].<ref name="Berger-2009" /><ref name="Martényi-2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Martényi F |title=[Three paradigms in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder] |journal=[[Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=11–21 |date=March 2005 |pmid=16167463}}</ref>

Due to a number of other treatments with greater efficacy for PTSD and fewer risks, benzodiazepines should be considered [[Contraindicated|relatively contraindicated]] until all other treatment options are exhausted.<ref name=Haa2015/><ref name="VA/DoD_2010"/>

Benzodiazepines also carry a risk of disinhibition (associated with suicidality, aggression and crimes) and their use may delay or inhibit more definitive [[treatments for PTSD]].<ref name="Berger-2009"/><ref name="VA/DoD_2010">{{Cite book |title=Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense clinical practice guideline for management of post-traumatic stress. |publisher=VA/DoD |year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bandelow B, Zohar J, Hollander E, Kasper S, Möller HJ, Zohar J, Hollander E, Kasper S, Möller HJ, Bandelow B, Allgulander C, Ayuso-Gutierrez J, Baldwin DS, Buenvicius R, Cassano G, Fineberg N, Gabriels L, Hindmarch I, Kaiya H, Klein DF, Lader M, Lecrubier Y, Lépine JP, Liebowitz MR, Lopez-Ibor JJ, Marazziti D, Miguel EC, Oh KS, Preter M, Rupprecht R, Sato M, Starcevic V, Stein DJ, van Ameringen M, Vega J |title=World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and post-traumatic stress disorders – first revision |journal=The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=248–312 |year=2008 |pmid=18949648 |doi=10.1080/15622970802465807 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Prazosin ====
[[Prazosin]], an alpha-1 adrenergic antagonist, has been used in veterans with PTSD to reduce nightmares. Studies show variability in the symptom improvement, appropriate dosages, and efficacy in this population.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Green B |s2cid=40069887 |title=Prazosin in the treatment of PTSD |journal=[[Journal of Psychiatric Practice]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=253–9 |date=July 2014 |doi=10.1097/01.pra.0000452561.98286.1e |pmid=25036580}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh B, Hughes AJ, Mehta G, Erwin PJ, Parsaik AK |title=Efficacy of Prazosin in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders |volume=18 |issue=4 |date=July 2016 |pmid=27828694 |doi=10.4088/PCC.16r01943 }}</ref><ref name="Waltman_2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Waltman SM, Shearer D, Moore BA |title=Management of Post-Traumatic Nightmares: a Review of Pharmacologic and Nonpharmacologic Treatments Since 2013 |journal=[[Current Psychiatry Reports]] |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=20 |issue=12 |date=2018-10-11 |issn=1523-3812 |pmid=30306339 |doi=10.1007/s11920-018-0971-2 |page=108 |s2cid=52958432}}</ref>

==== Glucocorticoids ====
[[Glucocorticoids]] may be useful for short-term therapy to protect against neurodegeneration caused by the extended stress response that characterizes PTSD, but long-term use may actually promote neurodegeneration.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Griffin GD, Charron D, Al-Daccak R |title=Post-traumatic stress disorder: revisiting adrenergics, glucocorticoids, immune system effects and homeostasis |journal=[[Clinical & Translational Immunology]] |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e27 |date=November 2014 |pmid=25505957 |pmc=4255796 |doi=10.1038/cti.2014.26}}</ref>

==== Cannabinoids ====
{{see also| Cannabis use and trauma}}
[[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] is not recommended as a [[treatment for PTSD]] because scientific evidence does not currently exist demonstrating treatment efficacy for [[cannabinoid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Black N, Stockings E, Campbell G, Tran LT, Zagic D, Hall WD, Farrell M, Degenhardt L |title=Cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=The Lancet. Psychiatry |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=995–1010 |date=December 2019 |pmid=31672337 |pmc=6949116 |doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30401-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Neil ME, Nugent SM, Morasco BJ, Freeman M, Low A, Kondo K, Zakher B, Elven C, Motu'apuaka M, Paynter R, Kansagara D |title=Benefits and Harms of Plant-Based Cannabis for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review |journal=[[Annals of Internal Medicine]] |volume=167 |issue=5 |pages=332–340 |date=September 2017 |pmid=28806794 |doi=10.7326/M17-0477 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{efn|As an ''example ''of such research, see: Bonn-Miller MO, Sisley S, Riggs P, Yazar-Klosinski B, Wang JB, Loflin MJE, et al. (2021) The short-term impact of 3 smoked cannabis preparations versus placebo on PTSD symptoms: A randomized cross-over clinical trial. ''PLOS ONE'' 16(3): e0246990.}} However, use of cannabis or derived products is widespread among U.S. veterans with PTSD.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Betthauser K, Pilz J, Vollmer LE |title=Use and effects of cannabinoids in military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=[[American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy]] |volume=72 |issue=15 |pages=1279–84 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26195653 |doi=10.2146/ajhp140523 |type=Review}}</ref>

The cannabinoid [[nabilone]] is sometimes used for nightmares in PTSD. Although some short-term benefit was shown, adverse effects are common and it has not been adequately studied to determine efficacy.<ref name=CADTH-Nabilone-2015>{{cite journal |title=Long-term Nabilone Use: A Review of the Clinical Effectiveness and Safety |journal=CADTH Rapid Response Reports |date=October 2015 |pmid=26561692 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0079568/}}</ref> An increasing number of states permit and have legalized the use of [[medical cannabis]] for the treatment of PTSD.<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Gregg K |url=http://www.providencejournal.com/news/20160713/raimondo-signs-law-allowing-marijuana-for-treatment-of-ptsd |title=Raimondo signs law allowing marijuana for treatment of PTSD |access-date=18 August 2016 |newspaper=[[The Providence Journal]] |date=2016-07-13 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160816061718/http://www.providencejournal.com/news/20160713/raimondo-signs-law-allowing-marijuana-for-treatment-of-ptsd |archive-date=16 August 2016}}</ref>

=== Other ===

==== Exercise, sport and physical activity ====
Physical activity can influence people's psychological<ref name=CR-Lawrence>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lawrence S, De Silva M, Henley R |title=Sports and games for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |journal=[[Cochrane Library|The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |issue=1 |pages=CD007171 |date=January 2010 |volume=2010 |pmid=20091620 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007171.pub2 |pmc=7390394 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0014346/ |veditors=Lawrence S |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201185206/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0014346/ |url-status=live |archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref> and physical health.<ref name=VA-Jankowski>{{cite web |vauthors=Jankowski K |title=PTSD and physical health |url=http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/pages/ptsd-physical-health.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730103610/http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/pages/ptsd-physical-health.asp |archive-date=30 July 2009 |work=Information on trauma and PTSD for professionals, National Center for PTSD |publisher=[[U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs]] |access-date=8 June 2013}}</ref> The U.S. National Center for PTSD recommends moderate exercise as a way to distract from disturbing emotions, build self-esteem and increase feelings of being in control again. They recommend a discussion with a doctor before starting an exercise program.<ref name=VA-Lifestylerecs>{{cite web |last=U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs |title=Lifestyle Changes Recommended for PTSD Patients |url=http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/coping-ptsd-lifestyle-changes.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731100807/http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/coping-ptsd-lifestyle-changes.asp |archive-date=31 July 2009 |work=Information on trauma and PTSD for veterans, general public and family from the National Center for PTSD |publisher=U.S. [[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |access-date=8 June 2013}}</ref>

==== Play therapy for children ====
Play is thought to help children link their inner thoughts with their outer world, connecting real experiences with abstract thought.<ref name=Wethington2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wethington HR, Hahn RA, Fuqua-Whitley DS, Sipe TA, Crosby AE, Johnson RL, Liberman AM, Mościcki E, Price LN, Tuma FK, Kalra G, Chattopadhyay SK |title=The effectiveness of interventions to reduce psychological harm from traumatic events among children and adolescents: a systematic review |journal=[[American Journal of Preventive Medicine]] |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=287–313 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18692745 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2008.06.024 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0026074 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203040225/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0026074/ |url-status=live |archive-date=3 February 2014}}</ref> Repetitive play can also be one way a child relives traumatic events, and that can be a symptom of trauma in a child or young person.<ref name=Fletcher2003>{{cite book |veditors=Mash EJ |vauthors=Fletcher KE, Barkley RA |title=Child psychopathology |url=https://archive.org/details/childpsychopatho00mash_735 |url-access=limited |year=2003 |chapter=7 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-1-57230-609-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/childpsychopatho00mash_735/page/n342 330]–371 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Although it is commonly used, there have not been enough studies comparing outcomes in groups of children receiving and not receiving [[play therapy]], so the effects of play therapy are not yet understood.<ref name=UK2005/><ref name=Wethington2008 />

==== Military programs ====
Many veterans of the wars in [[Iraq War|Iraq]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]] have faced significant physical, emotional, and relational disruptions. In response, the [[United States Marine Corps]] has instituted programs to assist them in re-adjusting to civilian life, especially in their relationships with spouses and loved ones, to help them communicate better and understand what the other has gone through.<ref name=Marriagetherapy>{{cite news |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/marine-corps-offers-yoga-massages-to-marriages-strained-by-war |title=Marine Corps Offers Yoga, Massages to Marriages Strained by War |agency=Associated Press |date=2008-04-02 |access-date=2008-04-03 |work=[[Fox News]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405164223/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,344991,00.html |archive-date=2008-04-05}}</ref> [[Walter Reed Army Institute of Research]] (WRAIR) developed the [[Battlemind]] program to assist service members avoid or ameliorate PTSD and related problems. [[Wounded Warrior Project]] partnered with the US Department of Veterans Affairs to create [[Warrior Care Network]], a national health system of PTSD treatment centers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.military.com/daily-news/2015/11/06/private-hospital-network-to-help-va-mental-health-care-vets.html |title=Private Hospital Network to Help VA with Mental Health Care for Vets |vauthors=Sweeney H |date=November 6, 2015 |work=Military.com |access-date=2017-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330085254/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2015/11/06/private-hospital-network-to-help-va-mental-health-care-vets.html |archive-date=March 30, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/massachusetts/2016/05/02/changing-culture/CAjKLHyN6c5xobx8sdgKCO/story.html |title=Covering all the bases for veterans |vauthors=Cullen K |date=May 2, 2016 |work=[[The Boston Globe]]|access-date=2017-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330174306/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/massachusetts/2016/05/02/changing-culture/CAjKLHyN6c5xobx8sdgKCO/story.html |archive-date=March 30, 2017}}</ref>

==== Nightmares ====
In 2020, the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] granted marketing approval for an [[Apple Watch]] app call NightWare. The app aims to improve sleep for people suffering from PTSD-related nightmares, by vibrating when it detects a nightmare in progress based on monitoring heart rate and body movement.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kyma.com/videor/2020/11/11/fda-approves-apple-watch-app-nightware-to-treat-ptsd-nightmares/ |title=FDA approves Apple Watch app NightWare to treat PTSD nightmares |website=Kyma|date=11 November 2020 }}</ref>

== Epidemiology ==
[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Disability-adjusted life year]] rates for post-traumatic stress disorder per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004<ref name=WHO2004/>
{{Div col|small=yes|colwidth=8em}}
{{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}}
{{legend|#ffff65|< 43.5}}
{{legend|#fff200|43.5–45}}
{{legend|#ffdc00|45–46.5}}
{{legend|#ffc600|46.5–48}}
{{legend|#ffb000|48–49.5}}
{{legend|#ff9a00|49.5–51}}
{{legend|#ff8400|51–52.5}}
{{legend|#ff6e00|52.5–54}}
{{legend|#ff5800|54–55.5}}
{{legend|#ff4200|55.5–57}}
{{legend|#ff2c00|57–58.5}}
{{legend|#cb0000|> 58.5}}
{{div col end}}]]
There is debate over the rates of PTSD found in populations, but, despite changes in diagnosis and the criteria used to define PTSD between 1997 and 2013, [[Epidemiology|epidemiological]] rates have not changed significantly.<ref name="Brunet2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brunet A, Akerib V, Birmes P |title=Don't throw out the baby with the bathwater (PTSD is not overdiagnosed) |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=52 |issue=8 |pages=501–2; discussion 503 |date=August 2007 |pmid=17955912 |doi=10.1177/070674370705200805 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Milanak ME, Miller MW, Keyes KM, Friedman MJ |title=National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=537–47 |date=October 2013 |pmid=24151000 |pmc=4096796 |doi=10.1002/jts.21848}}</ref> Most of the current reliable data regarding the epidemiology of PTSD is based on DSM-IV criteria, as the DSM-5 was not introduced until 2013.

The United Nations' World Health Organization publishes estimates of PTSD impact for each of its member states; the latest data available are for 2004. Considering only the 25 most populated countries ranked by overall [[Age adjustment|age-standardized]] [[Disability-adjusted life year|Disability-Adjusted Life Year]] (DALY) rate, the top half of the ranked list is dominated by Asian/Pacific countries, the US, and Egypt.<ref name=WHO2004>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls |title=Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States: Persons, all ages (2004) |format=xls |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2004 |access-date=2009-11-12}}</ref> Ranking the countries by the male-only or female-only rates produces much the same result, but with less meaningfulness, as the score range in the single-sex rankings is much-reduced (4 for women, 3 for men, as compared with 14 for the overall score range), suggesting that the differences between female and male rates, within each country, is what drives the distinctions between the countries.<ref name=WHO2004f>{{cite web |url= https://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates_female_2004.xls |title=Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States: Females, all ages (2004) |format=xls |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2004 |access-date=2009-11-12}}</ref><ref name=WHO2004m>{{cite web |url= https://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates_male_2004.xls |title=Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States: Males, all ages (2004) |format=xls |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2004 |access-date=2009-11-12}}</ref>

As of 2017, the cross-national lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 3.9%, based on a survey where 5.6% had been exposed to trauma.<ref name="Koenen_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Koenen KC, Ratanatharathorn A, Ng L, McLaughlin KA, Bromet EJ, Stein DJ, Karam EG, Meron Ruscio A, Benjet C, Scott K, Atwoli L, Petukhova M, Lim CC, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, Alonso J, Bunting B, Ciutan M, de Girolamo G, Degenhardt L, Gureje O, Haro JM, Huang Y, Kawakami N, Lee S, Navarro-Mateu F, Pennell BE, Piazza M, Sampson N, Ten Have M, Torres Y, Viana MC, Williams D, Xavier M, Kessler RC |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys |journal=[[Psychological Medicine]] |volume=47 |issue=13 |pages=2260–2274 |date=October 2017 |pmid=28385165 |pmc=6034513 |doi=10.1017/S0033291717000708}}</ref> The primary factor impacting treatment-seeking behavior, which can help to mitigate PTSD development after trauma was income, while being younger, female, and having less social status (less education, lower individual income, and being unemployed) were all factors associated with less treatment-seeking behavior.<ref name="Koenen_2017" />

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[Age adjustment|Age-standardized]] [[Disability-adjusted life year]] (DALY) rates for PTSD, per 100,000 inhabitants, in 25 most populous countries, ranked by overall rate (2004)
! Region !! Country !! PTSD DALY rate,<br />overall<ref name=WHO2004 /> !! PTSD DALY rate,<br />females<ref name=WHO2004f /> !! PTSD DALY rate,<br />males<ref name=WHO2004m />
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Thailand || 59 || 86 || 30
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Indonesia || 58 || 86 || 30
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Philippines || 58 || 86 || 30
|-
| Americas || USA || 58 || 86 || 30
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Bangladesh || 57 || 85 || 29
|-
| Africa || Egypt || 56 || 83 || 30
|-
| Asia / Pacific || India || 56 || 85 || 29
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Iran || 56 ||83 || 30
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Pakistan || 56 || 85 || 29
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Japan || 55 || 80 || 31
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Myanmar || 55 || 81 || 30
|-
| Europe || Turkey || 55 || 81 || 30
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Vietnam || 55 || 80 || 30
|-
| Europe || France || 54 || 80 || 28
|-
| Europe || Germany || 54 || 80 || 28
|-
| Europe || Italy || 54 || 80 || 28
|-
| Asia / Pacific || Russian Federation || 54 || 78 || 30
|-
| Europe || United Kingdom || 54 || 80 || 28
|-
| Africa || Nigeria || 53 || 76 || 29
|-
| Africa || Dem. Republ. of Congo || 52 || 76 || 28
|-
| Africa || Ethiopia || 52 || 76 || 28
|-
| Africa || South Africa || 52 || 76 || 28
|-
| Asia / Pacific || China || 51 || 76 || 28
|-
| Americas || Mexico || 46 || 60 || 30
|-
| Americas || Brazil || 45 || 60 || 30
|}

=== United States ===
PTSD affects about 5% of the US adult population each year.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nuwer |first1=Rachel |author-link=Rachel Nuwer |title=MDMA Therapy for PTSD Inches Closer to U.S. Approval |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/14/health/mdma-ptsd-psychedelics.html |agency=New York Times |date=Sep 14, 2023}}</ref> 
The [[National Comorbidity Survey|National Comorbidity Survey Replication]] has estimated that the [[lifetime prevalence]] of PTSD among adult Americans is 6.8%, with women (9.7%) more than twice as likely as men<ref name="Olszewski 2005 40" /> (3.6%) to have PTSD at some point in their lives.<ref name=Kessler95>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey |journal=[[Archives of General Psychiatry]] |volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=1048–60 |date=December 1995 |pmid=7492257 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012|s2cid=14189766 }}</ref> More than 60% of men and more than 60% of women experience at least one traumatic event in their life. The most frequently reported traumatic events by men are rape, combat, and childhood neglect or physical abuse. Women most frequently report instances of rape, sexual molestation, physical attack, being threatened with a weapon and childhood physical abuse.<ref name="Olszewski 2005 40" /> 88% of men and 79% of women with lifetime PTSD have at least one [[comorbid]] psychiatric disorder. Major depressive disorder, 48% of men and 49% of women, and lifetime alcohol use disorder or dependence, 51.9% of men and 27.9% of women, are the most common comorbid disorders.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sher L |s2cid=5900319 |title=Neurobiology of suicidal behavior in post-traumatic stress disorder |journal=Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=1233–5 |date=August 2010 |pmid=20662745 |doi=10.1586/ern.10.114}}</ref>

==== Military combat ====
The [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] estimates that 830,000 Vietnam War veterans had symptoms of PTSD.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Mintz S |year=2007 |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=513 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030907033319/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=513 |archive-date=2003-09-07 |title=The War's Costs |website=Digital History}}</ref> The ''National Vietnam Veterans' Readjustment Study'' (NVVRS) found 15% of male and 9% of female Vietnam veterans had PTSD at the time of the study. Life-time prevalence of PTSD was 31% for males and 27% for females. In a reanalysis of the NVVRS data, along with analysis of the data from the Matsunaga Vietnam Veterans Project, Schnurr, Lunney, Sengupta, and Waelde found that, contrary to the initial analysis of the NVVRS data, a large majority of Vietnam veterans had PTSD symptoms (but not the disorder itself). Four out of five reported recent symptoms when interviewed 20–25 years after Vietnam.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |vauthors=Price JL |title=Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans' Readjustment Study – Factsheet |work=United States [[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |publisher=[[National Center for PTSD]] |url=http://ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/fact_shts/fs_nvvrs.html?printable-template=factsheet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430104839/http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/fact_shts/fs_nvvrs.html |archive-date=2009-04-30}}</ref>

A 2011 study from [[Georgia State University]] and [[San Diego State University]] found that rates of PTSD diagnosis increased significantly when troops were stationed in combat zones, had tours of longer than a year, experienced combat, or were injured. Military personnel serving in combat zones were 12.1 percentage points more likely to receive a PTSD diagnosis than their active-duty counterparts in non-combat zones. Those serving more than 12 months in a combat zone were 14.3 percentage points more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD than those having served less than one year.<ref name="Journalistsresource.org">{{cite web |url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/federalstate/psychological-costs-war-military-combat-mental-health/ |title=Psychological Costs of War: Military Combat and Mental Health |publisher=Journalistsresource.org |access-date=2014-01-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202140609/http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/federalstate/psychological-costs-war-military-combat-mental-health/ |archive-date=2014-02-02 |date=2012-02-27}}</ref>

Experiencing an enemy firefight was associated with an 18.3 percentage point increase in the probability of PTSD, while being wounded or injured in combat was associated with a 23.9 percentage point increase in the likelihood of a PTSD diagnosis. For the 2.16&nbsp;million U.S. troops deployed in combat zones between 2001 and 2010, the total estimated two-year costs of treatment for combat-related PTSD are between $1.54&nbsp;billion and $2.69&nbsp;billion.<ref name="Journalistsresource.org"/>

As of 2013, rates of PTSD have been estimated at up to 20% for veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan.<ref name="VAscreen">{{cite book |vauthors=Spoont M, Arbisi P, Fu S, Greer N, Kehle-Forbes S, Meis L, Rutks I, Wilt TJ |title=Screening for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Primary Care: A Systematic Review |date=January 2013 |pmid=23487872 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK126691/ |publisher=[[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |series=VA Evidence-based Synthesis Program Reports}}</ref> As of 2013 13% of veterans returning from Iraq were [[unemployed]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/781380_2 |title=Mission Critical: Getting Vets With PTSD Back to Work |vauthors=Meade BJ, Glenn MK, Wirth O |date=March 29, 2013 |work=NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health |publisher=Medscape & NIOSH |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316003216/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/781380_2 |archive-date=March 16, 2016}}</ref>

==== Human-made disasters ====
The [[September 11 attacks]] took the lives of nearly 3,000 people, leaving 6,000 injured.<ref name="Lowell_2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lowell A, Suarez-Jimenez B, Helpman L, Zhu X, Durosky A, Hilburn A, Schneier F, Gross R, Neria Y |title=9/11-related PTSD among highly exposed populations: a systematic review 15 years after the attack |journal=[[Psychological Medicine]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=537–553 |date=March 2018 |pmid=28805168 |pmc=5805615 |doi=10.1017/S0033291717002033}}</ref> [[Trauma and first responders|First responders]] ([[police]], [[firefighters]], and [[emergency medical technicians]]), sanitation workers, and [[volunteering|volunteers]] were all involved in the recovery efforts. The [[prevalence]] of probable PTSD in these highly exposed populations was estimated across several studies using in-person, telephone, and online [[interview]]s and [[questionnaire]]s.<ref name="Lowell_2018" /><ref name="Perrin_2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Perrin MA, DiGrande L, Wheeler K, Thorpe L, Farfel M, Brackbill R |title=Differences in PTSD prevalence and associated risk factors among World Trade Center disaster rescue and recovery workers |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=164 |issue=9 |pages=1385–94 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17728424 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06101645 |s2cid=22476443}}</ref><ref name="Stellman_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stellman JM, Smith RP, Katz CL, Sharma V, Charney DS, Herbert R, Moline J, Luft BJ, Markowitz S, Udasin I, Harrison D, Baron S, Landrigan PJ, Levin SM, Southwick S |title=Enduring mental health morbidity and social function impairment in world trade center rescue, recovery, and cleanup workers: the psychological dimension of an environmental health disaster |journal=[[Environmental Health Perspectives]] |volume=116 |issue=9 |pages=1248–53 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18795171 |pmc=2535630 |doi=10.1289/ehp.11164|bibcode=2008EnvHP.116.1248S }}</ref> Overall prevalence of PTSD was highest immediately following the attacks and decreased over time. However, disparities were found among the different types of recovery workers.<ref name="Lowell_2018" /><ref name="Perrin_2007" /> The rate of probable PTSD for first responders was lowest directly after the attacks and increased from ranges of 4.8–7.8% to 7.4–16.5% between the 5–6 year follow-up and a later assessment.<ref name="Lowell_2018" />

When comparing traditional responders to non-traditional responders (volunteers), the probable PTSD prevalence 2.5 years after the initial visit was greater in volunteers with estimates of 11.7% and 17.2% respectively.<ref name="Lowell_2018" /> Volunteer participation in tasks atypical to the defined occupational role was a significant risk factor for PTSD.<ref name="Perrin_2007" /> Other risk factors included exposure intensity, earlier start date, duration of time spent on site, and constant, negative reminders of the trauma.<ref name="Lowell_2018" /><ref name="Perrin_2007" />

Additional research has been performed to understand the social consequences of the September 11 attacks. Alcohol consumption was assessed in a cohort of [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] workers using the [[CAGE questionnaire|cut-annoyed-guilty-eye (CAGE) questionnaire]] for [[alcohol use disorder]]. Almost 50% of World Trade Center workers who self-identified as alcohol users reported drinking more during the rescue efforts.<ref name="Stellman_2008" /> Nearly a quarter of these individuals reported drinking more following the recovery.<ref name="Stellman_2008" /> If determined to have probable PTSD status, the risk of developing an alcohol problem was double compared to those without psychological [[morbidity]].<ref name="Stellman_2008" /> Social disability was also studied in this cohort as a social consequence of the September 11 attacks. Defined by the disruption of family, work, and social life, the risk of developing social disability increased 17-fold when categorized as having probable PTSD.<ref name="Stellman_2008" />

== Anthropology ==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2022}}
[[Cultural anthropology|Cultural]] and [[medical anthropologist]]s have questioned the validity of applying the diagnostic criteria of PTSD cross-culturally.<ref name="Moghimi_2012"/>

Trauma (and resulting PTSD) is often experienced through the outermost limits of suffering, pain and fear. The images and experiences relived through PTSD often defy easy description through language. Therefore, the translation of these experiences from one language to another is problematic, and the primarily Euro-American research on trauma is necessarily limited.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Pillen A |date=2016 |title=Language, Translation, Trauma |journal=[[Annual Review of Anthropology]] |volume=45 |pages=95–111 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102215-100232|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] suggests that people perceive the world differently according to the language they speak: language and the world it exists within reflect back on the perceptions of the speaker.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Skerrett DM |date=2010 |title=Can the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis save the planet? lessons from cross-cultural psychology for critical language policy |journal=[[Current Issues in Language Planning]] |volume=11 |number=4 |pages=331–340 |doi=10.1080/14664208.2010.534236|s2cid=144639205 }}</ref>

For example, ethnopsychology studies in Nepal have found that cultural idioms and concepts related to trauma often do not translate to western terminologies: ''piDaa'' is a term that may align to trauma/suffering, but also people who suffer from ''piDaa'' are considered ''paagal'' (mad) and are subject to negative social stigma, indicating the need for culturally appropriate and carefully tailored support interventions.<ref name="search.ebscohost.com">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kohrt BA, Hrushka DJ |date=2010 |title=Nepali concepts of psychological trauma: the role of idioms of distress, ethnopsychology and ethnophysiology in alleviating suffering and preventing stigma |journal=[[Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry]] |volume=34 |number=2 |pages=322–352 |doi=10.1007/s11013-010-9170-2 |pmid=20309724 |pmc=3819627}}</ref> More generally, different cultures remember traumatic experiences within different linguistic and cultural paradigms. As such, cultural and medical anthropologists have questioned the validity of applying the diagnostic criteria of PTSD cross-culturally, as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III),{{Update inline|date=November 2022|reason=has the DSM-V addressed this issue?}} and constructed through the Euro-American paradigm of psychology.<ref name="Moghimi_2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moghimi Y |date=2012 |title=Anthropological discourses on the globalization of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in post-conflict societies |journal=[[Journal of Psychiatric Practice]] |volume=18 |number=1 |pages=29–37|doi=10.1097/01.pra.0000410985.53970.3b |pmid=22261981 |s2cid=36228060}}</ref>

There remains a dearth of studies into the conceptual frameworks that surround trauma in non-Western cultures.<ref name="Moghimi_2012" /> There is little evidence to suggest therapeutic benefit in synthesizing local idioms of distress into a culturally constructed disorder of the post-Vietnam era, a practice anthropologist believe contributes to category fallacy.{{Clarify|reason=what is category fallacy?|date=September 2022}}<ref name="Moghimi_2012"/> For many cultures there is no single linguistic corollary to PTSD, psychological trauma being a multi-faceted concept with corresponding variances of expression.<ref name="search.ebscohost.com"/>

Designating the effects of trauma as an affliction of the spirit is common in many non-Western cultures where idioms such as "soul loss" and "weak heart" indicate a preference to confer suffering to a spirit-body or heart-body diametric. These idioms reflect the emphasis that collectivist cultures place on healing trauma through familial, cultural and religious activities while avoiding the stigma that accompanies a mind-body approach.<ref name="Moghimi_2012"/> Prescribing PTSD diagnostics within these communities is ineffective and often detrimental.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} For trauma that extends beyond the individual, such as the effects of war, anthropologists believe applying the term "social suffering" or "[[cultural bereavement]]" to be more beneficial.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pedersen D, Tremblay J, Errázuriz C, Gamarra J | title = The sequelae of political violence: assessing trauma, suffering and dislocation in the Peruvian highlands | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 67 | issue = 2 | pages = 205–217 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18423959 | doi = 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.040 }}</ref>

Every facet of society is affected by conflict; the prolonged exposure to mass violence can lead to a 'continuous suffering' among civilians, soldiers, and bordering countries.<ref name="doi.org">{{cite book |vauthors=Maedel A, Schauer E, Odenwald M, Elbert T |date=2010 |title=Psychological Rehabilitation of Ex-combatants in Non-Western, Post-conflict Settings, Trauma Rehabilitation After War and Conflict |publisher=Springer |location=New York, NY |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-5722-1_9}}</ref> Entered into the DSM in 1980, clinicians and psychiatrists based the diagnostic criteria for PTSD around American veterans of the Vietnam War.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crocq MA, Crocq L | title = From shell shock and war neurosis to posttraumatic stress disorder: a history of psychotraumatology | journal = Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–55 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 22033462 | pmc = 3181586 | doi = 10.31887/DCNS.2000.2.1/macrocq | s2cid = 24931891 }}</ref> Though the DSM gets reviewed and updated regularly, it is unable to fully encompass the disorder due to its Americanization (or Westernization).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Regier DA, Kuhl EA, Kupfer DJ | title = The DSM-5: Classification and criteria changes | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 92–98 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23737408 | pmc = 3683251 | doi = 10.1002/wps.20050 }}</ref> That is, what may be considered characteristics of PTSD in western society, may not directly translate across to other cultures around the world. Displaced people of the African country Burundi experienced symptoms of depression and anxiety, though few symptoms specific to PTSD were noted.<ref name="Herbert_2010">{{cite book |vauthors=Herbert JD, Forman EM |date=2010 |chapter=Cross-cultural perspectives on posttraumatic stress |title=Clinician's Guide to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |pages=235–261 |doi=10.1002/9781118269961.ch10|isbn=978-0-470-45095-6 }}</ref>

In a similar review, Sudanese refugees relocated in Uganda were 'concerned with material [effects]' (lack of food, shelter, and healthcare), rather than psychological distress.<ref name="Herbert_2010" /> In this case, many refugees did not present symptoms at all, with a minor few developing anxiety and depression.<ref name="Herbert_2010" /> War-related stresses and traumas will be ingrained in the individual,<ref name="doi.org"/> however they will be affected differently from culture to culture, and the "clear-cut" rubric for diagnosing PTSD does not allow for culturally contextual reactions to take place.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

== Veterans ==
[[File:Vietnam War Memorial Washington DC Maya Lin-editA.jpg|thumb|[[Vietnam Veterans Memorial]], [[Washington, D.C.]]]]

=== United States ===
{{See also|Benefits for US Veterans with PTSD}} <!-- Please see the Talk page for this article for a discussion about this section. -->
The United States provides a range of benefits for veterans that the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|VA]] has determined have PTSD, which developed during, or as a result of, their military service. These benefits may include tax-free cash payments,<ref>{{cite web |title=VA Compensation Rate Table |url=http://www.vba.va.gov/bln/21/Rates/comp01.htm |work=[[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |access-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103153745/http://www.vba.va.gov/bln/21/rates/comp01.htm |archive-date=3 November 2012}}</ref> free or low-cost mental health treatment and other healthcare,<ref>{{cite web |title=Access VA Health Benefits |url=http://www.va.gov/healthbenefits/access/ |work=[[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |access-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016204408/http://www.va.gov/healthbenefits/access/ |archive-date=16 October 2012}}</ref> vocational rehabilitation services,<ref>{{cite web |title=VA Vocational Rehabilitation |url=http://www.vba.va.gov/bln/vre/ |work=[[Department of Veterans Affairs]] |access-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019193548/http://www.vba.va.gov/bln/vre/ |archive-date=19 October 2012}}</ref> employment assistance,<ref>{{cite web |title=Vet Success |url=http://vetsuccess.gov |work=[[Department of Veterans Affairs]] + State Government Veterans Agencies |access-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019193551/http://vetsuccess.gov/ |archive-date=19 October 2012}}</ref> and independent living support.<ref>{{cite web |title=Independent Living Support for Veterans |url=http://www.vba.va.gov/bln/vre/ilp.htm |work=Department of Veterans Affairs |access-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024180323/http://www.vba.va.gov/bln/vre/ilp.htm |archive-date=24 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Veterans Benefits |url=http://www.vba.va.gov/VBA/ |publisher=Veterans Benefits Administration |access-date=30 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121126185724/http://www.vba.va.gov/VBA/ |archive-date=26 November 2012}}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
In the UK, there are various charities and service organisations dedicated to aiding veterans in readjusting to civilian life. [[The Royal British Legion]] and the more recently established [[Help for Heroes]] are two of Britain's more high-profile veterans' organisations which have actively advocated for veterans over the years. There has been some controversy that the [[National Health Service|NHS]] has not done enough in tackling mental health issues and is instead "dumping" veterans on charities such as [[Combat Stress]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/lance-corporal-johnson-beharry-accuses-government-of-neglecting-soldiers-f0h9rdp29qk |title=Lance Corporal Johnson Beharry accuses Government of neglecting soldiers |work=[[The Times]] |date=February 28, 2009 |access-date=2025-01-18 |location=London |vauthors=Dixon L}} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7916852.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219060821/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7916852.stm |archive-date=2014-02-19 |title=UK &#124; Full interview: L/Cpl Johnson Beharry |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2009-02-28 |access-date=2009-08-29 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Canada ===
[[Veterans Affairs Canada]] provides assistance to disabled veterans that includes rehabilitation, financial aid, job placement, healthcare, disability compensation, [[peer support]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osiss.ca/engraph/index_e.asp |title=The Operational Stress Injury Social Support (OSISS) Program for Canadian Veterans |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706192633/http://www.osiss.ca/engraph/index_e.asp |archive-date=6 July 2011 }} See also {{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/pdf/deptReports/OSISS-Eval-Final-Rpt-Jan05(Nov04-05)-eng.pdf |title=Evaluation of the OSISS Peer Support Network |publisher=Dept. of National Defence and Veterans Affairs Canada |date=January 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140130040959/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/pdf/deptReports/OSISS-Eval-Final-Rpt-Jan05(Nov04-05)-eng.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/vo9/no1/09-richardson-eng.asp |year=2008 |title=Operational Stress Injury Social Support: a Canadian innovation in professional peer support |journal=Canadian Military Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=57–64 |access-date=2014-01-30 |vauthors=Richardson JD, Darte K, Grenier S, English A, Sharpe J |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131221173442/http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/vo9/no1/09-richardson-eng.asp |archive-date=2013-12-21}}</ref> and family support.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/clients/sub.cfm?source=Forces/nvc&CFID=9295860&CFTOKEN=39698927 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619065006/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/clients/sub.cfm?source=Forces%2Fnvc&CFID=661705&CFTOKEN=25812540 |archive-date=2006-06-19 |title=The New Veterans Charter for CF Veterans and their Families |publisher=Vac-Acc.Gc.Ca |date=2006-07-12 |access-date=2009-08-29 }}</ref>

== History ==
{{See also|List of people with post-traumatic stress disorder}}
Aspects of PTSD in soldiers of ancient [[Assyria]] have been identified using written sources from 1300 to 600 BCE. These Assyrian soldiers would undergo a three-year rotation of combat before being allowed to return home, and were reported to have faced immense challenges in reconciling their past actions in war with their civilian lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/ancient-assyrian-soldiers-were-haunted-war-too-180954022/|title=Ancient Assyrian Soldiers Were Haunted by War, Too|first1=Smithsonian|last1=Magazine|first2=Laura|last2=Clark|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref>

Connections between the actions of Viking [[berserkers]] and the hyperarousal of post-traumatic stress disorder have also been drawn.<ref>{{cite book |title=War and Violence in Ancient Greece |vauthors=Shay J |date=2000 |publisher=Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales |isbn=0-7156-3046-6 |pages=31–56 |chapter=Killing rage: physis or nomos—or both}}</ref>

Psychiatrist [[Jonathan Shay]] has proposed that [[Lady Percy]]'s [[soliloquy]] in the [[William Shakespeare]] play ''[[Henry IV, Part 1]]'' (act 2, scene 3, lines 40–62<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry IV, Part I, Act II, Scene 3 |url=http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/play_view.php?WorkID=henry4p1&Act=2&Scene=3&Scope=scene |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327183019/http://opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/play_view.php?WorkID=henry4p1&Act=2&Scene=3&Scope=scene |archive-date=2014-03-27 |access-date=2014-01-30 |work=Open Source Shakespeare}}</ref>), written around 1597, represents an unusually accurate description of the symptom constellation of PTSD.<ref>{{cite book |title=Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character |vauthors=Shay J |publisher=Scribner |year=1994 |pages=165–66}}</ref>

Many historical wartime diagnoses such as [[railway spine]], stress syndrome, [[homesickness|nostalgia]], soldier's heart, [[shell shock]], [[Combat stress reaction|battle fatigue]], [[combat stress reaction]], and traumatic war neurosis are now associated with PTSD.<ref>{{cite book |title=Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of the Genome |vauthors=Andreasen NC |date=Feb 19, 2004 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-516728-3 |location=New York |page=303 |author-link=Nancy Coover Andreasen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jones JA |date=2013 |title=From Nostalgia to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Mass Society Theory of Psychological Reactions to Combat. |url=http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/727/from-nostalgia-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-a-mass-society-theory-of-psychological-reactions-to-combat |journal=Inquiries Journal |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=1–3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140217051451/http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/727/from-nostalgia-to-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-a-mass-society-theory-of-psychological-reactions-to-combat |archive-date=2014-02-17}}</ref>

The correlations between combat and PTSD are undeniable; according to Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau and Annette Becker, "One-tenth of mobilized American men were hospitalized for mental disturbances between 1942 and 1945, and, after thirty-five days of uninterrupted combat, 98% of them manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying degrees."<ref>{{cite web |title=World War One – A New Kind of War, Part II |url=http://www.ralphmag.org/CG/world-war-one2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191857/http://www.ralphmag.org/CG/world-war-one2.html |archive-date=2016-03-03 |url-status=usurped |work=www.ralphmag.org}}, From ''14 – 18 Understanding the Great War'', by Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker{{incomplete short citation|date=January 2014}}</ref>

The DSM-I (1952) includes a diagnosis of "gross stress reaction", which has similarities to the modern definition and understanding of PTSD.<ref name="Posttraumatic stress disorder: a history and a critique">{{cite journal |vauthors=Andreasen NC |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder: a history and a critique |journal=[[Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences]] |volume=1208 |issue=Psychiatric and Neurologic Aspects of War |pages=67–71 |date=October 2010 |pmid=20955327 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05699.x |bibcode=2010NYASA1208...67A |s2cid=42645212}}</ref> Gross stress reaction is defined as a normal personality using established patterns of reaction to deal with overwhelming fear as a response to conditions of great stress.<ref name="DSM-I">{{cite book |last1=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual |date=1952 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association Mental Hospital Service |isbn=978-0-89042-017-1 |page=326.3|author1-link=American Psychiatric Association }}</ref> The diagnosis includes language which relates the condition to combat as well as to "civilian catastrophe".<ref name="DSM-I" />

[[File:Statue Three Servicemen Vietnam Veterans Memorial-editA.png|thumb|Statue, ''Three Servicemen'', Vietnam Veterans Memorial]]

The addition of the term to the DSM-III was greatly influenced by the experiences and conditions of U.S. military veterans of the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="AllInTheMind">{{cite web|title=When trauma tips you over: PTSD Part 1 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/allinthemind/stories/2004/1214098.htm |series=All in the Mind |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Commission |date=9 October 2004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603155139/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/allinthemind/stories/2004/1214098.htm |archive-date=3 June 2008}}</ref> In fact, much of the available published research regarding PTSD is based on studies done on veterans of the war in Vietnam.

Because of the initial overt focus on PTSD as a combat related disorder when it was first fleshed out in the years following the war in Vietnam, in 1975 [[Ann Wolbert Burgess]] and Lynda Lytle Holmstrom defined [[rape trauma syndrome]] (RTS) in order to draw attention to the striking similarities between the experiences of soldiers returning from war and of rape victims.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/victimo_hol_1978_00_0399 |title=The Victim of Rape: Institutional Reactions |vauthors=Holmstrom LL, Burgess AW |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-471-40785-0 |url-access=registration}}</ref> This paved the way for a more comprehensive understanding of causes of PTSD.

Early in 1978, the diagnosis term "post-traumatic stress disorder" was first recommended in a working group finding presented to the Committee of Reactive Disorders.<ref name="IHHRT">{{cite book |url=http://www.istss.org/what/history2.cfm |title=International handbook of human response to trauma |vauthors=Shalev AY, Yehuda R, McFarlane AC |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic]]/Plenum Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-306-46095-1 |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617045846/http://www.istss.org/what/history2.cfm |archive-date=2007-06-17 |url-status=dead}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

A USAF study carried out in 1979 focused on individuals (civilian and military) who had worked to recover or identify the remains of those who died in [[Jonestown]]. The bodies had been dead for several days, and a third of them had been children. The study used the term "dysphoria" to describe PTSD-like symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1982-04-01 |title=Emotional Effects on USAF Personnel of Recovering and Identifying Victims from Jonestown, Guyana |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a115592.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608170611/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a115592.pdf |archive-date=8 June 2019 |vauthors=Jones DR, Fischer JR}}</ref>

After PTSD became an official American psychiatric diagnosis with the publication of DSM-III (1980), the number of [[personal injury]] lawsuits ([[tort]] claims) asserting the plaintiff had PTSD increased rapidly. However, [[Trier of fact|triers of fact]] (judges and juries) often regarded the PTSD diagnostic criteria as imprecise, a view shared by legal scholars, trauma specialists, [[forensic psychology|forensic psychologists]], and [[forensic psychiatry|forensic psychiatrists]]. The condition was termed "posttraumatic stress disorder" in the [[DSM-III]] (1980).<ref name="Posttraumatic stress disorder: a history and a critique" /><ref name="IHHRT" />

Professional discussions and debates in academic journals, at conferences, and between thought leaders, led to a more clearly-defined set of diagnostic criteria in DSM-IV (1994), particularly the definition of a "traumatic event".<ref>{{Cite web |title=PTSD, the Traumatic Principle and Lawsuits |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/ptsd-traumatic-principle-and-lawsuits |access-date=2018-06-25 |work=Psychiatric Times |vauthors=Scrignar CB|date=2 August 1999 }}</ref> The DSM-IV classified PTSD under anxiety disorders. In the [[ICD-10]] (first used in 1994), the spelling of the condition was "post-traumatic stress disorder".<ref name="icd10-2007">{{cite web |year=2007 |title=International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision Version for 2007 |url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online2007/index.htm?gf40.htm+F431 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205050052/http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online2007/index.htm?gf40.htm+F431 |archive-date=December 5, 2014 |access-date=October 3, 2011 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref>

In 2012, the researchers from the Grady Trauma Project highlighted the tendency people have to focus on the combat side of PTSD: "less public awareness has focused on civilian PTSD, which results from trauma exposure that is not combat related..." and "much of the research on civilian PTSD has focused on the sequelae of a single, disastrous event, such as the [[Oklahoma City bombing]], [[September 11th attacks]], and [[Hurricane Katrina]]".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Civilian PTSD Symptoms and Risk for Involvement in the Criminal Justice System |journal=[[Journal of the Academy of Psychiatry and the Law]] |date=2012-12-01 |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=522–529 |issn=1093-6793 |url=http://www.jaapl.org/content/40/4/522.full?sid=b7a23ae3-d147-48af-b8fc-310fa08605e7 |access-date=2014-11-29}}</ref> Disparity in the focus of PTSD research affected the already popular perception of the exclusive interconnectedness of combat and PTSD. This is misleading when it comes to understanding the implications and extent of PTSD as a neurological disorder.

The DSM-5 (2013) created a new category called "trauma and stressor-related disorders", in which PTSD is now classified.<ref name="DSM5" />

America's 2014 National Comorbidity Survey reports that "the traumas most commonly associated with PTSD are combat exposure and witnessing among men and rape and sexual molestation among women."<ref name="Kessler95" />

== Terminology ==
{{Redirect-distinguish|PTSS|Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome}}
The ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' does not hyphenate "post" and "traumatic", thus, the [[DSM-5]] lists the disorder as ''posttraumatic stress disorder''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=DSM-5 |url=http://repository.poltekkes-kaltim.ac.id/657/1/Diagnostic%20and%20statistical%20manual%20of%20mental%20disorders%20_%20DSM-5%20(%20PDFDrive.com%20).pdf|access-date=10 January 2022|via=Archive.Today}}</ref> However, many scientific journal articles and other scholarly publications do hyphenate the name of the disorder, ''viz.'', "post-traumatic stress disorder".<ref>{{cite web |title=Search results: 'post-traumatic stress disorder' in the title of a journal article |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=post-traumatic%20stress%20disorder%5BTitle%5D |publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine |access-date=21 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514050330/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=post-traumatic%20stress%20disorder%5BTitle%5D |archive-date=14 May 2016}}</ref> Dictionaries also differ with regard to the preferred spelling of the disorder with the ''Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged'' using the hyphenated spelling, and the ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition'' and the ''Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary'' giving the non-hyphenated spelling.<ref>{{cite web |title=PTSD |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/PTSD |website=[[TheFreeDictionary.com]] |publisher=Farlex, Inc. |access-date=21 January 2015}}</ref>

Some authors have used the terms "'''post-traumatic stress syndrome'''" or "'''post-traumatic stress symptoms'''" ("'''PTSS'''"),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Righy C, Rosa RG, da Silva RT, Kochhann R, Migliavaca CB, Robinson CC, Teche SP, Teixeira C, Bozza FA, Falavigna M | title = Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adult critical care survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Critical Care | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 213 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 31186070 | pmc = 6560853 | doi = 10.1186/s13054-019-2489-3 | doi-access = free }}</ref> or simply "'''post-traumatic stress'''" ("'''PTS'''") in the case of the [[U.S. Department of Defense]],<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Thompson M |title=The Disappearing 'Disorder': Why PTSD is becoming PTS |url=https://nation.time.com/2011/06/05/the-disappearing-disorder-why-ptsd-is-becoming-pts/ |access-date=3 October 2018 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=2011 |url-access=limited}}</ref> to avoid stigma associated with the word "disorder".

The comedian [[George Carlin]] criticized the [[euphemism treadmill]] which led to progressive change of the way PTSD was referred to over the course of the 20th century, from "[[shell shock]]" in the [[World War I|First World War]] to the "battle fatigue" in the [[World War II|Second World War]], to "operational exhaustion" in the [[Korean War]], to the current "post-traumatic stress disorder", coined during the [[Vietnam War]], which "added a hyphen" and which, he commented, "completely burie[s] [the pain] under [[jargon]]". He also stated that the name given to the condition has had a direct effect on the way veteran soldiers with PTSD were treated and perceived by civilian populations over time.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mcsweeneys.net/articles/george-carlin-euphemism-fighter-supreme |title=George Carlin: Euphemism Fighter Supreme |vauthors=Peters M |date=19 May 2017 |website=McSweeny's |access-date=3 April 2019}}</ref>

== Research ==
Most knowledge regarding PTSD comes from studies in high-income countries.<ref name="FodorUnterhitzenberger2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fodor KE, Unterhitzenberger J, Chou CY, Kartal D, Leistner S, Milosavljevic M, Nocon A, Soler L, White J, Yoo S, Alisic E |title=Is traumatic stress research global? A bibliometric analysis |journal=[[European Journal of Psychotraumatology]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=23269 |year=2014 |pmid=24563730 |pmc=3930940 |doi=10.3402/ejpt.v5.23269}}</ref>

To recapitulate some of the neurological and neurobehavioral symptoms experienced by the [[veteran]] population of recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, researchers at the [[Roskamp Institute]] and the James A Haley Veteran's Hospital (Tampa) have developed an animal model to study the consequences of [[mild traumatic brain injury]] (mTBI) and PTSD.<ref name="Ojo2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ojo JO, Greenberg MB, Leary P, Mouzon B, Bachmeier C, Mullan M, Diamond DM, Crawford F |title=Neurobehavioral, neuropathological and biochemical profiles in a novel mouse model of co-morbid post-traumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury |journal=[[Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience]] |volume=8 |pages=213 |date=December 2014 |pmid=25002839 |pmc= 4067099 |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00213 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the laboratory, the researchers exposed mice to a repeated session of unpredictable stressor (i.e. predator odor while restrained), and physical trauma in the form of inescapable foot-shock, and this was also combined with a mTBI. In this study, PTSD animals demonstrated recall of [[traumatic memories]], anxiety, and an impaired social behavior, while animals subject to both mTBI and PTSD had a pattern of disinhibitory-like behavior. mTBI abrogated both contextual fear and impairments in social behavior seen in PTSD animals. In comparison with other animal studies,<ref name="Ojo2014" /><ref name="Poulos 2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Poulos AM, Reger M, Mehta N, Zhuravka I, Sterlace SS, Gannam C, Hovda DA, Giza CC, Fanselow MS |title=Amnesia for early life stress does not preclude the adult development of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in rats |journal=[[Biological Psychiatry]] |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=306–14 |date=August 2014 |pmid=24231200 |pmc=3984614 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.10.007}}</ref> examination of [[Neuroendocrine cell|neuroendocrine]] and [[neuroimmune system|neuroimmune]] responses in plasma revealed a trend toward increase in [[corticosterone]] in PTSD and combination groups.

[[Stellate ganglion]] block is an experimental procedure for the [[Treatments for PTSD|treatment of PTSD]].<ref name="StatPearls SGBs">{{cite journal |vauthors=Piraccini E, Munakomi S, Chang KV |title=Stellate Ganglion Blocks |year=2020 |pmid=29939575 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507798/ |journal=StatPearls |publisher=StatPearls Publishing LLC}}</ref>

Researchers are investigating a number of experimental FAAH and MAGL-inhibiting drugs in hopes of finding a better treatment for anxiety and stress-related illnesses.<ref name="ECS_Stress_Related">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hill MN, Patel S |title=Translational evidence for the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in stress-related psychiatric illnesses |journal=[[Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=19 |date=October 2013 |pmid=24286185 |pmc=3817535 |doi=10.1186/2045-5380-3-19 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2016, the FAAH-inhibitor drug [[BIA 10-2474]] was withdrawn from human trials in France due to adverse effects.<ref name="BIA_10_2474">{{cite web |title=New clues to why a French drug trial went horribly wrong |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/new-clues-why-french-drug-trial-went-horribly-wrong |publisher=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |vauthors=Feldwisch-Drentrup H |access-date=11 December 2019 |date=July 2002}}</ref>

Evidence from clinical trials suggests that [[MDMA-assisted psychotherapy]] is an effective [[Treatments for PTSD|treatment for PTSD]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mitchell JM, Bogenschutz M, Lilienstein A, Harrison C, Kleiman S, Parker-Guilbert K, Ot'alora GM, Garas W, Paleos C, Gorman I, Nicholas C, Mithoefer M, Carlin S, Poulter B, Mithoefer A, Quevedo S, Wells G, Klaire SS, van der Kolk B, Tzarfaty K, Amiaz R, Worthy R, Shannon S, Woolley JD, Marta C, Gelfand Y, Hapke E, Amar S, Wallach Y, Brown R, Hamilton S, Wang JB, Coker A, Matthews R, de Boer A, Yazar-Klosinski B, Emerson A, Doblin R | title = MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 27 | issue = 6 | pages = 1025–1033 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 33972795 | pmc = 8205851 | doi = 10.1038/s41591-021-01336-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Singleton SP, Wang JB, Mithoefer M, Hanlon C, George MS, Mithoefer A, Mithoefer O, Coker AR, Yazar-Klosinski B, Emerson A, Doblin R, Kuceyeski A | title = Altered brain activity and functional connectivity after MDMA-assisted therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 13 | pages = 947622 | date = 2023 | pmid = 36713926 | pmc = 9879604 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.947622 | doi-access = free }}</ref> On August 9, 2024, the FDA issued a letter stating that a further trial was necessary to ascertain that the benefits of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy outweighed the potential harms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reardon |first=Sara |date=2024-08-13 |title=FDA rejects ecstasy as a therapy: what's next for psychedelics? |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-02597-x |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-02597-x|pmid=39143279 }}</ref> Positive findings in clinical trials of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy might be substantially influenced by expectancy effects given the unblinding of participants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Muthukumaraswamy SD, Forsyth A, Lumley T | title = Blinding and expectancy confounds in psychedelic randomized controlled trials | journal = Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 14 | issue = 9 | pages = 1133–1152 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34038314 | doi = 10.1080/17512433.2021.1933434 | s2cid = 235215630 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Burke MJ, Blumberger DM | title = Caution at psychiatry's psychedelic frontier | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 27 | issue = 10 | pages = 1687–1688 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34635858 | doi = 10.1038/s41591-021-01524-1 | s2cid = 238635462 }}</ref> To prevent this confounding factor, it has been suggested that future trials compare MDMA against an active placebo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fong |first=Benjamin Y. |date=2024-08-12 |title=FDA rejects MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD treatment – a drug researcher explains the challenges psychedelics face |url=https://theconversation.com/fda-rejects-mdma-assisted-therapy-for-ptsd-treatment-a-drug-researcher-explains-the-challenges-psychedelics-face-236383#:~:text=In%20June%202024,%20an%20FDA,for%20the%20treatment%20of%20PTSD. |access-date=2024-09-30 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> There is a lack of trials comparing MDMA-assisted psychotherapy to existent first-line treatments for PTSD, such as trauma-focused psychological treatments, which seems to achieve similar or even better outcomes than MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA | title = Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 27 | issue = 10 | pages = 1689–1690 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34635857 | doi = 10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0 | s2cid = 238636360 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03414583/file/Halvorsen%20et%20al%20-%202021%20-%20Challenges%20with%20benchmarking%20of%20MDMA-assisted%20psychotherapy.pdf }}</ref>

=== Psychotherapy ===
Trauma-focused psychotherapies for PTSD (also known as "exposure-based" or "exposure" psychotherapies), such as prolonged exposure therapy (PE), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and cognitive-reprocessing therapy (CPT) have the most evidence for efficacy and are recommended as first-line treatment for PTSD by almost all clinical practice guidelines.<ref name="Examining military population and t">{{cite journal |vauthors=Straud CL, Siev J, Messer S, Zalta AK |title=Examining military population and trauma type as moderators of treatment outcome for first-line psychotherapies for PTSD: A meta-analysis |journal=[[Journal of Anxiety Disorders]] |volume=67 |pages=102133 |date=October 2019 |pmid=31472332 |pmc=6739153 |doi=10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.102133}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hamblen JL, Norman SB, Sonis JH, Phelps AJ, Bisson JI, Nunes VD, Megnin-Viggars O, Forbes D, Riggs DS, Schnurr PP |title=A guide to guidelines for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: An update |journal=[[Psychotherapy (journal)|Psychotherapy]] |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=359–373 |date=September 2019 |pmid=31282712 |doi=10.1037/pst0000231 |s2cid=195829939 |url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/131829/1/CPG%20Review%20of%20Guidelines%20111218.%20CC%20edit%2003_02_19%20revision%20clean.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kline AC, Cooper AA, Rytwinksi NK, Feeny NC |title=Long-term efficacy of psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=[[Clinical Psychology Review]] |volume=59 |pages=30–40 |date=February 2018 |pmid=29169664 |pmc=5741501 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.009}}</ref> Exposure-based psychotherapies demonstrate efficacy for PTSD caused by different trauma "types", such as combat, sexual-assault, or natural disasters.<ref name="Examining military population and t"/> At the same time, many trauma-focused psychotherapies evince high drop-out rates.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goetter EM, Bui E, Ojserkis RA, Zakarian RJ, Brendel RW, Simon NM |title=A Systematic Review of Dropout From Psychotherapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Iraq and Afghanistan Combat Veterans |journal=[[Journal of Traumatic Stress]] |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=401–9 |date=October 2015 |pmid=26375387 |doi=10.1002/jts.22038|s2cid=25316702 }}</ref>

Most systematic reviews and clinical guidelines indicate that psychotherapies for PTSD, most of which are trauma-focused therapies, are more effective than pharmacotherapy (medication),<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Merz J, Schwarzer G, Gerger H |title=Comparative Efficacy and Acceptability of Pharmacological, Psychotherapeutic, and Combination Treatments in Adults With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Network Meta-analysis |journal=[[JAMA Psychiatry]] |volume=76 |issue=9 |pages=904–913 |date=June 2019 |pmid=31188399 |pmc=6563588 |doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0951}}</ref> although there are reviews that suggest exposure-based psychotherapies for PTSD and pharmacotherapy are equally effective.<ref>{{Cite book |vauthors=Forman-Hoffman V, Middleton JC, Feltner C, Gaynes BN, Weber RP, Bann C, Viswanathan M, Lohr KN, Baker C, Green J |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525132/ |title=Psychological and Pharmacological Treatments for Adults With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review Update |date=2018 |publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US) |series=AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews |location=Rockville, MD |pmid=30204376}}</ref> Interpersonal psychotherapy shows preliminary evidence of probable efficacy, but more research is needed to reach definitive conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Althobaiti S, Kazantzis N, Ofori-Asenso R, Romero L, Fisher J, Mills KE, Liew D |title=Efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[Journal of Affective Disorders]] |volume=264 |pages=286–294 |date=March 2020 |pmid=32056763 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2019.12.021 |s2cid=211111940}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Psychiatry}}
{{Div col|content=* [[Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder]]
* [[Internet interventions for post-traumatic stress]]
* [[Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors]]
* [[Post-traumatic embitterment disorder]]
* [[Post-traumatic growth]]
* [[Post-traumatic stress disorder after World War II]]
* [[Post-traumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders]]
* [[Symptoms of victimization]]
* [[Traumatic stress]]
* [[Impact of prostitution on mental health]]
|colwidth=50em}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Free-content attribution
| title = A Lifeline to learning: leveraging mobile technology to support education for refugees
| author = UNESCO
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261278
| license statement URL = 
| license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.nctsn.org/resources Post traumatic stress disorder information from The National Child Traumatic Stress Network]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130425020526/http://www.som.uq.edu.au/ptsd Information resources from The University of Queensland School of Medicine]
* [http://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/ APA practice parameters for assessment and treatment for PTSD (Updated 2017)]
* [http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/index.asp Resources for professionals from the VA National PTSD Center]

{{Medical condition classification and resources
| DiseasesDB     = 33846
| ICD10          = {{ICD10|F|43|1|f|40}}
| ICD9           = {{ICD9|309.81}}
| ICDO           =
| OMIM           =
| MedlinePlus    = 000925
| eMedicineSubj  = med
| eMedicineTopic = 1900
| MeshID         = D013313
}}
{{Mental and behavioral disorders|selected = neurotic}}
{{Trauma |state=autocollapse}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Post-traumatic stress disorder| ]]
[[Category:Adverse childhood experiences]]
[[Category:History of psychology]]
[[Category:Homelessness]]
[[Category:Military medicine]]
[[Category:Military psychiatry]]
[[Category:Military sociology]]
[[Category:Military veterans topics]]
[[Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate]]
[[Category:Stress-related disorders]]
[[Category:Trauma types]]
[[Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate]]