Editing Porus

{{short description|4th century BC Indian ruler}}
{{other uses|Porus (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = File:Porus alexander coin.png
| name         = Porus
| caption      = King Porus (on elephant) fighting [[Alexander the Great]], on a "victory coin" of Alexander (minted c. 324–322 BC)<ref>See Keyne Cheshire, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2-4R0sLEBPgC&pg=PA139 ''Alexander the Great''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817145951/https://books.google.com/books?id=2-4R0sLEBPgC&pg=PA139 |date=17 August 2023 }} (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p.139: "Alexander charges Porus, who hurls a javelin from atop his elephant"</ref>
| reign        = before 326 – {{circa}} 317 BC
| birth_name   = 
| birth_date   = 
| birth_place  = [[Punjab]]
| death_date   = {{circa|321|315 BC}}
| death_place  = [[Punjab]]
| father       = 
| mother       = 
}}
'''Porus''' or '''Poros''' ({{langx|grc|Πῶρος}} {{transliteration|grc|Pôros}}; {{floruit}} 326–321 BC) was an ancient [[Ancient India|India]]n king whose territory spanned the region between the [[Jhelum River]] (Hydaspes) and [[Chenab River]] (Acesines), in the [[Punjab region]] of what is now [[Punjab, India|India]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=T. T. |date=1964 |title=The Genesis of Military River Operations: Alexander the Great at the Hydaspes River |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44571479 |journal=The Military Engineer |volume=56 |issue=374 |pages=424–426 |jstor=44571479 |issn=0026-3982}}</ref> He is only mentioned in Greek sources.
Said to be a warrior with exceptional skills, Porus unsuccessfully fought against [[Alexander the Great]] in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] (326 BC).<ref name="Fuller pg 198">Fuller, pg 198 <br>{{blockquote|"While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit."}}</ref> In the aftermath, an impressed Alexander not only reinstated him as his [[satrap]] but also granted him dominion over lands to the south-east extending as far as the [[Alexandria Hyphasis|Hyphasis]] ([[Beas River|Beas]]).<ref name="ReferenceA">p. xl, ''Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare,'' J. Woronoff & I. Spence</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">Arrian, ''Anabasis of Alexander,'' V.29.2</ref> Porus reportedly died sometime between 321 and 315 BC.<ref name="eb">{{citation |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Porus |url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Porus |access-date=8 September 2015 |archive-date=14 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914193048/http://www.britannica.com/biography/Porus |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Sources==
The only contemporary information available on Porus and his kingdom is from Greek sources, whereas [[ancient India|India]]n sources do not mention him.<ref>{{cite book |author=Asoke Kumar Majumdar |title=Concise History of Ancient India: Political history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3VDAAAAYAAJ |year=1977 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |page=136 |quote=Nothing is known of Porus from Indian sources |access-date=14 January 2021 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817150008/https://books.google.com/books?id=F3VDAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> These Greek sources differ considerably among themselves.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|author=H. C. Raychaudhuri|title=Age of the Nandas and Mauryas|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1988|isbn=978-81-208-0466-1|editor=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|editor-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|edition=Second|location=Delhi|page=147|chapter=India in the Age of the Nandas|author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|orig-date=1967|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoAwor58utYC&pg=PA11|access-date=23 April 2019|archive-date=17 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817145952/https://books.google.com/books?id=YoAwor58utYC&pg=PA11|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Identification ==

=== Purus ===
[[Michael Witzel]] conjectures that Porus was a king of the [[Puru (Vedic tribe)|Pūrus]], a Vedic tribe, who existed as a marginal power in Punjab after their defeat in the [[Battle of the Ten Kings]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|date=1997|title=The development of the Vedic canon and its schools: the social and political milieu|url=http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/110/|url-status=live|pages=263, 267, 320|doi=10.11588/xarep.00000110|access-date=15 April 2021|website=crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812051418/http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/110/}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity|publisher=De Gruyter|year=1995|isbn=978-3-11-081643-3|editor-last=Erdosy|editor-first=George|series=Indian Philology and South Asian Studies|location=|pages=85–125|language=en|chapter=4. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres|doi=10.1515/9783110816433-009|s2cid=238465491|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html|access-date=12 August 2021|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812051405/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780199370184|editor-last=Brereton|editor-first=Joel P.|volume=I|pages=880, 902–905, 923–925, 1015–1016|editor-last2=Jamison|editor-first2=Stephanie W.}}</ref> [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] largely agreed with this identification.<ref name=":1" />

=== Sourasenis ===
[[Quintus Curtius Rufus]] mentions Porus' vanguard soldiers carrying a banner of "Herakles" during the face-off with Alexander.<ref name=":2" /> Accordingly, [[Ishwari Prasad]] and a few other scholars argue that Porus was a [[Shurasena]].<ref>''A Comprehensive History of India: The Mauryas & Satavahanas,'' p. 383, edited by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri, Bharatiya Itihas Parishad, Published by Orient Longmans, 1992, Original from the University of California</ref>{{efn|Iswhari Prashad and others following his lead, found further support for this conclusion in the fact that a section of [[Shurasena]]s were supposed to have migrated westwards to Punjab and modern [[Afghanistan]] from Mathura and [[Dvārakā]], after Krishna walked to heaven and had established new kingdoms there.<ref>"Actually, the legend reports a westward march of the Yadus (MBh. 1.13.49, 65) from Mathura, while the route from Mathura to Dvaraka southward through a desert. This part of the Krsna legend could be brought to earth by digging at Dvaraka, but also digging at Darwaz in Afghanistan, whose name means the same thing and which is the more probable destination of refugees from Mathura..." ''Introduction to the Study of Indian History,'' p. 125,  D D Kosambi, Publisher: [S.l.] : Popular Prakashan, 1999</ref>}} This identification is based on the fact that multiple Greek histories — [[Indica (Arrian)|Indica]] by [[Arrian]], [[Geographica]] by [[Strabo]], and [[Bibliotheca historica#Book II: Asia|Bibliotheca historica]] by [[Diodorus Siculus]] — note [[Megasthenes]]{{efn|He had traveled to India, after Porus had been already supplanted by [[Chandragupta Maurya]].}} to have described an Indian tribe called ''Sourasenoi'' who worshiped one "Herakles" and originated from the lands of [[Mathura]] and [[Yamuna]].<ref name=":2">''Krishna: a Sourcebook,'' p. 5, Edwin Francis Bryant, Oxford University Press US, 2007</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Puskás|first=Ildikó|date=1990|title=Megasthenes and the "Indian Gods" Herakles and Dionysos|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41163978|journal=Mediterranean Studies|volume=2|pages=39–47|jstor=41163978|issn=1074-164X|access-date=12 August 2021|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812055059/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41163978|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|The Greeks often chronicled foreign gods in terms of their own divinities; multiple scholars have argued "Herakles" to mean "Hari-Krishna", the closest mythological equivalent.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /> This identification also fits with the geography, Mathura being the epicenter of the Krshna cult. However, there is no evidence of Krishna worship as early as the 4th century BC.<ref name=":5" /> Some modern scholars equate "Herakles" to [[Indra]] but this identification is not widely accepted either.<ref name=":5" />}}

== Rule ==

=== Background ===
[[File:Physical Map of Punjab.jpg|thumb|A detailed physical map of the Punjab region. The major rivers of the region including the Jhelum (Hydaspes) and Chenab (Acesines) are visible.]]

Porus ruled over the tracts between the rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab); Strabo noted the territory to contain almost 300 cities.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Bosworth|first=Albert Brian|title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|pages=125–130|chapter=The Campaign of the Hydaspes}}</ref> He had a hostile relationship with the neighboring polity of [[Taxila]], having assassinated their erstwhile ruler Ambhiraj, his maternal uncle.<ref name=":6" />

When Alexander crossed the Indus in their eastward [[Wars of Alexander the Great|invasion]], probably in [[Udabhandapura]], he was greeted by the then-ruler of Taxila, [[Taxiles|Omphis]], son of Ambhiraj.<ref name=":6" /> Years ago, he had visited Alexander in [[Sogdiana]] and was treated as an ally; Omphis' rule was confirmed and gifts lavished, but a Macedonian [[satrap]] was installed.<ref name=":6" /> Omphis hoped to force both Porus and [[Abisares]] into submission, leveraging the might of Alexander's forces, and dispatched diplomatic missions to this effect.<ref name=":6" />

In response, Abisares offered submission but Porus refused, leading Alexander to seek a face-off on the bank of Jhelum.<ref name=":6" /> Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown and the exact strength of the armies cannot be determined either, due to major discrepancies between sources.<ref name=":6" />

=== Battle of the Hydaspes ===
{{main| Battle of the Hydaspes}}
[[File:Le Brun, Alexander and Porus.jpg|thumb|400px|right|A painting by [[Charles Le Brun]] depicting Alexander and Porus during the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]]]]
Alexander re-used the same vessels which were used for crossing the Indus, the first time, some 300&nbsp;km away at [[Hund (village)|Udabhandapura]].<ref name=":6" /> His forces frequently mounted intrusion-attempts and even before the battle had started, skirmishes were reported in the riverine islands.<ref name=":6" />

A few months later, Alexander decided to accompany a strike force across the densely forested headlands and besiege Porus' defense; the base camp with substantial cavalry and infantry units was left under [[Craterus]], who was advised to follow Alexander upon a successful passage whilst the remaining forces were distributed along the river under three phalanx officers to distract Porus' forces.<ref name=":6" /> The strategy was successful and they crossed the Jhelum unobstructed, on a stormy night, just before dawn.<ref name=":6" /> A band of horsemen on chariots led by Porus' son did detect the intrusion and mount a charge but was repelled by Alexander's superior cavalry.<ref name=":6" />

Informed of Alexander's passage, Porus became concerned with tackling those who had already crossed, rather than preventing passage of the remaining majority.<ref name=":6" /> He took a defensive position in the plains, interspersing infantry units with elephants{{Efn|Porus had expected the elephant units to negate charges by Alexander's well-trained cavalry.}} on the front lines and stationing the cavalry and chariots in the wings.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamilton|first=J. R.|date=1956|title=The Cavalry Battle at the Hydaspes|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/629551|journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=76|pages=26–31|doi=10.2307/629551|jstor=629551|s2cid=163435999|issn=0075-4269|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813123119/https://www.jstor.org/stable/629551|url-status=live}}</ref> Alexander chose to shield his infantry and instead led a devastating cavalry charge on Porus' left wing, forcing reinforcements from the right; however, this rear-transit came under attack by [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]]' cavalry and Porus' cavalry was compelled to take refuge within the infantry frontlines, causing confusion.<ref name=":6" />

This led to an all-out attack from both sides, but Porus' plans proved futile.<ref name=":6" /> According to Heckle (2014), Porus is believed to have had around 30,000 infantry. However, Porus only had 4,000 mounted troops.<ref>Heckel, W. (2012). “Conquest of the Punjab” in ''The Conquests of Alexander the Great'' (Canto Classics, pp. 112–125). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139197076.011</ref> Not only were Porus' cavalry charges repelled but the [[Mahout|''mahouts'']] were killed using ''[[sarissa]]s'' and the elephants were pushed back into Porus' columns, wreaking havoc on the rear, Alexander's cavalry kept charging and inflicting disorder.<ref name=":6" /> Soon Porus' army was surrounded  on all sides, and became easy fodder for Alexander's forces with the cavalry exterminated and most of the elephants captured.<ref name=":6" /> Still, Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.<ref name=":6" /> A fraction of the infantry successfully escaped and probably planned to regroup but [[Craterus]] pursued them to their deaths.<ref name=":6" />

==== Result ====

The battle resulted in a decisive [[Greeks|Greek]] victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources, who obviously exaggerated.<ref name=":6" /> Alexander held athletic and gymnastic games at the site, and even commissioned two cities in commemoration: [[Nicaea, Punjab|Nicaea]] at the site of his victory and [[Alexandria Bucephalous|''Bucephalous'']] at the battle-ground, in memory of [[Bucephalus|his horse]].<ref name=":6" />{{Efn|Craterus supervised the construction. These cities are yet to be identified.}} Later, decadrachms were minted by the Babylonian mint depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a ''[[sarissa]]'' and attacking a pair of Indian soldiers atop an elephant.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Holt|first=Frank Lee|title=Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions|publisher=University of California Press|year=2003}}</ref>[[File:Surrender of Porus to the Emperor Alexander.jpg|Surrender of Porus to Alexander, 1865 engraving by [[Alonzo Chappel]].|thumb]]

===Aftermath===
[[File:Alexander the Great And King Poros - Opera From Antonio Cesti Burnacini - 1750.jpg|left|thumb|Alexander the Great and King Poros – Opera From Antonio Cesti Burnacini – 1750]]
Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose not to depose him.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Bosworth|first=Albert Brian|title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|chapter=From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Anson|first=Edward M.|title=Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2013|isbn=9781441193797|pages=151}}</ref> His territory was not only restored, but also expanded, with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of [[Glausaes]], who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.<ref name=":7" /> Further, Omphis was reconciled with Porus.<ref name=":7" />

A [[Expedition of Chenab by Alexander the Great and Porous|joint expedition]] was then mounted against a territory east of the [[Chenab]], ruled by an enemy cousin of Porus; he had earlier submitted to Alexander but, suspicious of Porus' rise in rank, chose to flee with his army.<ref name=":7" /> The date of this battle remains disputed; Alexander's forces overran his lands before meeting stiff resistance at a walled Sangala on the other side of the [[Ravi River|Ravi]].<ref name=":7" /> Siege warfare was executed to brilliant effect and the full-fledged attack began once Porus had joined with his elephants.<ref name=":7" /> As Sangala and allied cities were razed, Porus was allowed to station his garrisons.<ref name=":7" />

Thereafter, Alexander proceeded unopposed to the [[Beas]] and even intended to cross it towards the [[Gangetic Plain]]; however, the [[monsoon]] was at its peak and his weary troops remained stubborn despite his cajoling and threats.<ref name=":7" /> A reluctant Alexander had to renounce his plans and turn back.<ref name=":7" /> Porus was thus ratified as the ''de facto'' ruler of the entire territory east of the Jhelum, with no European ''satrap'' to co-rule with, unlike Ambhi and Abisares.<ref name=":7" /> The crossing-back of the Jhelum was a prolonged affair; filled with festivities, it attracted thousands.<ref name=":7" />

===Death===

After [[Death of Alexander the Great|the death of Alexander the Great]] in 323 BC, [[Perdiccas]] became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas' murder in 321 BC, [[Antipater]] became the new regent.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Heckel|first=Waldemar|title=Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire|publisher=Wiley|year=2006|isbn=9781405112109}}</ref> According to [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], Antipater recognized Porus' authority over the territories along the [[Indus River]]. However, [[Eudemus (general)|Eudemus]], who had served as Alexander's [[satrap]] in the Punjab region, killed Porus.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Irfan Habib |author1-link=Irfan Habib |author2=Vivekanand Jha |title=Mauryan India |series=A People's History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUvGQgAACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Aligarh Historians Society / [[Tulika Books]] |isbn=978-81-85229-92-8 |page=16 }}</ref>

== Cultural depictions of Porus ==
* Porus is defeated by Alexander in single combat in the premodern text, the [[Alexander Romance]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alexander |first=Scott |title=Book Review: The Alexander Romance |url=https://www.astralcodexten.com/p/book-review-the-alexander-romance |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=www.astralcodexten.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Sohrab Modi]] portrayed Porus in the 1941 movie [[Sikandar (1941 film)|''Sikandar'']]
* [[Prithviraj Kapoor]] portrayed Porus in the 1965 movie ''[[Sikandar-e-Azam]]''
* Porus is played by [[Arun Bali]] in the 1991 TV series [[Chanakya (TV series)|''Chanakya'']].<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjOuN-tUKRU&list=PL96GW8XIIETXFhLcvfKgeihjmLEdiY0jQ&index=12 |title=Chanakya Episode 12 |date=6 August 2020 |author=DD National |url-status=dead |access-date=17 January 2021 |archive-date=15 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315023918/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjOuN-tUKRU&list=PL96GW8XIIETXFhLcvfKgeihjmLEdiY0jQ&index=12 }}</ref>
* Porus appears in the 1999 animated series ''[[Reign: The Conqueror]]''{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}
* Porus is portrayed by the Thai actor, [[Bin Bunluerit]], in ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'' (2004){{citation needed|date=May 2016}}
* Porus appears in the 2011 TV series ''[[Chandragupta Maurya (2011 TV series)|Chandragupta Maurya]]''.<ref>{{cite video |url=https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x5u2xef |title=Chandragupta Maurya Episode 1 |date=19 July 2017 |author=Old Serials Archive}}</ref>
* [[Sony Entertainment Television (India)|SET]] launched [[Siddharth Kumar Tewary]]'s serial titled ''[[Porus (TV series)|Porus]]'' on the [[Battle of the Hydaspes|Battle of Hydaspes]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Siddharth Kumar Tewary's next on Porus for Sony Entertainment Television |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Siddharth-Kumar-Tewarys-next-on-Porus-for-Sony-Entertainment-Television/articleshow/54607760.cms |access-date=23 July 2017 |newspaper=[[Times of India]] |date=4 October 2016 |archive-date=27 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727124529/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Siddharth-Kumar-Tewarys-next-on-Porus-for-Sony-Entertainment-Television/articleshow/54607760.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> in Nov 2017, in which Porus is portrayed by [[Laksh Lalwani]].
* Porus appears in the Historical Battle campaign of [[Rome: Total War: Alexander|''Rome: Total War:'' Alexander]].
* Porus appears in the video game Ancient Battle: Alexander, in which he is a playable character, as well as an enemy.

==See also==
* [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great]]
* [[Taxiles]]
* [[Abisares]]
* [[Cleophis]]
* [[Pauravas]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
* {{citation |last=Mookerji |first=Radha Kumud |author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee |title=Chandragupta Maurya and his times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C |edition=4th |year=1966 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=81-208-0433-3 }}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Porus |volume= 22 }}
* Lendring, Jona. ''Alexander de Grote - De ondergang van het Perzische rijk'' (Alexander the Great. The demise of the Persian empire), Amsterdam: Athenaeum - Polak & Van Gennep, 2004.  {{ISBN|90-253-3144-0}}
* Holt, Frank L. ''Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions'', California: University of California Press, 2003, 217pgs. {{ISBN|0-520-24483-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hemchandra |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |date=1953 |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of Gupta Dynasty |url= |location= |publisher=[[University of Calcutta]] |isbn=}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Hellenistic satraps}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Porus}}
[[Category:317 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Satraps of the Alexandrian Empire]]
[[Category:History of Punjab]]
[[Category:4th-century BC Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]