Editing Politics of Myanmar

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{{Politics of Myanmar}}

[[Myanmar]] ([[Names of Myanmar|formerly Burma]]) ({{Langx|my|မြန်မာ}}) operates ''de jure'' as a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[assembly-independent]] republic under its [[2008 Constitution of Myanmar|2008 constitution]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Abebe |first1=Adem |last2=Bulmer |first2=Elliot |title=Electing Presidents in Presidential and Semi-Presidential Democracies |url=https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/electing-presidents-in-presidential-and-semi-presidential-democracies.pdf |publisher=[[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance]] |access-date=14 February 2024 |date=2019 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810115317/https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/electing-presidents-in-presidential-and-semi-presidential-democracies.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On 1 February 2021, [[Tatmadaw|Myanmar's military]] took over the government in [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état|a coup]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Taylor|first=Adam|title=What is going on in Myanmar after military coup removes Aung San Suu Kyi|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/02/01/myanmar-military-coup/|access-date=22 February 2021|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=12 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212100859/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/02/01/myanmar-military-coup/|url-status=live}}</ref> causing ongoing [[2021 Myanmar protests|anti-coup protests]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Myanmar coup: Protesters undeterred by police killings {{!}} DW {{!}} 21 February 2021|url=https://www.dw.com/en/myanmar-coup-protesters-undeterred-by-police-killings/a-56644083|access-date=22 February 2021|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|archive-date=21 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221212629/https://www.dw.com/en/myanmar-coup-protesters-undeterred-by-police-killings/a-56644083|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Political conditions ==
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2023}}

=== Early history ===
The first known city-states emerged in central Myanmar in the second century AD. They were founded by Tibeto-Burman-speaking migrants from present-day Yunnan.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Myanmar country profile |work=BBC News |date=6 April 2011 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-12990563 |access-date=20 June 2023 |archive-date=11 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411095130/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-12990563 |url-status=live }}</ref> The history of [[Myanmar]] as a unified entity, formerly called Burma, began with the [[Pagan Kingdom]] in 849. In 1057, [[Anawrahta|King Anawrahta]] founded the first unified Myanmar state at Bagan. In 1287, the [[Bagan Kingdom|Bagan kingdom]] collapsed following recurring Mongol invasions, leading to 250 years of political divide. In the time period between 1510 and 1752, the area was united as Burma by the Toungoo dynasty, which was the largest Southeast Asian empire in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TOUNGOO DYNASTY (1510–1752) |url=https://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Myanmar/sub5_5a/entry-3003.html |website=Facts and details |access-date=20 June 2023 |archive-date=20 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620093234/https://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Myanmar/sub5_5a/entry-3003.html |url-status=live }}</ref> From 1752 to 1885, the Toungoo administrative reforms were continued by the [[Konbaung dynasty]]. The thousand-year line of Burmese [[monarchy]] ended with the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]] in 1885.

=== British rule ===
After 1885, the country was administered as part of [[British India]] until 1937. [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]] began with its official recognition on the colonial map that marks its new borders containing over 100 ethnicities. It was named Burma after the dominant ethnic group [[Bamar people|Bamar]], who make up 68 percent of the population.

==== World War II ====
During [[World War II]], a coalition of mostly members of the Bamar ethnic group volunteered to fight alongside the Japanese in hope of overthrowing the occupying British forces. Meanwhile, many other ethnic groups supported the Allied forces against the Bamar-backed Japanese forces. This conflict would come to be very significant in the aftermath of World War II when Burma was granted its independence from Great Britain in 1948. Prior to the end of their colonization, the British government had created a novel map of the country with new borders that included some previously sovereign ethnicities. Many groups of racially and culturally diverse people suddenly found themselves as part of a country that was named after the Bamar, a group they did not identify with. The division created during World War II only exacerbated the growing resentment towards the Bamar. By granting independence to Burma, the British government handed the control of all the containing ethnicities over to the Bamar.

=== Panglong Agreement ===
[[Aung San]], who led the fight for independence, was able to convince the leaders of the other ethnic groups that fought alongside the Burmese to remain as one country. The formation of the new Burmese constitution in 1948 was cemented by the [[Panglong Agreement|Pin-Lone agreement]], which was signed by every ethnic leader in support of the newfound union. Aung San's unprecedented assassination prior to the absolute fulfillment of the Pin-Lone agreement undid the unification he led. His death marked the end of the short lived period of peace within the new nation, unleashing a power vacuum that has not been filled properly since. A period of instability with leaders that failed to represent every ethnicity's best interest followed.

Beginning in the late 1950s, and continuing through at least 2024, Myanmar's military has played a major role in shaping or directing the country's politics.<ref name=":Han">{{Cite book |last=Han |first=Enze |title=The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia |date=2024 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-769659-0 |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=23}}

=== Socialist republic ===
Democracy was suspended in the country following a [[1962 Burmese coup d'état|coup]] in 1962. The uncertainty and chaos paved the way for a Burmese nationalist government to take over. From 1962 to 1988, the country was ruled by the [[Burma Socialist Programme Party]] as a [[one-party state]] guided by the [[Burmese Way to Socialism]]. The new Burmese leaders turned Burma into a Socialist Republic with isolationism, and a Burmese superiority. The newfound Burmese nationalism put the Bamar majority at the forefront, undoing the unification initiated through the Pin-Lone agreement. Additionally, the growing disdain was enhanced through the forced coexistence between members of different religions. Bamar kingdoms were almost exclusively Buddhist in the past. Most ethnic groups within the Shan, Kayin, Kayar, and Chin state practiced their own versions of Animism, while people of the Islamic faith lived alongside the Buddhists in the Arakan (now Rakhine) state. The annexation of all the diverse groups into the British India deepened the religious polarization. The movement of people across the border caused by the colonization added a large group of Hindu followers to the mix. The strenuous conversion campaigns by the Catholic Christians and their competition with the Methodist colonialists additionally divided minority groups such as the Karen and Kachin within themselves. The colonial departure unleashed the animosity that has been building towards one other. The death of [[Aung San]], and the following leaderships ensured the lasting conflicts between every cultural and religious group.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} The [[1988 Uprising]] cemented the social, political, and civil unrests that have plagued the country since.

=== 1988 Uprising ===
The [[State Peace and Development Council|SPDC]] junta which took power in 1988 had been responsible for the displacement of several hundred thousand citizens, both inside and outside of Burma. The [[Karen people|Karen]], [[Karenni people|Karenni]], and [[Mon people|Mon]] ethnic groups have sought asylum in neighbouring [[Thailand]], where they are also abused by an unfriendly and unsympathetic government.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} These groups are perhaps more fortunate than the [[Wa people|Wa]] and [[Shan people|Shan]] ethnic groups, who have become [[Internally displaced person|internally displaced peoples]] in their own state since being removed from lands by the [[military junta]] in 2000. There are reportedly 600,000 of these internally displaced peoples living in Burma today. Many are trying to escape forced labour in the military or for one of the many state-sponsored [[drug cartel]]s.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} This displacement of peoples led, and continues to lead to human rights violations as well as the exploitation of minority ethnic groups at the hands of the dominant Bamar group. The primary actors in these ethnic struggles include, but are not limited to, the military, the [[Karen National Union]], [[Kachin Independence Army|Kachin Independence army]], [[United League of Arakan]], [[Restoration Council of Shan State]], and the [[Mong Tai Army]].

The military gave up some of its power in 2011, leading to the creation of a [[Illiberal democracy|semi-democratic]] system, although problems remained, including outsized influence by the military under the 2008 constitution, as well as economic and ethnic issues. In 2015 the military began taking steps to make peace with various ethnic armed groups calling a [[Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement]] which was signed by many such groups.

=== [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état]] ===
On 31 January 2021, it was reported by multiple media and news outlets that the military had [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état|staged a coup]] and members of the governing party, National League for Democracy, had been arrested and detained by the military. Bo Nagar, commander of the Burma National Revolutionary Army (BNRA), which is fighting against the military in Myanmar’s central regions, told CNN in November 2023, "It’s the beginning of the end of State Administration Council, we are already seeing it."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hancocks |first=Helen Regan, Angus Watson, Paula |date=2023-11-28 |title=Myanmar civil war: Opponents vow 'beginning of the end' for junta as resistance fighters launch nationwide offensive |url=https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2023/11/28/asia/myanmar-nationwide-offensive-junta-intl-hnk |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> These conflicts arose after the NLD had claimed victory after a successful election in November 2020. While the military contested the results of the election claiming fraudulent without any proof or investigation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Kai-Ping |date=July 2022 |title=Myanmar's 2020 Election: Explaining the Strong Performance of the NLD and Some Ethnic Parties |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-east-asian-studies/article/myanmars-2020-election-explaining-the-strong-performance-of-the-nld-and-some-ethnic-parties/687A67E93414EFD92AB4904607E7A8EF |journal=Journal of East Asian Studies |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=309–331 |doi=10.1017/jea.2022.10 |issn=1598-2408|doi-access=free }}</ref> This situation was followed by the military performing coup d'état on 1 February 2021, taking the presidential powers from the NLD government by brute force. Shortly after taking control of the government, the military began breaking the [[Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement]] by taking aggressive actions in territories controlled by its signers.

== History ==
=== Independence era ===
On 4 January 1948, [[Myanmar|Burma]] achieved independence from Britain, and became a democracy based on the [[parliamentary system]].

In late 1946 Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But on 19 July 1947, political rivals assassinated [[Aung San]] (the current Prime Minister then) and several cabinet members, one of which was his brother.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aung San {{!}} Myanmar Nationalist {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aung-San |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><!--Not defined?: <ref name="aungsan"/>--> On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent [[republic]], named the ''Union of Burma'', with [[Sao Shwe Thaik]] as its first president and [[U Nu]] as its first prime minister. Unlike almost all other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. A [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] was formed, consisting of a [[Chamber of Deputies]] and a [[Chamber of Nationalities]].<ref name="1947con">{{cite web|url=http://english.dvb.no/e_docs/511947_con.htm |title=The Constitution of the Union of Burma |access-date=7 July 2006 |year=1947 |publisher=DVB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615072018/http://english.dvb.no/e_docs/511947_con.htm |archive-date=15 June 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma proper, which consisted of [[Lower Burma]] and [[Upper Burma]], and the [[Frontier Areas]], which had been administered separately by the British.<ref>{{cite book |first=Martin |last=Smith |year=1991 |title=Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity |publisher=Zed Books |location=London and New Jersey |pages=42–43}}</ref>

=== AFPFL/Union government ===
In 1961, [[U Thant]], Burma's Permanent Representative to the [[United Nations]] and former secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=6123&z=104 |author=Aung Zaw |title=Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's Shoes? |publisher=The Irrawaddy Sep 2006 |access-date=12 September 2006}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young woman named [[Aung San Suu Kyi]].

=== Military socialist era ===
In 1962, General [[Ne Win]] led a [[coup d'état]] and established a socialist military government that sought to create a "[[Burmese Way to Socialism]]". The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of [[autarky]], or economic isolation.  The Burmese Way to Socialism emphasized that the military was to have a central role in governing the country, and that the Burmese language and Buddhism were central to identity.<ref>Saw Eh Htoo and Tony Waters (2024).  General Ne Win's Legacy of Burmanization in Myanmar.  Palgrave MacMillan.</ref>

There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at [[Rangoon University]], killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of [[U Thant]]. Student protests in 1975, 1976 and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force. The military government of General Ne Win was deposed following the massive [[8888 Uprising]] in 1988 when thousands died, but immediately replaced by another military junta.

=== SPDC era ===
The former [[head of state]] was [[Than Shwe|Senior General Than Shwe]] who held the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council". His appointed [[prime minister]] was [[Khin Nyunt]] until 19 October 2004, when he was forcibly deposed in favour of [[Soe Win (prime minister)|Gen. Soe Win]]. Almost all [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]] offices are held by military officers.

US and European government sanctions against the military government, combined with consumer boycotts and shareholder pressure organised by Free Burma activists, have succeeded in forcing most western corporations to withdraw from Burma. However, some western oil companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. For example, the French oil company [[TotalEnergies]] and the American oil company [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] continue to operate the [[Yadana Project|Yadana natural gas pipeline]] from Burma to Thailand. TotalEnergies (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged complicity in human rights abuses along the gas pipeline. Before it was acquired by Chevron, [[Unocal]] settled a similar lawsuit for a reported multimillion-dollar amount.<ref>{{cite news |last=Horsley |first=William |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3761022.stm |title=Dilemma of dealing with Burma |work=BBC News |date=20 October 2004 |access-date=2 November 2004 |archive-date=11 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211073843/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3761022.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Asian businesses, such as [[Daewoo]], continue to invest in Burma, particularly in natural resource extraction.

The United States and European clothing and shoe industry became the target of Free Burma activists for buying from factories in Burma that were wholly or partly owned by the government or the military. Many stopped sourcing from Burma after protests, starting with [[Levi Strauss]] in 1992. From 1992 to 2003, Free Burma advocates successfully forced dozens of clothing and shoe companies to stop sourcing from [[Burma]]. These companies included [[Eddie Bauer]], [[Liz Claiborne]], [[Macy's]], [[J. Crew]], [[JoS. A. Bank Clothiers|JoS. A. Banks]], [[Children's Place]], [[Burlington Coat Factory]], [[Wal-Mart]], and [[Target Corporation|Target]]. The US government banned all imports from Burma as part of the "Burmese Freedom and Democracy Act" of 2003. Sanctions have been criticised for their adverse effects on the civilian population. However, Burmese democracy movement leader [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] has repeatedly credited sanctions for putting pressure on the ruling military regime.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hiatt |first=Fred |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A21505-2003Jun22 |title=How Best to Rid the World of Monsters |newspaper=Washington Post |date=23 June 2003 |access-date=24 May 2006 |archive-date=19 July 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050719233013/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/reg.burma/archives/199905/msg00184.html |title=Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar |work=Ibiblio |publisher=Reuters |date=10 May 1999 |access-date=24 June 2006 |archive-date=14 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114123541/http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/reg.burma/archives/199905/msg00184.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] have documented egregious [[human rights]] abuses by the military government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.boell.de/index.html?http://www.boell.de/en/05_world/4756.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030225711/http://www.boell.de/index.html?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boell.de%2Fen%2F05_world%2F4756.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 October 2007 |title=Active Citizens under Political Wraps: Experiences from Burma and Vietnam |publisher=Heinrich Böll Foundation |access-date=27 June 2020 }}</ref> Civil liberties were severely restricted. [[Human Rights Defenders and Promoters]], formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights, claims that on 18 April 2007, several of its members were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local [[Union Solidarity and Development Association|USDA]] Secretary U Nyunt Oo and beaten up. The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities.

There is no independent [[judiciary]] in Burma<ref name="courts">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/libertycentral/2012/mar/20/burma-judicial-system|title=Burma's push for freedom is held back by its institutionally corrupt courts|last=Ross|first=James|date=20 March 2012|work=The Guardian|access-date=22 March 2012|archive-date=28 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328081128/http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2012/mar/20/burma-judicial-system|url-status=live}}</ref> and the military government suppresses political activity. The government uses software-based filtering from US company [[Fortinet]] to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/burma/ |title=Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study |publisher=OpenNet Initiative |access-date=31 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119090055/http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/burma/ |archive-date=19 November 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2001, the government permitted NLD office branches to re-open throughout Burma. However, they were shut down or heavily restricted beginning 2004, as part of a government campaign to prohibit such activities. In 2006, many members resigned from NLD, citing harassment and pressure from the [[Tatmadaw]] (Armed Forces) and the [[Union Solidarity and Development Association]].

The military government placed [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] under house arrest again on 31 May 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Burma by a mob reported to be in league with the military. The regime extended her house arrest for yet another year in late November 2005. Despite a direct appeal by [[Kofi Annan]] to [[Than Shwe]] and pressure from [[ASEAN]], the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=The Irrawaddy |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5797&z=154 |title=Suu Kyi's Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest |magazine=The Irrawaddy |date=27 May 2006 |access-date=27 May 2006}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> She was released in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/highlight.php?art_id=20068 |title=Suu Kyi Freed at Last |author=Ba Kaung |date=13 November 2010 |work=The Irrawaddy |access-date=14 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101119175541/http://www.irrawaddy.org/highlight.php?art_id=20068 |archive-date=19 November 2010 }}</ref>

The United Nations urged the country to move towards inclusive national reconciliation, the restoration of democracy, and full respect for human rights.<ref>[http://www.narinjara.com/details.asp?id=1282 UN Secretary Repeats Call for Release of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504231023/http://www.narinjara.com/details.asp?id=1282 |date=4 May 2012 }} 27 May 2007.</ref> In December 2008, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] passed a resolution condemning the [[Human rights in Burma|human rights situation in Burma]] and calling for Aung San Suu Kyi's release—80 countries voting for the resolution, 25 against and 45 abstentions.<ref>[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2008/12/26/2003432089 UN General Assembly condemns Myanmar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430013412/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2008/12/26/2003432089 |date=30 April 2011 }}. ''Taipei Times''. 26 December 2008</ref> Other nations, such as China and Russia, have been less critical of the regime and prefer to co-operate on economic matters.<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009\03\25\story_25-3-2009_pg20_5 Myanmar breaks own law holding Suu Kyi: UN panel] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130416065530/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009%5C03%5C25%5Cstory_25-3-2009_pg20_5 |date=16 April 2013 }}. ''Daily Times of Pakistan''. 25 March 2009</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-myanmar-idUSL3E8F50CR20120405|title=China calls for all Myanmar sanctions to go after poll|date=5 April 2012|work=Reuters|access-date=6 April 2012|archive-date=8 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508164006/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/05/china-myanmar-idUSL3E8F50CR20120405|url-status=live}}</ref>

Facing increasing [[international isolation]], Burma's military government agreed to embark upon a [[Reforms in Burma|programme of reform]], including permitting multiple political parties to contest elections in 2010 and 2012 and the release of [[political prisoners]]. However, organizations such as [[Human Rights Watch]] allege continued human rights abuses in ongoing conflicts in border regions such as [[Kachin State]]<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2109481,00.html|title=Abuses in Burma Despite Reforms|last=Pittman|first=Todd|date=20 March 2012|agency=Associated Press|magazine=TIME|access-date=22 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321015126/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2109481,00.html|archive-date=21 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Rakhine State]].

=== New constitution ===
Myanmar's army-drafted [[Constitution of Burma|constitution]] was overwhelmingly approved (by 92.4% of the 22 million voters with alleged voter turnout of 99%) on 10 May 2008 in the first phase of a [[2008 Burmese constitutional referendum|two-stage referendum]] and [[Cyclone Nargis]]. It was the first national vote since the [[1990 Burmese general election|1990 election]]. Multi-party [[2010 Burmese general election|elections in 2010]] would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament. NLD spokesman Nyan Win, inter alia, criticised the referendum: "This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country. In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-constitution/cyclone-hit-myanmar-says-92-percent-back-charter-idUSBKK16425520080515|title=Cyclone-hit Myanmar says 92 percent back charter|date=15 May 2008|work=Reuters|access-date=15 September 2017|archive-date=15 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915113750/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-constitution/cyclone-hit-myanmar-says-92-percent-back-charter-idUSBKK16425520080515|url-status=live}}</ref>

===2010 election===
{{main|2010 Myanmar general election}}
An election was held in 2010, with 40 parties approved to contest the elections by the Electoral Commission.<ref>{{cite news|last=Buncombe|first=Andrew|title=Burma bans marching and chanting during rallies|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/burma-bans-marching-and-chanting-during--rallies-2008359.html|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|date=23 June 2010|location=London|access-date=8 September 2017|archive-date=25 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925183725/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/burma-bans-marching-and-chanting-during--rallies-2008359.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> some of which are linked to [[List of ethnic groups in Burma|ethnic minorities]].<ref name=ReuNDF>[https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6455UR20100506 Suu Kyi party splits, faction to run in Myanmar poll] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122195116/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6455UR20100506 |date=22 November 2020 }}. [[Reuters]]. {{Nowrap|7 May}} 2010</ref> The [[National League for Democracy]], which overwhelmingly won the previous [[1990 Burmese general election|1990 elections]] but were never allowed to take power, decided not to participate.

The military-backed [[Union Solidarity and Development Party]] declared victory, winning 259 of the 330 contested seats. The United Nations and many Western countries have condemned the elections as fraudulent,<ref name="t">{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2064470,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415073401/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2064470,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=15 April 2011 | title=The Slow Thaw of Burma's Notorious Military Junta | newspaper=Times | access-date=1 September 2011 | author=Andrew Marshall | date=11 April 2011}}</ref> although the decision to hold elections was praised by China and Russia.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite news |author=Reuters in Rangoon |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/09/burma-usdp-wins-election |title=Burmese election won by military-backed party |work=guardian.co.uk |date=9 November 2010 |access-date=11 November 2010 |location=London |archive-date=11 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111151613/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/09/burma-usdp-wins-election |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/47776 |title=China praises much-criticised Myanmar election |publisher=My Sinchew |access-date=11 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103221210/http://www.mysinchew.com/node/47776 |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===2012 by-elections===
{{main|2012 Myanmar by-elections}}
In by-elections held in 2012, the main opposition party [[National League for Democracy]], which was only re-registered for the by-elections on 13 December 2011 won in 43 of the 44 seats they contested (out of 46). Significantly, international observers were invited to monitor the elections, although the government was criticised for placing too many restrictions on election monitors,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://anfrel.org/myanmar-election-observation-encouraging-but-inadequate/|title=Myanmar Election Observation Encouraging But Inadequate|date=22 March 2012|work=Asian Network for Free Elections|access-date=24 March 2012|location=Bangkok|archive-date=6 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406160424/http://anfrel.org/myanmar-election-observation-encouraging-but-inadequate/|url-status=live}}</ref> some of whom were denied visas.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dvb.no/news/australian-monitors-denied-visa-ahead-of-polls/21144|title=Australian monitors denied visas ahead of polls|last=Hindstrom|first=Hanna|date=30 March 2012|publisher=Democratic Voice of Burma|access-date=6 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107052825/http://www.dvb.no/news/australian-monitors-denied-visa-ahead-of-polls/21144|archive-date=7 November 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Union Solidarity and Development Party said it would lodge official complaints to the [[Union Election Commission]] on poll irregularities, voter intimidation, and purported campaign incidents that involved National League for Democracy members and supporters,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.interaksyon.com/article/28768/myanmar-ruling-party-claims-poll-irregularities|title=Myanmar ruling party claims poll irregularities|date=6 April 2012|work=Agence France-Presse|publisher=InterAksyon.com|access-date=6 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407021408/http://www.interaksyon.com/article/28768/myanmar-ruling-party-claims-poll-irregularities|archive-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> while the National League for Democracy also sent an official complaint to the commission, regarding ballots that had been tampered with.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mizzima.com/news/by-election-2012/6879-nld-files-official-complaint-against-ballot-tampering.html|title=NLD files official complaint against ballot tampering|last=Ko Pauk|date=1 April 2012|publisher=Mizzimar|access-date=6 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401155159/http://mizzima.com/news/by-election-2012/6879-nld-files-official-complaint-against-ballot-tampering.html|archive-date=1 April 2012}}</ref>

However, President [[Thein Sein]] remarked that the by-elections were conducted "in a very successful manner",<ref name="ap">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/myanmar-leader-praises-by-elections-that-put-suu-kyi-in-office-as-successful/2012/04/03/gIQAjsCWsS_story.html|title=Myanmar leader praises by-elections that put Suu Kyi in office as 'successful'|date=6 April 2012|agency=Associated Press|access-date=6 April 2012}}{{dead link|date=June 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> and many foreign countries have indicated willingness to lift or loosen sanctions on Burma and its military leaders.<ref name="ramesh">{{cite news|url=http://www.todayonline.com/Singapore/EDC120405-0000070/Singapore-welcomes-Myanmars-progress--PM|title=Singapore welcomes Myanmar's progress: PM|last=Ramesh|first=S|date=5 April 2012|publisher=Today|access-date=5 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407121418/http://www.todayonline.com/Singapore/EDC120405-0000070/Singapore-welcomes-Myanmars-progress--PM|archive-date=7 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/world/asean-leaders-call-for-sanctions-on-burma-to-be-lifted-20120404-1wd6p.html|title=ASEAN leaders call for sanctions on Burma to be lifted|last=Murdoch|first=Lindsay|date=5 April 2012|newspaper=The Age|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-date=27 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327015954/http://www.theage.com.au/world/asean-leaders-call-for-sanctions-on-burma-to-be-lifted-20120404-1wd6p.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/EU-likely-to-further-eased-sanctions-on-Myanmar-sp-30179263.html|title=EU likely to further eased sanctions on Myanmar : spokeswoman|date=3 April 2012|work=Deutsche Presse Agentur|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-date=3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103222301/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/EU-likely-to-further-eased-sanctions-on-Myanmar-sp-30179263.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===2015 election===
{{main|2015 Myanmar general election}}
[[File:Myanmar election 2015.jpg|thumb|Voting at a polling station]]
[[File:Myanmar election 2015 ballot paper.jpg|thumb|Ballot papers and stamps]]
Myanmar general elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the [[National League for Democracy]] an [[absolute majority]] of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] is constitutionally barred from the presidency.<ref>{{cite news |title=Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy Wins Majority in Myanmar |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34805806 |access-date=13 November 2015 |work=BBC News |date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=13 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113070516/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34805806 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The resounding victory of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy in 2015 general elections raised hopes for a successful political transition from a closely held military rule to a free [[democratic system]]. This transition was widely believed to be determining the future of Myanmar.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://asianleadershipcentre.org/asian-review/myanmar-under-transition | title= Myanmar under Transition | publisher= Asian Review | access-date= 9 February 2017 | archive-date= 11 February 2017 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170211155648/http://asianleadershipcentre.org/asian-review/myanmar-under-transition | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36732270 | title=Hundred days of Myanmar's democracy | publisher=BBC | access-date=9 February 2017 | work=BBC News | date=8 July 2016 | last1=Fisher | first1=Jonah | archive-date=11 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211091533/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36732270 | url-status=live }}</ref>

According to the results announced by the Union Election Commission on 13 November 2015, the NLD won 238 seats in the lower house and 348 seats in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, exceeding the required number to form a government and elect a president.

=== 2021 military coup and subsequent junta ===
{{main|State Administration Council|Provisional Government of Myanmar}}

The Tatmadaw, under the leadership of Min Aung Hlaing, seized power from the civilian government after detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other democratically elected leaders in [[Naypyidaw]].<ref>[https://www.mmtimes.com/news/tatmadaw-names-new-government-officials.html tatmadaw-names-new-government-officials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201162120/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/tatmadaw-names-new-government-officials.html |date=1 February 2021 }} ''www.mmtimes.com'', accessed 24 March 2021</ref><ref>[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-military-appoints-ex-generals-usdp-members-new-govt.html Myanmar Military Appoints Ex-Generals, USDP Members to New Govt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223073142/https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-military-appoints-ex-generals-usdp-members-new-govt.html |date=23 February 2021 }} ''www.irrawaddy.com'', accessed 24 March 2021</ref> A military junta, officially the [[State Administration Council]] was subsequently established.

====Heads and deputy heads====
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan=2|Office
!rowspan=2|Name
!colspan=3 | Term of service
|-
!Took office
!Left office
!Days
|-
|Acting [[President of Myanmar|President]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Myint Swe]]
|1 February 2021
|rowspan="11"|Incumbent
| {{age in days|2021|2|1}}
|-
|First [[Vice President of Myanmar|Vice President]]
|rowspan="2"|30 March 2016
|rowspan="2"|{{age in days|2016|3|30}}
|-
|Second Vice President
|[[Henry Van Thio]]
|-
| [[Chairman of the State Administration Council]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Min Aung Hlaing]]
|2 February 2021
| {{age in days|2021|2|2}}
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Myanmar|Prime Minister]]
|1 August 2021
| {{age in days|2021|8|1}}
|-
|[[Vice Chairman of the State Administration Council]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Soe Win (general)|Soe Win]]
|2 February 2021
| {{age in days|2021|2|2}}
|-
|rowspan="5"|[[Deputy Prime Minister of Myanmar|Deputy Prime Minister]]
|1 August 2021
| {{age in days|2021|8|1}}
|-
|[[Mya Tun Oo]]
|rowspan="4"|1 February 2023
|rowspan="4"|{{age in days|2023|2|1}}
|-
|[[Tin Aung San]]
|-
|[[Soe Htut]]
|-
|[[Win Shein]]
|}

====Cabinet members====
{{Myint Swe Cabinet}}

==Executive branch==
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 3
| total_width       = 350
| image1            = Senior General Min Aung Hlaing 2017 (cropped).jpg
| image2            = Soe Win.jpg
| image3            =
| footer            = Head of State and Government, Deputy Head of Government, and Deputy Head of State
* [[Min Aung Hlaing]], [[Chairman of the State Administration Council]], [[President of Myanmar|President]] and [[Prime Minister of Myanmar]]
* [[Soe Win (general)|Soe Win]], [[Vice Chairman of the State Administration Council]]
* [[Myint Swe (general)|Myint Swe]], [[Vice President of Myanmar]]
| align             = 
| direction         = 
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| caption2          = 
}}
{{Office-table}}
|[[Chairman of the State Administration Council|Chairman]]<br>[[President of Myanmar|President]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Myanmar|Prime Minister]]
|[[Min Aung Hlaing]]
|[[Tatmadaw]]
| 2 February 2021
|-
|[[Vice Chairman of the State Administration Council|Vice Chairman]]
|[[Soe Win (general)|Soe Win]]
|[[Tatmadaw]]
| 2 February 2021
|-
|[[Vice President of Myanmar|Vice President]]
|[[Myint Swe (general)|Myint Swe]]
|[[Union Solidarity and Development Party]]
| 1 February 2021
|-
|}

The president is the head of state and ''de jure'' head of government, and oversees the [[Cabinet of Myanmar]]. Currently the [[Chairman of the State Administration Council]] is the ''de facto'' head of government.

The Commander-in-Chief of the Myanmar Defense Forces ([[Tatmadaw]]) has the right to appoint 25% of the members in all legislative assembly which means that legislations cannot obtain [[Supermajority|super-majority]] without support from Tatmadaw, thus preventing democratically elected members from amending the [[2008 Constitution of Myanmar]]. He can also directly appoint ministers in [[Ministry of Defence (Myanmar)]] which in turn controls Myanmar Armed Forces, [[Ministry of Border Affairs (Myanmar)]] which controls border affairs of the country, [[Ministry of Home Affairs (Myanmar)]] which controls Myanmar police forces and the administration of the country and [[Myanmar Economic Corporation]] which is the largest economic corporation in Myanmar.

==Legislative branch==
[[File:Myanmar-Lower-House-Parliament.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Assembly of the Union]].]]
Under the 2008 [[Constitution of Burma|Constitution]] the legislative power of the Union is shared among the ''[[Pyidaungsu Hluttaw]]'', [[State and Region Hluttaws]].<ref name="const_ch1_art12a">[[Constitution of Myanmar]], Chapter 1, Article 12(a)</ref> The ''Pyidaungsu Hluttaw'' consists of the People's Assembly (''[[Pyithu Hluttaw]]'') elected on the basis of township as well as population, and the House of Nationalities (''[[Amyotha Hluttaw]]'') with on an equal number of representatives elected from Regions and States.<ref name="const_ch1_art12b">[[Constitution of Myanmar]], Chapter 1, Article 12(b)</ref><ref name="const_ch1_art74">[[Constitution of Myanmar]], Chapter 1, Article 74</ref> The People's Assembly consists of 440 representatives, with 110 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services.<ref name="const_ch1_art109">[[Constitution of Myanmar]], Chapter 1, Article 109</ref> The House of Nationalities consists of 224 representatives with 56 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services.<ref name="const_ch1_art141">[[Constitution of Myanmar]], Chapter 1, Article 141</ref>

==Judicial system==
Burma's judicial system is limited. British-era laws and legal systems remain much intact, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial. The judiciary is not independent of the executive branch.<ref name="courts"/> Burma does not accept compulsory [[International Court of Justice]] jurisdiction. The highest court in the land is the [[Supreme Court of Burma|Supreme Court]]. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is [[Htun Htun Oo (chief justice)|Htun Htun Oo]], and the Attorney General is also named [[Thida Oo]].

===''Wareru dhammathat''===
[[Wareru Dhammathat|Wareru dhammathat]] or the Manu dhammathat ({{lang|my|မနုဓမ္မသတ်}}) was the earliest law-book in Burma. It consists of laws ascribed to the ancient Indian sage, [[Manusmṛti|Manu]], and brought to Burma by Hindu colonists. The collection was made at [[Wareru]]’s command, by monks from the writings of earlier Mon scholars preserved in the monasteries of his kingdom. (Wareru seized Martaban in 1281 and obtained the recognition of China as the ruler of Lower Burma and founded a kingdom which lasted until 1539. Martaban was its first capital, and remained so until 1369. It stretched southwards as far as Tenasserim.)<ref>BURMA, D. G. E. HALL, M.A., D.LIT., F.R.HIST.S., Professor Emeritus of the University of London and formerly professor of history in the University of Rangoon, Burma. Third edition 1960. Page 34</ref>

===''Dhammazedi pyatton''===
Mon King [[Dhammazedi]] (1472–92) was the greatest of the Mon rulers of Wareru's line. He was famous for his wisdom and the collection of his rulings were recorded in the Kalyani stone inscriptions and known as the Dammazedi pyatton.<ref>BURMA, D. G. E. HALL, M.A., D.LIT., F.R.HIST.S. Professor Emeritus of the University of London and formerly professor of history in the University of Rangoon, Burma. Third edition 1960. Page 35-36</ref>

==Administrative divisions==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Burma}}
Burma is divided into seven regions (previously called divisions-''taing'') and seven states (''pyi-nè''), classified by ethnic composition. The seven regions are [[Ayeyarwady Region]], [[Bago Division]], [[Magway Division]], [[Mandalay Division]], [[Sagaing Division]], [[Tanintharyi Division]] and [[Yangon Division]]; the seven states are [[Chin State]], [[Kachin State]], [[Kayin State]], [[Kayah State]], [[Mon State]], [[Rakhine State]] and [[Shan State]].
There are also five Self-administrated zones and a Self-administrated Division "for National races with suitable population"<ref>[http://www.tni.org/briefing/ethnic-politics-burma-time-solutions New administrative map of Burma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512102705/http://www.tni.org/briefing/ethnic-politics-burma-time-solutions |date=12 May 2015 }} page 2 of the Burma Policy Briefing by the Transnational Institute</ref>

Within the Sagain Region
* Naga (Leshi, Lahe and Namyun townships)
Within the Shan State
* Palaung (Namshan and Manton townships)
* Kokang (Konkyan and Laukkai townships)
* Pao (Hopong, Hshihseng and Pinlaung townships),
* Danu (Ywangan and Pindaya townships),
* Wa Selfadministrated division (Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, Pangsang, Naphan and Metman townships)

==International organisation participation (in terms of food, water, medicine, shelter, etc.)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Myanmar (Burma) {{!}} International Rescue Committee (IRC) |url=https://www.rescue.org/country/myanmar |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=www.rescue.org |language=en}}</ref>==
{{Confusing section|date=March 2023|reason=what does "participation" mean here? How are these organizations relevant to the politics of Myanmar? A bit of prose before the list may be enough to clarify}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Asian Development Bank]]
* [[Association of South East Asian Nations]]
* [[Chittagong City Corporation|Chittagong City Corporation (CCC)]]
* [[Central Provinces|Central Provinces (CP)]]
* [[ESCAP]]
* [[FAO]]
* [[Group of 77|G-77]]
* [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]]
* [[IBRD]]
* [[ICAO]]
* [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM)]]
* [[International Development Association|International Development Association (IDA)]]
* [[IFAD]]
* [[Irrawaddy Flotilla Company|Irrawaddy Flotilla Company (IFC)]]
* [[IFRCS]]
* [[International Monetary Fund]]
* [[IMF|International Monetary Fund Organization (IMO) -see IMF]]
* [[Intelsat]] (nonsignatory user{{Clarify|date=March 2023|reason=Does this imply all the other organizations have signed a document or agreement? What is it that they have signed? Does "user" here mean something other than "organization"?}})
* [[Interpol (organization)|Interpol]]
* [[International Olympic Committee]]
* [[ITU]]
* [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]]
* [[OPCW]]
* [[United Nations]]
* [[UNCTAD]]
* [[UNDP]]
* [[UNESCO]]
* [[UNIDO]]
* [[UPU]]
* [[World Health Organization]]
* [[WMO]]
* [[WToO]]
* [[World Trade Organization]]
* [[Global Justice Center|Global Justice Center (GJC)]]
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
* [[United Nations Special Envoy on Myanmar]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Politics of Myanmar}}
* Kipgen, Nehginpao. "Democracy Movement in Myanmar: Problems and Challenges". New Delhi: Ruby Press & Co., 2014. Print.
* {{cite book |author=Myint-U, Thant |title=The River of Lost Footsteps: A Personal History of Burma |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=London |year=2008 }}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210200835/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |date=10 February 2021 }}
* Eh Htoo, Saw and Tony Waters (2024).  [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-97-1270-0 General Ne Win's Legacy of Burmanization in Myanmar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526094518/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-97-1270-0 |date=26 May 2024 }}. Singapore: Palgrave MacMillan.

{{Myanmar cabinets}}
{{Government of Myanmar}}
{{Burma (Myanmar) topics}}
{{Asia topic|Politics of}}
{{Portal bar|Politics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Politics Of Burma}}
[[Category:Politics of Myanmar| ]]
[[Category:Politics of Southeast Asia|Burma]]