Editing Physiologus

{{Short description|Didactic Christian text}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:76-Fisiologo di Berna - Pantera.jpg|thumb|250px|''Panther'', [[Bern Physiologus]], 9th century]]
The '''''Physiologus''''' ({{Langx|el|Φυσιολόγος}}) is a [[didactic]] [[Christianity|Christian]] text written or compiled in Greek by an unknown author in [[Alexandria]]. Its composition has been traditionally dated to the 2nd century AD by readers who saw parallels with writings of [[Clement of Alexandria]], who is asserted to have known the text, though Alan Scott<ref>Alan Scott, "The Date of the Physiologus" ''Vigiliae Christianae'' '''52'''.4 (November 1998:430-441).</ref> has made a case for a date at the end of the 3rd or in the 4th century.  The ''Physiologus'' consists of [[bestiary|descriptions of animals]], birds, and fantastic creatures, sometimes stones and plants, provided with moral content. Each animal is described, and an anecdote follows, from which the moral and symbolic qualities of the animal are derived.  Manuscripts are often, but not always, given illustrations, often lavish.

The book was translated into Armenian in 5th century,<ref>Gohar Muradyan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tKuNJ0QAPggC Physiologus: The Greek and Armenian Versions with a Study of Translation Technique], [[Peeters Publishers]], 2005</ref> into Latin by the early 6th century or possibly even by the mid-4th century<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physiologus|last=Curley|first=Michael J.|publisher=University of Texas|year=1979|isbn=0-292-76456-1|location=Austin & London|pages=xxi|chapter=Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/physiologus0000unse|url-access=registration}}</ref> and into [[Ethiopic]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]], then into many European and Middle-Eastern languages, and many [[illuminated manuscript]] copies such as the [[Bern Physiologus]] survive.  It retained its influence over ideas of the "meaning" of animals in Europe for over a thousand years.  It was a predecessor of [[bestiary|bestiaries]] (books of beasts). Medieval poetical literature is full of allusions that can be traced to the ''Physiologus'' tradition; the text also exerted great influence on the symbolism of medieval ecclesiastical art: symbols like those of the [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] rising from its ashes and the [[pelican]] feeding her young with her own blood are still well-known.<ref name=Catholic/>

==Allegorical stories==
The story is told of the lion whose cubs are born dead and receive life when the old lion breathes upon them, and of the [[phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] which burns itself to death and rises on the third day from the ashes; both are taken as types of [[Christ]]. The [[unicorn]] also which only permits itself to be captured in the lap of a pure virgin is a type of the [[Incarnation]]; the [[pelican]] that sheds its own blood in order to sprinkle its dead young, so that they may live again, is a type of the salvation of mankind by the death of [[Crucifixion|Christ on the Cross]]. This motif is known as the Pelican in her Piety.<ref name=Catholic/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Stracke |first=Richard |title=The Pelican Symbol in Christian Iconography |url=https://www.christianiconography.info/pelicans.html |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.christianiconography.info |language=en}}</ref>

Some allegories set forth the deceptive enticements of the [[Devil]] and his defeat by Christ; others present qualities as examples to be imitated or avoided.<ref name=Catholic/>

==Attributions==
The conventional title ''Physiologus'' was because the author introduces his stories from [[natural history]] with the phrase: "the physiologus says", that is, "the naturalist says", "the natural philosophers, the authorities for natural history say",<ref name=Catholic/> a term derived from Greek φύσις (''physis'', "nature") and λόγος (''[[logos]]'', “word”).

In later centuries it was ascribed to various celebrated [[Fathers of the Church|Fathers]], especially [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], [[Basil of Caesarea]], and St. [[Pope Peter I of Alexandria|Peter of Alexandria]].<ref name=Catholic/> <!--this is not followed by any writer of the last decades:[[Origen]], however, had cited it under the title ''Physiologus'', while [[Clement of Alexandria]] and perhaps even [[Justin Martyr]] seem to have known it.-->

The assertion that the method of the ''Physiologus'' presupposes the allegorical [[exegesis]] developed by [[Origen]] is not correct; the so-called ''[[Letter of Barnabas]]'' offers, before Origen, a sufficient model, not only for the general character of the ''Physiologus'' but also for many of its details. It can hardly be asserted that the later recensions, in which the Greek text has been preserved, present even in the best and oldest [[manuscript]]s a perfectly reliable transcription of the original, especially as this was an anonymous and popular treatise.<ref name=Catholic/>

==Early history==
About the year 400 the ''Physiologus'' was translated into [[Latin language|Latin]]; from Greek, the original language that it was written in. In the 5th century into [[Ethiopic]] [edited by [[Fritz Hommel]] with a German translation (Leipzig, 1877), revised German translation in ''Romanische Forschungen'', V, 13-36]; into [[Armenian language|Armenian]] [edited by Pitra in ''Spicilegium Solesmense'', III, 374–90; French translation by Cahier in ''Nouveaux Mélanges d'archéologie, d'histoire et de littérature'' (Paris, 1874)] (see also the recent edition: Gohar Muradyan, Physiologus. The Greek And Armenian Versions With a Study of Translation Technique, Leuven–Dudley MA: Peeters, 2005 [Hebrew University Armenian Studies 6]); into [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [edited by Tychsen, ''Physiologus Syrus'' (Rostock, 1795), a later Syriac and an [[Arabic]] version edited by Land in ''Anecdota Syriaca'', IV (Leyden, 1875)].<ref name=Catholic/> An Old Slavic (Old Bulgarian) translation was made in the 10th century [edited by Karneyev, {{Transliteration|cu|Materialy i zametki po literaturnoj istorii Fiziologa}}, Sankt Peterburg, 1890].

[[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]] used ''Physiologus'' in his ''Panarion'' and from his time numerous further quotations and references to the ''Physiologus'' in the Greek and the Latin [[Church Fathers]] show that it was one of the most generally known works of Christian [[Late Antiquity]]. Various translations and revisions were current in the [[Middle Ages]]. The earliest translation into Latin was followed by various recensions, among them the ''Sayings of [[St. John Chrysostom]] on the natures of beasts'',<ref>"Dicta Iohanni Crisostomi de natura bestiarum", edited by G. Heider in ''Archiv für Kunde österreichischer Geschichtsquellen'' (5, 552–82, 1850).<!--what is the modern edition?--></ref><ref name=Catholic/> A metrical Latin ''Physiologus'' was written in the 11th century by a certain [[Theobaldus]], and printed by Morris in ''An Old English Miscellany'' (1872), 201 sqq.; it also appears among the works of [[Hildebertus Cenomanensis]] in ''Pat.Lat.'', CLXXI, 1217–24. To these should be added the literature of the [[bestiaries]], in which the material of the ''Physiologus'' was used; the ''Tractatus de bestiis et alius rebus'', often misattributed to [[Hugo of St. Victor]], and the ''Speculum naturale'' of [[Vincent of Beauvais]].<ref name=Catholic/>

==Translations==
The ''Physiologus'' had an impact on neighboring literatures: medieval translations into [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Kodar |first=Jonathan |date=2023 |title=Jost Gippert, Caroline Macé, ed., The Multilingual Physiologus. Studies in the Oldest Greek Recension and its Translations. Turnhout, Brepols Publishers n.v. (coll. "Instrumenta Patristica et Mediaevalia", 84), 2021, xxiv plates, 661 p. |url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ltp/2023-v79-n1-ltp07976/1099110ar/ |journal=Laval théologique et philosophique |language=en |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=131–132 |doi=10.7202/1099110ar |issn=0023-9054}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/shatberdi |title=The Shatberdi Codex of X Century |date=1979}}</ref> [[Old Church Slavonic|Slavic]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], and [[Ge'ez|Ethiopic]] are known.<ref>{{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|title=Physiologos |last1=Scarborough |first1=John |last2=Kazhdan |first2=Alexander|authorlink=|url=|volume=|page=1674|pages=}}</ref>

Translations and adaptations from the Latin introduced the "Physiologus" into almost all the languages of Western Europe. An [[Old High German]] ([[Alemannic language|Alemannic]]) translation was written in [[Hirsau]] in c.&nbsp;1070 (ed.  Müllenhoff and Scherer in ''Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa''  No. LXXXI); a later translation (12th century) has been edited by {{ill|Friedrich Lauchert|de}} in ''Geschichte des Physiologus'' (pp.&nbsp;280–99); and a rhymed version appears in Karajan, ''Deutsche Sprachdenkmale des XII. Jahrhunderts'' (pp.&nbsp;73–106), both based on the Latin text known as ''Dicta Chrysostomi.'' Fragments of a 9th-century metrical [[Anglo-Saxon language|Anglo-Saxon]] ''Physiologus'' are extant (ed.  Thorpe in ''[[Exeter Book|Codex Exoniensis]]''  pp.&nbsp;335–67,  Grein in ''Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie'' I, 223-8).<ref name=Catholic/>

About the middle of the 13th century there appeared a Middle English metrical ''Bestiary'', an adaptation of the Latin ''Physiologus Theobaldi''; this has been edited by Wright and Halliwell in ''Reliquiæ antiquæ'' (I, 208-27), also by Morris in ''An Old English Miscellany'' (1-25).<ref name=Catholic/> There is an [[Icelandic Physiologus|''Icelandic'' ''Physiologus'']] preserved in two fragmentary redactions from around 1200.<ref>{{Cite book|title=66 Manuscripts from the Arnamagnæan Collection|last=Óskarsdóttir|first=Svanhildur|publisher=The Arnamagnaean Institute, Department of Nordic Research, University of Copenhagen; The Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies; Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen|year=2015|isbn=978-87-635-4264-7|editor-last=Driscoll|editor-first=Matthew James|location=Copenhagen and Rreykjavík|pages=152|chapter=Uncanny beasts|editor-last2=Óskarsdóttir|editor-first2=Svanhildur}}</ref><ref>Verner Dahlerup: ''Physiologus i to islandske Bearbejdelser''. In: Aarbøger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie (ANOH) 1889, pp. 199-290.</ref>

In the 12th and 13th centuries there appeared the ''Bestiaires'' of [[Philippe de Thaun]], a metrical [[Old French]] version, edited by [[Thomas Wright (antiquarian)|Thomas Wright]] in ''Popular Treatises on Science Written during the Middle Ages'' (74-131), and by Walberg (Lund and Paris, 1900); that by [[Guillaume, clerk of Normandy]], called ''Bestiare divin'', and edited by Cahier in his ''Mélanges d'archéologie'' (II-IV), also edited by Hippeau (Caen, 1852), and by Reinsch (Leipzig, 1890); the ''{{Interlanguage link|Bestiare de Gervaise|fr}}'', edited by [[Paul Meyer (philologist)|Paul Meyer]] in ''Romania'' (I, 420-42); the ''Bestiare'' in prose of [[Pierre le Picard]], edited by Cahier in ''Mélanges'' (II-IV).<ref name=Catholic/>

An adaptation is found in the old [[Waldensian]] literature, and has been edited by [[Alfons Mayer]] in ''Romanische Forschungen'' (V, 392 sqq.). As to the Italian bestiaries, a Tuscan-Venetian ''Bestiarius'' has been edited (Goldstaub and Wendriner, ''Ein tosco-venezianischer Bestiarius'', Halle, 1892). Extracts from the ''Physiologus'' in [[Franco-Provençal language|Provençal]] have been edited by Bartsch, ''Provenzalisches Lesebuch'' (162-66). The ''Physiologus'' survived in the literatures of [[Eastern Europe]] in books on animals written in [[Middle Greek]], among the [[Slavs]] to whom it came from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (translations of the so-called Byzantinian redaction were made in Middle Bulgarian in the 13th-14th century; they were edited in 2011 by Ana Stoykova in an electronic edition, see reference), and in a [[Romanian language|Romanian]] translation from a Slavic original (edited by [[Moses Gaster]] with an Italian translation in ''Archivio glottologico italiano'', X, 273-304).<ref name=Catholic>{{Catholic|wstitle=Physiologus|inline=1}}</ref>

==The manuscript tradition==
Modern study of ''Physiologus'' can be said to have begun with Francesco Sbordone's edition, 1936,<ref>Fr. Sbordone, ''''Physiologus'' (Rome: Dante Albrighi) 1936.</ref> which established three traditions in the surviving manuscripts of the text, a "primitive" tradition, a Byzantine one and a pseudo-Basil tradition. Ben Perry showed<ref>Perry, "Physiologus" entry in ''Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Herausgegeben v. G. Wissowa'', vol. 20, pp. 1074-1129. Stuttgart, 1941.</ref> that a manuscript Sbordone had missed, at the [[Morgan Library]],<ref>Morgan codex 397.</ref> was the oldest extant Greek version, a late 10th-century manuscript from [[Grottaferrata]]. Anna Dorofeeva has argued that the numerous early Latin Physiologus manuscripts can be seen as evidence for an 'encyclopedic drive' amongst early medieval monastic writing centres.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dorofeeva|first=Anna|date=2017|title=Miscellanies, Christian reform and early medieval encyclopaedism: a reconsideration of the pre-bestiary Latin Physiologus manuscripts|journal=Historical Research|language=en|volume=90|issue=250|pages=665–682|doi=10.1111/1468-2281.12198|issn=1468-2281|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Contents==
{{columns-list|
# We begin first of all by speaking of the [[Lion]]
# On the [[Antelope]]
# On [[Fire rock|Piroboli Rocks]]
# On the [[Swordfish]]
# On the [[Charadrius]]
# On the [[Pelican]]
# On the [[Owl]]
# On the [[Eagle]]
# On the [[Phoenix (mythology)|Phoenix]]
# On the [[Hoopoe]]
# On the [[Donkey]]
# On the [[Viperidae|Viper]]
# On the [[Snake|Serpent]]
# On the [[Ant]]
# On the [[Siren (mythology)|Siren]] and [[Onocentaur]]
# On the [[Hedgehog]]
# On the [[Ibis]]
# On the [[Fox]]
# On the [[Peridexion tree]] and the [[Doves]]
# On the [[Elephant]]
# On [[Amos (prophet)|Amos the Prophet]]
# On the [[Roe]]
# On the [[Agate|Agate-stone]]
# On the [[Oyster|Oyster-stone]] and the [[Pearl]] 
# On the [[Adamant|Adamant-stone]]
# On the Other Nature of the Wild Ass and the [[Monkey]]
# On the [[Indian-stone]]
# On the [[Coot]]
# On the [[Ficus|Fig Tree]]
# On the [[Panthera|Panther]]
# On the [[Aspidochelone|Aspidoceleon]]
# On the [[Partridge]]
# On the [[Vulture]]
# On the [[Ant-lion]]
# On the [[Weasel]]
# On the [[Unicorn]]
# On the [[Beaver]]
# On the [[Hyena]]
# On the [[River Nile]]
# On the [[Ichneumon (medieval zoology)|Echinemon]]
# On the [[Little Crow (bird)|Little Crow]]
# On the [[Ostrich]]
# On the [[Streptopelia|Turtle-dove]]
# On the [[Swallow]]
# On the [[Stag]]
# On the [[Frog]]
# On the lizard, that is, the [[Salamander (legendary creature)|Salamander]]
# On the [[Magnet]]
# On the [[Adamant|Adamant-stone]]
# On the [[Doves]]
# On the [[Eel]]
}}

==See also==
{{Commons category|Physiologus manuscripts}}
* [[List of illuminated manuscripts]]
* {{Lang|la|[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historia]]}}
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==<!--these need replacing with modern references-->
{{Refbegin}}
* Cahier and Martin, Mélanges d'archaeologie, &c. ii. 85 seq (Paris, 1851), iii. 203 seq. (1853),iv. 55 seq. (r856);
* Cahier, Nouveaux mélanges (1874), p.&nbsp;106 seq.
* [[J. Victor Carus]], Gesch der Zoologie (Munich, 1872), p.&nbsp;109 seq.
* Classici auctores I ed. Mai, vii. 585596 (Rome, 1835)
* Michael J. Curley, ''Introduction'', Physiologus. Translated by Michael J. Curley. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979). ix-xliii.
* [[Verner Dahlerup|Dahlerup, Verner]]: "Physiologus i to islandske Bearbejdelser". In: Aarbøger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie (ANOH) 1889, pp.&nbsp;199–290.
* S. Epiphanius ad physiologum, ed. Ponce de Leon<!--Consalus Ponce de Leon, according to http://bestiary.ca/etexts/migne/epiphanius_physiologus.htm --> (with woodcuts) (Rome, 1587) another edition, with copper-plates (Antwerp, 1588);
* S. Eustathu ni hexahemeron commentarius, ed. [[Leo Allatius]] (Lyons, 1629; cf. I-F van Herwerden, Exerciti. Crstt., pp.&nbsp;180182, Hague, 1862);
* [[G. Heider]], in Archiv für Kunde österreichischer Geschichtsquellen" (5, 541–82, Vienna, 1850)
* [[A. Karneyev]], {{Transliteration|cu|italic=no|Materialy i zametki po literaturnoj istorii Fiziologa}} (Sankt Peterburg, 1890).
* [[J. P. N. Land]], Anecdote syriaca (Leiden, 1874), iv. 31 seq., 115 seq., and in Verslager en Mededeelingen der kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen, 2nd series vol. iv. (Amsterdam, 1874);
* Friedrich Lauchert, Geschichten des Physiologus (Strassburg, 1889)
* S. Lazaris, Le Physiologus grec, t. 1. La réécriture de l'histoire naturelle antique (Firenze, 2016, Micrologus Library 77) -  pdf:[https://www.academia.edu/31322686/Stavros_Lazaris_Le_Physiologus_grec._VoI._I._La_r%C3%A9%C3%A9criture_de_lhistoire_naturelle_antique]
* Stavros Lazaris: ″Quelques considérations sur l'illustration du Physiologus grec″, in: ''Bestiaires médiévaux : Nouvelles perspectives sur les manuscrits et les traditions textuelles. Actes du XVe colloque international de la Société Internationale Renardienne, Louvain-la-Neuve, 18-22 août 2003'', B. Van den Abeele (ed.), Louvain-la-Neuve, 2005 (Textes, études, congrès 21), p.&nbsp;141-167 |pdf : https://www.academia.edu/795328/_Quelques_considérations_sur_l_illustration_du_Physiologus_grec_
* [[Maetzner]], Altengl. Sprachproben (Berlin, 1867), vol. i. pt. i. p.&nbsp;55 seq.
* Guy R. Mermier, "The Romanian Bestiary: An English Translation and Commentary on the Ancient 'Physiologus' Tradition," ''Mediterranean Studies'', Vol. 13 (Penn State University Press: 2004), pp.&nbsp;17–55.
* Emil Peters: ''Der griechische Physiologus und seine orientalischen Übersetzungen'' (Festschriften der Gesellschaft für deutsche Philologie ; 15). Berlin, 1898.
* [[B. Pitra]], ''Spicilegium solesmense'' Th xlvii. seq., 338 seq., 416, 535 (Paris, 1855)
* Meinolf Schumacher: "Der Biber – ein Asket? Zu einem metaphorischen Motiv aus Fabel und 'Physiologus'": ''Euphorion'' 86 (1992) pp.&nbsp;347–353 ([https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/download/1860036/2913723 PDF])
* [http://physiologus.proab.info/ Ana Stoykova, ''The Slavic Physiologus of the Byzantine Recension: Electronic Text Edition and Comparative Study'', 2011]
* [[O. G. Tychsen]] ''Physiologus syrus'', (Rostock, 1795)
{{Refend}}

=== Translations ===
* Francis Carmody. ''Physiologus, The Very Ancient Book of Beasts, Plants and Stones''. San Francisco: The Book Club of California, 1953.
* A. S. Cook. ''The Old English Physiologus''. Yale Studies in English, vol. 63. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1921.
* Michael J. Curley: ''Physiologus''. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. First translation into English of the Latin versions of Physiologus as established by Francis Carmody.
* Emil Peters: ''Der Physiologus'' (aus dem griech. Orig., mit einem Nachw. vers. von [[Friedrich Würzbach]]). München: Musarionverl., 1921
* Christian Schröder: ''Der Millstätter Physiologus. Text, Übersetzung, Kommentar'' (Würzburger Beiträge zur deutschen Philologie ; 24; zugl.: Würzburg, Univ., Diss., 2004). Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2005
* [[T. H. White]]: The Bestiary: The Book of Beasts New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1954, 4/1960
* French translation : Arnaud Zucker, ''Physiologos. Le bestiaire des bestiaires. Texte traduit du grec, introduit et commenté par Arnaud Zucker'', Jérôme Millon, 2005 (Series Atopia). https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8hwbgnpr-kC  {{ISBN|9782841371716}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2nd-century books]]
[[Category:Bestiaries]]
[[Category:Biology books]]
[[Category:History of biology]]
[[Category:Types of illuminated manuscript]]
[[Category:Works of unknown authorship]]