Editing Peregrine falcon

{{Short description|Fastest known animal and common bird of prey}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Peregrine falcon
| image = Falco peregrinus m Humber Bay Park Toronto.jpg
| image_caption = Male in Toronto, Ontario, [[Canada]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{Cite iucn |author = BirdLife International |year = 2021 |title = ''Falco peregrinus'' |page= e.T45354964A206217909 |doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T45354964A206217909.en |access-date=20 May 2024}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A1
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref name="CITES">{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>
| genus = Falco
| species = peregrinus
| authority = [[Marmaduke Tunstall|Tunstall]], 1771
| range_map = PeregrineRangeMap.png
| range_map_caption = Global range of ''F. peregrinus''
{{leftlegend|#FFFF00|Breeding summer visitor|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#008000|Breeding resident|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#0080FF|Winter visitor|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#80FFFF|Passage visitor|outline=gray}}
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 18–19, see text
| synonyms = *''Falco atriceps'' <br/><small>[[Allan Octavian Hume|Hume]]</small>
*''Falco kreyenborgi'' <br/><small>[[Otto Kleinschmidt|Kleinschmidt]], 1929</small>
*''Falco pelegrinoides madens'' <br/><small>[[Sidney Dillon Ripley|Ripley]] & Watson, 1963</small>
*''Rhynchodon peregrinus'' <br/><small>Tunstall, 1771</small>
}}

The '''peregrine falcon''' ('''''Falco peregrinus'''''), also known simply as the '''peregrine''',<ref name=Heinzel1995/> is a [[Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] [[bird of prey]] (raptor) in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Falconidae]]. A large, [[Corvus (genus)|crow]]-sized [[falcon]], it has a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head. The peregrine is renowned for its speed. Some sources state that it can reach over {{cvt|200|mph|order=flip}} during its characteristic hunting stoop (high-speed dive),<ref name=USFWS/> which would make it the [[Fastest animals|fastest animal]] on the planet,<ref name="BBC" /><ref name="Smithsonian" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-fastest-birds-in-the-world.html |title=The Fastest Birds In The World |work=WorldAtlas.com |access-date=8 May 2019}}</ref> but, according to a ''[[National Geographic (U.S. TV channel)|National Geographic]]'' TV program, the highest measured speed of a peregrine falcon is {{cvt|389|km/h}}.<ref name=Harpole2005/><ref name=TerminalVelocity/> However, radar tracks have never confirmed this, and unimpeachable measurements of speeds even close to the oft-quoted {{cvt|300|km/h}} have never been reliably confirmed,<ref name="Journal of Aviation Biology">{{cite journal|url=https://nsojournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jav.01358 |title=Thomas Alerstam - migration ecologist extraordinaire|date=2017 |doi=10.1111/jav.01358 |last1=Hedenström |first1=Anders |last2=Lindström |first2=Åke |journal=Journal of Avian Biology |volume=48 |pages=1–5 }}</ref> with the highest reliably measured speed being {{cvt|184|km/h}}. As is typical for [[avivore|bird-eating]] (avivore) raptors, peregrine falcons are [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]], with females being considerably larger than males.<ref name=White94/><ref name=Snow1998/> Historically, it has also been known as "black-cheeked falcon" in Australia,<ref name="Pizzey">{{cite book | last1=Pizzey | first1=Graham | last2=Knight | first2=Frank | last3=Pizzey | first3=Sarah | title=The field guide to the birds of Australia | publisher=Harper Collins Publishers | publication-place=Sydney | date=2012 | isbn=978-0-7322-9193-8 | page=}}</ref> and "duck hawk" in [[North America]].<ref name=Friedmann1950/>

The breeding range includes land regions from the [[Arctic tundra]] to the [[tropics]]. It can be found nearly everywhere on Earth, except extreme [[polar region]]s, very high mountains, and most [[tropical rainforest]]s; the only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely absent is [[New Zealand]]. This makes it the world's most widespread [[Raptor (bird)|raptor]]<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/> and one of the most widely found wild bird [[species]]. In fact, the only land-based bird species found over a larger geographic area owes its success to [[introduced species|human-led introduction]]; the [[domestic pigeon|domestic]] and [[feral pigeon]]s are both domesticated forms of the [[rock dove]], a major prey species for Eurasian Peregrine populations. Due to their abundance over most other bird species in cities, feral pigeons support many peregrine populations as a staple food source, especially in [[Urban area|urban settings]].

The peregrine is a highly successful example of [[urban wildlife]] in much of its range, taking advantage of tall buildings as nest sites and an abundance of prey such as pigeons and ducks. Both the English and [[scientific name]]s of this [[species]] mean "wandering falcon", referring to the [[bird migration|migratory]] habits of many northern populations. A total of 18 or 19 regional [[subspecies]] are accepted, which vary in appearance; disagreement existed in the past over whether the distinctive [[Barbary falcon]] was represented by two subspecies of ''Falco peregrinus'' or was a separate species, ''F. pelegrinoides'', and several of the other subspecies were originally described as species. The genetic differential between them (and also the difference in their appearance) is very small, only about 0.6–0.8% genetically differentiated, showing the divergence is relatively recent, during the time of the [[Last glacial period|Last Ice Age]];<ref name="Nittinger2005" /> all the major ornithological authorities now treat the barbary falcon as a subspecies.<ref name="Hoyo">{{cite book | last=Hoyo | first=Josep del | title=All the birds of the world | publisher=Lynx edicions | publication-place=Barcelona | date=2020 | isbn=978-84-16728-37-4 | page=}}</ref>

Although its diet consists almost exclusively of medium-sized birds, the peregrine will sometimes hunt small mammals, small reptiles, or even insects. Reaching sexual maturity at one year, it [[mates for life]] and nests in a [[Scrape nest|scrape]], normally on cliff edges or, in recent times, on tall human-made structures.<ref name=Cade1996/> The peregrine falcon became an endangered species in many areas because of the widespread use of certain pesticides, especially [[DDT]]. Since the ban on DDT from the early 1970s, populations have recovered, supported by large-scale protection of nesting places and releases to the wild.<ref name=Cade1988/>

The peregrine falcon is a well-respected [[falconry]] bird due to its strong hunting ability, high trainability, versatility, and availability via [[captive breeding]]. It is effective on most [[game bird]] species, from small to large. It has also been used as a religious, royal, or national symbol across multiple eras and areas of human civilization.

==Description==
[[File:Peregrine falcon (Australia).JPG|thumb|left|''Falco peregrinus''. [[Royal National Park]], [[New South Wales]], Australia]]
The peregrine falcon has a body length of {{cvt|34|to(-)|58|cm}} and a wingspan from {{cvt|74|to(-)|120|cm|}}.<ref name=White94/><ref name=Potter2002/> The male and female have similar markings and [[plumage]] but, as with many [[birds of prey]], the peregrine falcon displays marked [[sexual dimorphism]] in size, with the female measuring up to 30% larger than the male.<ref name=Scholz/> Males weigh {{cvt|330|to(-)|1000|g}} and the noticeably larger females weigh {{cvt|700|to(-)|1500|g}}. In most subspecies, males weigh less than {{cvt|700|g}} and females weigh more than {{cvt|800|g}}, and cases of females weighing about 50% more than their male breeding mates are not uncommon.<ref name=Snow1998/><ref name=CRC/><ref name=Whiteetal2002/> The standard linear measurements of peregrines are: the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] measures {{cvt|26.5|to(-)|39|cm}}, the tail measures {{cvt|13|to(-)|19|cm}} and the tarsus measures {{cvt|4.5|to(-)|5.6|cm}}.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/>
[[File:Peregrine Falcon La Cañada.jpg | thumb | right | Shows the appearance of Peregrine Falcon]]

The back and the long pointed wings of the adult are usually bluish black to slate grey with indistinct darker barring (see "Subspecies" [[#species|below]]); the wingtips are black.<ref name=Potter2002/> The white to rusty underparts are barred with thin clean bands of dark brown or black.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/> The tail, coloured like the back but with thin clean bars, is long, narrow, and rounded at the end with a black tip and a white band at the very end. The top of the head and a "moustache" along the cheeks are black, contrasting sharply with the pale sides of the neck and white throat.<ref name=Terres1991/> The [[cere]] is yellow, as are the feet, and the [[beak]] and [[claw]]s are black.<ref name=Beckstead2001/> The upper beak is notched near the tip, an [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]] which enables falcons to kill prey by severing the [[Cervical vertebrae|spinal column]] at the neck.<ref name=White94/><ref name=Snow1998/><ref name=USFWS/> An immature bird is much browner, with streaked, rather than barred, underparts, and has a pale bluish cere and orbital ring.<ref name=White94/>

A study shows that their black [[cheek|malar stripe]] exists to reduce [[glare (vision)|glare]] from [[solar irradiance|solar radiation]], allowing them to see better. Photos from [[Macaulay Library|The Macaulay Library]] and [[iNaturalist]] showed that the malar stripe is thicker where there is more solar radiation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vrettos|first1=Michelle|last2=Reynolds|first2=Chevonne|last3=Amar|first3=Arjun|title=Malar stripe size and prominence in peregrine falcons vary positively with solar radiation: support for the solar glare hypothesis|journal=Biology Letters|year=2021 |volume=17|issue=6|pages=20210116|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2021.0116|pmc=8169203|pmid=34062086}}</ref> That supports the solar glare hypothesis.

==Taxonomy and systematics==
[[File:Audubon-peregrinus.jpg|thumb|right|A pair of peregrines eating ducks. Illustration by [[John James Audubon]]]]
''Falco peregrinus'' was first described under its current [[binomial name]] by English ornithologist [[Marmaduke Tunstall]] in his 1771 work ''Ornithologia Britannica''.<ref name=Tunstall1771/> The scientific name ''Falco peregrinus'' is a [[Medieval Latin]] phrase that was used by [[Albertus Magnus]] in 1225. ''Peregrinus'' is Latin, meaning "one from abroad" or "coming from foreign parts". It is likely the name was used as juvenile birds were taken while journeying to their breeding location (rather than from the nest), as falcon nests are often difficult to get at.<ref name=Merriam-Webster/> The Latin term for falcon, {{lang|la|falco}}, is related to {{wikt-lang|la|falx}}, meaning "[[sickle]]", in reference to the silhouette of the falcon's long, pointed wings in flight.<ref name=USFWS/>

The peregrine falcon belongs to a [[genus]] whose lineage includes the [[hierofalcon]]s{{refn|group=note|''Contra'' {{harvnb|Helbig|Seibold|Bednarek|Brüning|1994}}, {{harvnb|Wink|Seibold|Lotfikhah|Bednarek|1998}}. The supposed [[basal (biology)|basal]] position of the hierofalcons was due to them having a [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] [[numt]]: see {{harvnb|Wink|Sauer-Gürth|2000}}}} and the [[prairie falcon]] (''F.&nbsp;mexicanus''). This lineage probably diverged from other falcons towards the end of the [[Late Miocene]] or in the [[Late Pliocene]], about 3–8&nbsp;[[million years ago]] (mya).<ref name="Nittinger2005" /><ref name="Helbig1994" /><ref name="Wink1998" /><ref name="Griffiths1999" /><ref name="Wink2000" /><ref name="Groombridge2002" /><ref name="Griffiths2004" /> As the peregrine-hierofalcon group includes both [[Old World]] and North American species, it is likely that the lineage originated in western [[Eurasia]] or Africa. Its relationship to other falcons is not clear, as the issue is complicated by widespread [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] confounding [[mtDNA]] [[DNA sequence|sequence]] analyses. One genetic lineage of the [[saker falcon]] (''F.&nbsp;cherrug'') is known<ref name=Helbig1994/><ref name=Wink1998/> to have originated from a male saker ancestor producing fertile young with a female peregrine ancestor, and the descendants further breeding with sakers.<ref name=Seibold1993/>

===Subspecies===
Numerous [[subspecies]] of ''Falco peregrinus'' have been described, with 18 accepted by the IOC World Bird List,<ref name="IOC">{{cite web | title=Seriemas, falcons – IOC World Bird List | website=IOC World Bird List – Version 14.2 | date=2024-08-17 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/bow/falcons/ | access-date=2024-12-11}}</ref> and 19 accepted by the 1994 ''[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]]'',<ref name=White94/><ref name=Snow1998/><ref name=Vaurie1961/> which considers the [[Barbary falcon]] of the [[Canary Islands]] and coastal [[North Africa]] to be two subspecies (''F. p. pelegrinoides'' and ''F. p. babylonicus'') of ''Falco peregrinus'', rather than a distinct species, ''F. pelegrinoides''. The following map shows the general ranges of these 19 subspecies.
[[File:PeregrineSubspeciesMap.png|700px|thumb|center|Breeding ranges of the 19 subspecies|alt=A map of the world, green shows on several continents, but there are also several big bare spots marked with E for extinct]]
[[File:FalcoPeregrinusBabylonicusGould.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the subspecies ''babylonicus'' by [[John Gould]]]]
[[File:Falco peregrinus ernesti.JPG|thumb|A juvenile of the subspecies ''ernesti'' in [[Mount Mahawu]], [[North Sulawesi]], [[Indonesia]]]]
[[File:Falco peregrinus nest USFWS.jpg|right|thumb|An adult of either the subspecies ''pealei'' or ''tundrius'' by its nest in [[Alaska]]]]
[[File:Peregrine Falcon, submelanogenys subspecies, Herdsman Lake near Perth, Western Austraila.jpg|right|thumb|''F. p. submelanogenys'' at Herdsman Lake, near Perth, Western Australia]]
*'''''Falco peregrinus anatum''''', described by [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]] in 1838,<ref name=AOUp164/> is known as the American peregrine falcon or "duck hawk"; its scientific name means "duck peregrine falcon". At one time, it was partly included in ''[[#calidus|F. p. leucogenys]]''. It is mainly found in the [[Rocky Mountains]]. It was formerly common throughout North America between the tundra and northern [[Mexico]], where current [[reintroduction]] efforts are being made to restore the population.<ref name=AOUp164/> Most mature ''F. p. anatum'', except those that breed in more northern areas, winter in their breeding range. Most [[Vagrant birds|vagrant]]s that reach western Europe seem to belong to the more northern and strongly migratory ''[[#tundrius|F. p. tundrius]]'', only considered distinct since 1968. It is similar to the [[#nominate|nominate subspecies]] but is slightly smaller; adults are somewhat paler and less patterned below, but juveniles are darker and more patterned below. Males weigh {{convert|500|to(-)|700|g|lb|abbr=on}}, while females weigh {{convert|800|to(-)|1100|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Whiteetal2002/> It became [[local extinction|regionally extinct]] in eastern North America in the mid 20th century, and populations there now are hybrids as a result of reintroductions of birds from elsewhere.<ref name=Lehr2000/>
*'''''Falco peregrinus babylonicus''''', described by [[Philip Sclater|P.L. Sclater]] in 1861, is found in eastern [[Iran]] along the [[Hindu Kush]] and the [[Tian Shan]] to the [[Mongolian Altai]] ranges. A few birds winter in northern and northwestern India, mainly in dry semi-desert habitats.<ref name=Pande2007/> It is paler than ''F. p. pelegrinoides'' and similar to a small, pale [[lanner falcon]] (''Falco biarmicus''). Males weigh {{convert|330|to|400|g|oz}}, while females weigh {{convert|513|to|765|g|oz}}.<ref name=Snow1998/>
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus brookei|brookei}}''''', described by [[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]] in 1873, is also known as the Mediterranean peregrine falcon or the Maltese falcon.{{refn|group=note|[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] levied a nominal [[Renting|rent]] of these birds on the [[Knights Hospitaller]]s when he donated the territories of [[Malta]], [[Gozo]] and [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] to them. The source of the name for [[Dashiell Hammett]]'s [[The Maltese Falcon (novel)|novel]].}} It includes ''F. p. caucasicus'' and most specimens of the proposed race ''F. p. punicus'', though others may be ''F. p. pelegrinoides'' ([[Barbary falcon]]s), or perhaps the rare hybrids between these two which might occur around [[Algeria]]. They occur from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] around the Mediterranean, except in [[arid]] regions, to the [[Caucasus]]. They are non-migratory. It is smaller than the [[#nominate|nominate subspecies]] and the underside usually has a rusty hue.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/> Males weigh around {{convert|445|g|lb|abbr=on}}, while females weigh up to {{convert|920|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Snow1998/>
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus calidus|calidus}}''''', described by [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] in 1790, it was formerly called ''F. p. leucogenys'' and includes ''F. p. caeruleiceps''. It breeds in the [[Arctic]] tundra of Eurasia from [[Murmansk Oblast]] to roughly [[Yana River|Yana]] and [[Indigirka River]]s, [[Siberia]]. It is completely migratory and travels south in winter as far as [[South Asia]] and [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. It is often seen around wetland habitats.<ref name=Rasmussen2005/> It is paler than the [[#nominate|nominate subspecies]], especially on the crown. Males weigh {{convert|588|to(-)|740|g|lb|abbr=on}}, while females weigh {{convert|925|to(-)|1333|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Snow1998/>
*'''''Falco peregrinus cassini''''', described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the austral peregrine falcon. It includes ''F. p. kreyenborgi'', the pallid falcon,{{refn|group=note|Also called "Kleinschmidt's falcon", but this might equally refer to ''F. p. kleinschmidti'', which is a [[junior synonym]] of ''F. p. japonensis''.}} a [[leucistic]] colour [[Morph (zoology)|morph]] occurring in southernmost South America, which was long believed to be a distinct species.<ref name=Ellis1983/> Its range includes South America from [[Ecuador]] through [[Bolivia]], northern [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]] to [[Tierra del Fuego]] and the [[Falkland Islands]].<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/> It is non-migratory. It is similar to the [[#nominate|nominate subspecies]], but slightly smaller with a black ear region. The pallid falcon morph ''F. p. kreyenborgi'' is medium grey above, has little barring below and has a head pattern like the [[saker falcon]] (''Falco cherrug''), but the ear region is white.<ref name=Ellis1983/>
*'''''Falco peregrinus ernesti''''', described by Sharpe in 1894, is found from the [[Sunda Islands]] to the [[Philippines]] and south to eastern [[New Guinea]] and the nearby [[Bismarck Archipelago]]. Its geographical separation from ''[[#nesiotes|F. p. nesiotes]]'' requires confirmation. It is non-migratory. It differs from the [[#nominate|nominate subspecies]] in the very dark, dense barring on its underside and its black ear coverts.
*'''''Falco peregrinus furuitii''''', described by Momiyama in 1927, is found on the [[Izu Islands|Izu]] and [[Ogasawara Islands]] south of [[Honshū]], Japan. It is non-migratory. It is very rare and may only remain on a single island.<ref name=White94/> It is a dark form, resembling ''[[#pealei|F. p. pealei]]'' in colour, but darker, especially on the tail.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/>
*'''''Falco peregrinus japonensis''''', described by [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]] in 1788, includes ''F. p. kleinschmidti'', ''F. p. pleskei'', and ''F. p. harterti'', and seems to refer to intergrades with ''[[#calidus|F. p. calidus]]''. It is found from northeast [[Siberia]] to [[Kamchatka]] (though it is possibly replaced by ''F. p. pealei'' on the coast there) and [[Japan]]. Northern populations are migratory, while those of Japan are resident. It is similar to the [[#nominate|nominate subspecies]], but the young are even darker than those of ''[[#anatum|F. p. anatum]]''.
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus macropus|macropus}}''''', described by [[William Swainson|Swainson]] in 1837, is the Australian peregrine falcon or "black-cheeked falcon". It is found in [[Australia]] in all regions except the southwest, where replaced by ''[[#submelanogenys|F. p. submelanogenys]]''; some authorities treat the latter as a synonym of ''F. p. macropus''.<ref name="IOC"/><ref name="Simpson">{{cite book | title=Field guide to the birds of Australia | publisher=Penguin | publication-place=Camberwell, Vic | date=2010 | isbn=978-0-670-07231-6 | page=}}</ref> It is non-migratory. It is similar to ''[[#brookei|F. p. brookei]]'' in appearance, but is slightly smaller and the ear region is entirely black. The feet are proportionally large.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/>
*'''''Falco peregrinus madens''''', described by [[Sidney Dillon Ripley|Ripley]] and Watson in 1963, is unusual in having some [[sexual dichromatism]]. If the Barbary falcon (see below) is considered a distinct species, it is sometimes placed therein. It is found in the [[Cape Verde Islands]] and is non-migratory;<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/> it is also endangered, with only six to eight pairs surviving.<ref name=White94/> Males have a rufous wash on the crown, nape, ears and back; the underside is conspicuously washed pinkish-brown. Females are tinged rich brown overall, especially on the crown and nape.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/>[[File:FalcoMinorKeulemans.jpg|right|thumb|Illustration of the subspecies ''F. p. minor'' by [[John Gerrard Keulemans|Keulemans]], 1874]]
*'''''Falco peregrinus minor''''', first described by [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]] in 1850. It was formerly often known as ''F. p. perconfusus''.<ref name=Vaurie1961/> It is sparsely and patchily distributed throughout much of [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and widespread in [[Southern Africa]]. It apparently reaches north along the [[Atlantic]] coast as far as [[Morocco]]. It is non-migratory and dark-coloured. This is the smallest subspecies, with smaller males weighing as little as approximately {{convert|300|g|oz|abbr=on}}.
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus nesiotes|nesiotes}}''''', described by [[Ernst Mayr|Mayr]] in 1941,<ref name=Mayr1941/> is found in [[Fiji]] and probably also [[Vanuatu]] and [[New Caledonia]]. It is non-migratory.<ref name=Peters1979/>
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus pealei|pealei}}''''', described by [[Robert Ridgway|Ridgway]] in 1873, is [[Peale's falcon]] and includes ''F. p. rudolfi''.<ref name=AOUp165/> It is found in the [[Pacific Northwest]] of North America, northwards from [[Puget Sound]] along the [[British Columbia]] coast (including the [[Haida Gwaii]]), along the [[Gulf of Alaska]] and the [[Aleutian Islands]] to the far eastern [[Bering Sea]] coast of [[Russia]],<ref name=AOUp165/> and may also occur on the [[Kuril Islands]] and the coasts of [[Kamchatka]]. It is non-migratory. It is the largest subspecies and it looks like an oversized and darker ''[[#tundrius|tundrius]]'' or like a strongly barred and large ''[[#anatum|F. p. anatum]]''. The bill is very wide.<ref name=Proctor/> Juveniles occasionally have pale crowns. Males weigh {{convert|700|to(-)|1000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, while females weigh {{convert|1000|to(-)|1500|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Whiteetal2002/>
*'''''[[Barbary falcon|Falco peregrinus pelegrinoides]]''''', first described by [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]] in 1829, is found in the [[Canary Islands]] through North Africa and the [[Near East]] to [[Mesopotamia]]. It is most similar to ''[[#brookei|F. p. brookei]]'', but is markedly paler above, with a rusty neck, and is a light buff with reduced barring below. It is smaller than the [[#nominate|nominate subspecies]]; females weigh around {{convert|610|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Snow1998/>
*'''''[[Shaheen falcon|Falco peregrinus peregrinator]]''''', described by [[Carl Jakob Sundevall|Sundevall]] in 1837, is known as the Indian peregrine falcon, black shaheen, Indian shaheen{{refn|group=note|The ''shaheen'' (شاهین) of Arabic and Persian writers are usually [[Barbary falcon]]s; those in Indian (शाहीन) and Pakistani (شاہین) sources normally refer to ''F. p. peregrinator''.}} or [[shaheen falcon]].<ref name=Wijeratne2007/> It was formerly sometimes known as ''Falco atriceps'' or ''Falco shaheen''. Its range includes [[South Asia]] from across the [[Indian subcontinent]] to [[Sri Lanka]] and southeastern [[China]]. In India, the shaheen falcon is reported from all states except [[Uttar Pradesh]], mainly from rocky and hilly regions. The shaheen falcon is also reported from the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref name=Pande2007/> It has a clutch size of 3 to 4 eggs, with the chicks fledging time of 48 days with an average nesting success of 1.32 chicks per nest. In India, apart from nesting on cliffs, it has also been recorded as nesting on man-made structures such as buildings and cellphone transmission towers.<ref name=Pande2007/> A population estimate of 40 breeding pairs in Sri Lanka was made in 1996.<ref name=Dottlinger1999/> It is non-migratory and is small and dark, with rufous underparts. In [[Sri Lanka]] this species is found to favour the higher hills, while the migrant ''[[#calidus|calidus]]'' is more often seen along the coast.<ref name=Dottlinger2005/>
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus peregrinus|nominate}}''''', the [[nominate]] (first-named) subspecies, described by [[Marmaduke Tunstall|Tunstall]] in 1771, breeds over much of temperate [[Eurasia]] between the [[tundra]] in the north and the [[Pyrenees]], [[Mediterranean]] region and [[Alpide belt]] in the south.<ref name=AOUp164/> It is mainly non-migratory in Europe, but [[Bird migration|migratory]] in Scandinavia and Asia. Males weigh {{convert|580|to(-)|750|g|lb|abbr=on}}, while females weigh {{convert|925|to(-)|1300|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Snow1998/> It includes ''F. p. brevirostris'', ''F. p. germanicus'', ''F. p. rhenanus'' and ''F. p. riphaeus''.
*'''''Falco peregrinus radama''''', described by [[Gustav Hartlaub|Hartlaub]] in 1861, is found in [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]]. It is non-migratory.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/>
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus submelanogenys|submelanogenys}}''''', described by [[Gregory Mathews|Mathews]] in 1912, is the [[Southwest Australia (ecoregion)|Southwest Australian]] peregrine falcon. It is found in southwestern Australia and is non-migratory. Some authorities consider it a synonym of the widespread Australian subspecies ''[[#macropus|F. p. macropus]]''.<ref name="IOC"/><ref name="Simpson"/>
*'''''{{vanchor|Falco peregrinus tundrius|tundrius}}''''', described by C. M. White in 1968, was at one time included in ''F. p. leucogenys''. It is found in the Arctic tundra of [[North America]] to [[Greenland]], and migrates to wintering grounds in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]].<ref name=Proctor/> Most [[Vagrant birds|vagrant]]s that reach western Europe belong to this subspecies, which was previously considered synonymous with ''[[#anatum|F. p. anatum]]''. It is the New World equivalent to ''[[#calidus|F. p. calidus]]''. It is smaller and paler than ''F. p. anatum''; most have a conspicuous white forehead and white in ear region, but the crown and "moustache" are very dark, unlike in ''F. p. calidus''.<ref name=Proctor/> Juveniles are browner and less grey than in ''F. p. calidus'' and paler, sometimes almost sandy, than in ''F. p. anatum''. Males weigh {{convert|500|to(-)|700|g|lb|abbr=on}}, while females weigh {{convert|800|to(-)|1100|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Whiteetal2002/> Despite its current recognition as a valid subspecies, a population genetic study of both pre-decline (i.e., museum) and recovered contemporary populations failed to distinguish ''F. p. anatum'' and ''F. p. tundrius'' genetically.<ref name=Brownetal2007/>

===Barbary falcon===
{{Main|Barbary falcon}}

The Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the peregrine falcon that inhabits parts of North Africa, from the Canary Islands to the Arabian Peninsula. There was discussion concerning the taxonomic status of the bird, with some considering it a subspecies of the peregrine falcon and others considering it a full species with two subspecies.<ref name="White2013">{{cite journal | last1=White | first1=Clayton M. | last2=Sonsthagen | first2=Sarah A. | last3=Sage | first3=George K. | last4=Anderson | first4=Clifford | last5=Talbot | first5=Sandra L. | title=Genetic relationships among some subspecies of the Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus L.), inferred from mitochondrial DNA control-region sequences | journal=The Auk | volume=130 | issue=1 | date=2013 | doi=10.1525/auk.2012.11173 | doi-access=free | pages=78–87| bibcode=2013Auk...130...78W }}</ref>

Compared to the other peregrine falcon subspecies, Barbary falcons have a slimmer body<ref name=Vaurie1961/> and a distinct plumage pattern. Despite numbers and range of these birds throughout the Canary Islands generally increasing, they are considered endangered, with human interference through falconry and shooting threatening their well-being. Falconry can further complicate the speciation and genetics of these Canary Islands falcons, as the practice promotes genetic mixing between individuals from outside the islands with those originating from the islands. Population density of the Barbary falcons on Tenerife, the biggest of the seven major Canary Islands, was found to be 1.27 pairs/100&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, with the mean distance between pairs being 5869 ± 3338 m. The falcons were only observed near large and natural cliffs with a mean altitude of 697.6 m. Falcons show an affinity for tall cliffs away from human-mediated establishments and presence.

Barbary falcons have a red neck patch, but otherwise differ in appearance from the peregrine falcon proper merely according to [[Gloger's rule]], relating [[pigmentation]] to [[Climate|environmental humidity]].<ref name=Dottlinger2002/> The Barbary falcon has a peculiar way of flying, beating only the outer part of its wings as [[fulmar]]s sometimes do; this also occurs in the peregrine falcon, but less often and far less pronounced.<ref name=Snow1998/> The Barbary falcon's [[shoulder]] and [[pelvis]] bones are stout by comparison with the peregrine falcon and its feet are smaller.<ref name=Vaurie1961/> Barbary falcons breed at different times of year than neighboring peregrine falcon subspecies,<ref name=Snow1998/><ref name=Helbig1994/><ref name=Wink1998/><ref name=Wink2000/><ref name=Vaurie1961/><ref name=WinkSauer2000/><ref name=Wink2004/> but they are capable of interbreeding.<ref name=Blondel1999/> There is a 0.6–0.7% genetic distance in the peregrine falcon-Barbary falcon ("peregrinoid") complex.<ref name=Wink2000/>

==Ecology and behaviour==
[[File:PeregrineTubercle.jpg|thumb|right|Closeup of head showing nostril tubercle]]
[[File:PeregrineFalconSilhouettes.svg|right|thumb|Silhouette in normal flight (left) and at the start of a stoop (right)]]
[[File:Peregrine_Falcon_(male).jpg|right|thumb|In its habitat in the [[Rann of Kutch]], [[Gujarat, India]]]]
The peregrine falcon lives mostly along [[mountain range]]s, [[river valley]]s, [[coastline]]s, and increasingly in [[cities]].<ref name=Ferguson-Lees2001/> In mild-winter regions, it is usually a permanent resident, and some individuals, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. Only populations that breed in Arctic [[climate]]s typically migrate great distances during the northern winter.<ref name=DOI95/>

The peregrine falcon reaches faster speeds than any other animal on the planet when performing the stoop,<ref name=BBC/> which involves soaring to a great height and then diving steeply at speeds of over {{convert|320|km/h|mph|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}, hitting one wing of its prey so as not to harm itself on impact.<ref name=USFWS/> The air pressure from such a dive could possibly damage a bird's [[lung]]s, but small bony tubercles on a falcon's nostrils are theorized to guide the powerful airflow away from the nostrils, enabling the bird to breathe more easily while diving by reducing the change in air pressure.<ref name=Wisconsin/> 

To protect their eyes, the falcons use their [[nictitating membrane]]s (third eyelids) to spread tears and clear debris from their eyes while maintaining vision. The distinctive malar stripe or "moustache", a dark area of feathers below the eyes, is thought to reduce solar glare and improve contrast sensitivity when targeting fast moving prey in bright light condition; the malar stripe has been found to be wider and more pronounced in regions of the world with greater solar radiation supporting this solar glare hypothesis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vrettos|first1=Michelle|last2=Reynolds|first2=Chevonne|last3=Amar|first3=Arjun|title=Malar stripe size and prominence in peregrine falcons vary positively with solar radiation: support for the solar glare hypothesis|journal=Biology Letters|year=2021|volume=17|issue=6|pages=20210116|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2021.0116|pmc=8169203|pmid=34062086}}</ref> 

Peregrine falcons have a [[Flicker fusion threshold|flicker fusion frequency]] of 129&nbsp;Hz (cycles per second), very fast for a bird of its size, and much faster than mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Potier |first1=Simon |last2=Lieuvin |first2=Margaux |last3=Pfaff |first3=Michael |last4=Kelber| first4=Almut |date=January 2020 |title=How fast can raptors see? |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=223 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=jeb209031 |doi=10.1242/jeb.209031 |pmid=31822552 |s2cid=209313631 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A study testing the flight physics of an "ideal falcon" found a theoretical speed limit at {{Convert|400|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} for low-altitude flight and {{Convert|625|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} for high-altitude flight.<ref name="Tucker1998" /> In 2005, Ken Franklin recorded a falcon stooping at a top speed of {{convert|389|km/h|mi/h|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Harpole2005" />

The life span of peregrine falcons in the wild is up to 19 years 9 months.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Peregrine_Falcon/overview|title=Peregrine Falcon Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|at=Cool Facts|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530221507/https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Peregrine_Falcon/overview|archive-date=30 May 2019|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> Mortality in the first year is 59–70%, declining to 25–32% annually<!-- presumed; correct if needed --> in adults.<ref name=Snow1998/> Apart from such [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] threats as [[bird collision (disambiguation)|collision]] with human-made objects, the peregrine may be killed by larger [[hawk]]s and [[owl]]s.<ref name=Michigan/>

The peregrine falcon is [[host (biology)|host]] to a range of [[parasitism|parasites]] and [[pathogen]]s. It is a [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] for [[Avipoxvirus]], [[Newcastle disease virus]], [[Falconid herpesvirus 1]] (and possibly other [[Herpesviridae]]), and some [[mycoses]] and [[bacterial infection]]s. [[Endoparasite]]s include ''[[Plasmodium relictum]]'' (usually not causing [[malaria]] in the peregrine falcon), [[Strigeidae]] [[trematode]]s, ''[[Serratospiculum amaculata]]'' ([[nematode]]), and [[tapeworm]]s. Known peregrine falcon [[ectoparasite]]s are [[chewing lice]],{{refn|group=note|''Colpocephalum falconii'' which was described from specimens found on the peregrine falcon, ''Colpocephalum subzerafae'', ''Colpocephalum zerafae'' and ''Nosopon lucidum'' (all [[Menoponidae]]), ''Degeeriella rufa'' ([[Philopteridae]]), ''Laemobothrion tinnunculi'' ([[Laemobothriidae]]).<!-- -us is lapsus in ADW, originally from Birds of North America --> All are known from other ''Falco'' species too.<ref name=Potter2002/><ref name=Dalgleish2003/>}} ''[[Ceratophyllus garei]]'' (a [[flea]]), and [[Hippoboscidae]] flies (''[[Icosta nigra]]'', ''[[Ornithoctona erythrocephala]]'').<ref name=Potter2002/><ref name=Dalgleish2003/><ref name=Raidal1999/><ref name=Raidal2000/>

===Feeding===
[[File:Falco peregrinus on ship USFWS.jpg|thumb|An immature peregrine falcon eating its prey on the deck of a ship]]
[[File:Peregrine falcon with common teal kill (cropped and adjusted).jpg|thumb|An adult peregrine (''F. p. calidus'') consuming a [[Eurasian teal|common teal]] in [[Little Rann of Kutch]], Gujarat, India]]
The peregrine falcon's diet varies greatly and is adapted to available prey in different regions. However, it typically feeds on medium-sized birds such as [[Columbidae|pigeons and doves]], [[waterfowl]], [[gamebird]]s, [[songbird]]s, [[parrot]]s, [[seabird]]s, and [[wader]]s.<ref name=Beckstead2001/><ref name="auto">Ferguson-Lees, J. & Christie, D.A. & Franklin, K. & Mead, D. & Burton, P.. (2001). Raptors of the world. Helm Identification Guides.</ref> Worldwide, it is estimated that between 1,500 and 2,000 bird species, or roughly a fifth of the world's bird species, are predated somewhere by these falcons. The peregrine falcon preys on the most diverse range of bird species of any raptor in North America, with over 300 species and including nearly 100 [[shorebird]]s.<ref name="Sherrod1978" /> Its prey can range from {{convert|3|g|oz|adj=on|abbr=on}} [[hummingbird]]s (''[[Selasphorus]]'' and ''[[Archilochus (bird)|Archilochus]]'' ssp.) to the {{convert|3.1|kg|lb|adj=on|abbr=on}} [[sandhill crane]], although most prey taken by peregrines weigh between {{convert|20|g|oz|abbr=on}} (small [[passerine]]s) and {{convert|1100|g|lb|abbr=on}} ([[duck]]s, [[Anser (bird)|geese]], [[loon]]s, [[gull]]s, [[Tetrao|capercaillie]]s, [[Lagopus|ptarmigan]]s and other [[grouse]]).<ref name="bna" /><ref name="Brown1986" /><ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Falco_peregrinus/ | title=Falco peregrinus (Peregrine falcon) | website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] }}</ref> Smaller [[hawk]]s (such as [[sharp-shinned hawk]]s) and [[owl]]s are regularly predated, as well as smaller falcons such as the [[American kestrel]], [[Merlin (bird)|merlin]] and, rarely, other peregrines.<ref name="Hogan2010" /><ref name="Klem1985" /><ref name="auto"/>

In urban areas, where it tends to nest on tall buildings or bridges, it subsists mostly on a variety of pigeons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ball |last2=Ferrand Jr. |first1=John |first2=John |date=1994 |title=National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds |location=USA |publisher=Knopf |page=440 |isbn=0-679-42852-6}}</ref> Among pigeons, the [[rock dove]] or [[feral pigeon]] comprises 80% or more of the dietary intake of peregrines. Other common city birds are also taken regularly, including [[mourning dove]]s, [[common wood pigeon]]s, [[common swift]]s, [[northern flicker]]s, [[eurasian collared dove]]s, [[common starling]]s, [[American robin]]s, [[common blackbird]]s, and [[corvid]]s such as [[magpie]]s, [[jay]]s or [[Carrion crow|carrion]], [[House crow|house]], and [[American crow]]s.<ref name=Drewitt2008/><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.peregrinefund.org/explore-raptors-species/falcons/peregrine-falcon | title=Peregrine Falcon &#124; the Peregrine Fund }}</ref> Coastal populations of the large subspecies ''pealei'' feed almost exclusively on [[seabird]]s.<ref name=Terres1991/> In the Brazilian [[mangrove]] swamp of [[Cubatão]], a wintering falcon of the subspecies ''tundrius'' was observed successfully hunting a juvenile [[scarlet ibis]].<ref name=Olmos2003/>
[[File:Peregrine Falcon imported from iNaturalist photo 243839915 on 3 December 2024.jpg|thumb|Diving on a flock of [[common starling]] in [[Rome]]]]
Among mammalian prey species, [[bat]]s in the genera ''[[Eptesicus]]'', ''[[Myotis]]'', ''[[Pipistrellus]]'' and ''[[Tadarida]]'' are the most common prey taken at night.<ref>Mikula, P., Morelli, F., Lučan, R. K., Jones, D. N., & Tryjanowski, P. (2016). Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective. Mammal Review.</ref> Though peregrines generally do not prefer terrestrial mammalian prey, in [[Rankin Inlet]], peregrines largely take [[northern collared lemming]]s (''Dicrostonyx groenlandicus'') along with a few [[Arctic ground squirrel]]s (''Urocitellus parryii'').<ref>Bradley, Mark, and Lynn W. Oliphant. "The diet of Peregrine Falcons in Rankin Inlet, Northwest Territories: an unusually high proportion of mammalian prey." The Condor 93.1 (1991): 193–197.</ref> Other small mammals including [[shrew]]s, [[mouse|mice]], [[rat]]s, [[vole]]s, and [[squirrel]]s are more seldom taken.<ref name=Drewitt2008/><ref name =Ratcliffe>Ratcliffe, Derek. The peregrine falcon. A&C Black, 2010.</ref>  Peregrines occasionally take [[rabbit]]s, mainly young individuals and juvenile [[hare]]s.<ref name =Ratcliffe/><ref name =Pagel.>Pagel, J. E., & Schmitt, N. J. (2013). American Marten Remains Within Peregrine Falcon Prey Sample in Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Raptor Research, 47(4), 419–420.</ref> Additionally, remains of [[red fox]] kits and adult female [[American marten]] were found among prey remains.<ref name =Pagel./> Insects and reptiles such as small [[snake]]s make up a small proportion of the diet, and [[salmonidae|salmonid fish]] have been taken by peregrines.<ref name=Beckstead2001/><ref name=Ratcliffe/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Falco_peregrinus%20-%20Peregrine%20Falcon.pdf |first=Jerome |last=Gunness|date=2012|title=''Falco peregrinus'' (Peregrine Falcon)|work=The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago|publisher=University of the West Indies}}</ref>

The peregrine falcon hunts most often at dawn and dusk, when prey are most active, but also nocturnally in cities, particularly during migration periods when hunting at night may become prevalent. Nocturnal migrants taken by peregrines include species as diverse as [[yellow-billed cuckoo]], [[black-necked grebe]], [[virginia rail]], and [[common quail]].<ref name=Drewitt2008/> The peregrine requires open space in order to hunt, and therefore often hunts over open water, [[marsh]]es, [[valley]]s, fields, and [[tundra]], searching for prey either from a high perch or from the air.<ref name=Ehrlich1992/> Large congregations of migrants, especially species that gather in the open like shorebirds, can be quite attractive to a hunting peregrine. Once prey is spotted, it begins its stoop, folding back the tail and wings, with feet tucked.<ref name=Terres1991/> Prey is typically struck and captured in mid-air; the peregrine falcon strikes its prey with a clenched foot, stunning or killing it with the impact, then turns to catch it in mid-air.<ref name=Ehrlich1992/> If its prey is too heavy to carry, a peregrine will drop it to the ground and eat it there. If they miss the initial strike, peregrines will chase their prey in a twisting flight.<ref name=Treleaven1980/>

Although previously thought rare, several cases of peregrines contour-hunting, i.e., using natural contours to surprise and ambush prey on the ground, have been reported and even rare cases of prey being pursued on foot. In addition, peregrines have been documented preying on chicks in nests, from birds such as kittiwakes.<ref name="Collins2014" /> Prey is plucked before consumption.<ref name="Wisconsin" /> A 2016 study showed that the presence of peregrines benefits non-preferred species while at the same time causing a decline in its preferred prey.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{Gale|A468335744}} {{ProQuest|1824544665}} |last1=Tornberg |first1=Risto |last2=Korpimaki |first2=Veli-Matti |last3=Rauhala |first3=Pentti |last4=Rytkonen |first4=Seppo |title=Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) may affect local demographic trends of wetland bird prey species |journal=Ornis Fennica |date=1 July 2016 |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=172–186 |doi=10.51812/of.133899 |doi-access=free }}</ref> As of 2018, the fastest recorded falcon was at 242&nbsp;mph (nearly 390&nbsp;km/h). Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and at Oxford University used 3D computer simulations in 2018 to show that the high speed allows peregrines to gain better maneuverability and precision in strikes.<ref name="FALCON">{{Cite web|last=McMillan|first=Fiona|title=Falcon Attack: How Peregrine Falcons Maneuver At Nearly 225 MPH|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/fionamcmillan/2018/04/13/falcon-attack-how-peregrine-falcons-maneuver-at-nearly-225-mph/|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Forbes
| date = 13 April 2018
|language=en}}</ref>

===Reproduction===
[[File:Faucon pelerin 7 mai.jpg|thumb|right|At nest, France]]
[[File:Falco peregrinus MWNH 0671.JPG|thumb|Egg, [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
The peregrine falcon is sexually mature at one to three years of age, but in larger populations they breed after two to three years of age. A pair [[mates for life]] and returns to the same nesting spot annually. The courtship flight includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives.<ref name=Potter2002/> The male passes prey it has caught to the female in mid-air. To make this possible, the female actually flies upside-down to receive the food from the male's talons.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

During the breeding season, the peregrine falcon is territorial; nesting pairs are usually more than {{convert|1|km|mi|abbr=on}} apart, and often much farther, even in areas with large numbers of pairs.<ref name=Blood2001/> The distance between nests ensures sufficient food supply for pairs and their chicks. Within a breeding territory, a pair may have several nesting ledges; the number used by a pair can vary from one or two up to seven in a 16-year period.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

The peregrine falcon nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kaufman |first1=Kenn |title=Peregrine Falcon |url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/peregrine-falcon |website=[[Audubon (magazine)|Audubon]] |date=13 November 2014 |publisher=National Audubon Society |access-date=12 June 2019}}</ref> The female chooses a nest site, where she scrapes a shallow hollow in the loose soil, sand, gravel, or dead vegetation in which to lay eggs. No nest materials are added.<ref name=Potter2002/> Cliff nests are generally located under an overhang, on ledges with vegetation. South-facing sites are favoured.<ref name=Terres1991/> In some regions, as in parts of [[Australia]] and on the west coast of northern North America, large tree hollows are used for nesting. Before the demise of most European peregrines, a large population of peregrines in central and western Europe used the disused nests of other large birds.<ref name=Beckstead2001/> In remote, undisturbed areas such as the Arctic, steep slopes and even low rocks and mounds may be used as nest sites. In many parts of its range, peregrines now also nest regularly on tall buildings or bridges; these human-made structures used for breeding closely resemble the natural cliff ledges that the peregrine prefers for its nesting locations.<ref name=White94/><ref name=Blood2001/>

The pair defends the chosen nest site against other peregrines, and often against [[raven]]s, [[heron]]s, and [[gull]]s, and if ground-nesting, also such mammals as [[fox]]es, [[wolverine]]s, [[felid]]s, [[bear]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], and [[mountain lion]]s.<ref name=Blood2001/> Both nests and (less frequently) adults are predated by larger-bodied raptorial birds like [[eagle]]s, large [[Horned owl|owls]], or [[gyrfalcon]]s. The most serious predators of peregrine nests in North America and Europe are the [[great horned owl]] and the [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]. When reintroductions have been attempted for peregrines, the most serious impediments were these two species of owls routinely picking off nestlings, fledglings and adults by night.<ref name=Walton1988/><ref name=Brambilla2006/> Peregrines defending their nests have managed to kill raptors as large as [[golden eagle]]s and [[bald eagle]]s (both of which they normally avoid as potential predators) that have come too close to the nest by ambushing them in a full stoop.<ref name=bna2/> In one instance, when a [[snowy owl]] killed a newly fledged peregrine, the larger owl was in turn killed by a stooping peregrine parent.<ref name=Voous1988/>

The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], and from July to August in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], although the Australian subspecies ''F. p. macropus'' may breed as late as November, and [[equator]]ial populations may nest anytime between June and December. If the eggs are lost early in the nesting season, the female usually lays another clutch, although this is extremely rare in the Arctic due to the short summer season. Generally three to four eggs, but sometimes as few as one or as many as five, are laid in the scrape.<ref name=Peterson/> The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings.<ref name=Peterson/> They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female,<ref name=Terres1991/> with the male also helping with the incubation of the eggs during the day, but only the female incubating them at night. The average number of young found in nests is 2.5, and the average number that fledge is about 1.5, due to the occasional production of infertile eggs and various natural losses of nestlings.<ref name=White94/><ref name=Wisconsin/><ref name=Michigan/>

After hatching, the chicks (called "{{linktext|eyas}}es"<ref name=raptorresource/>) are covered with creamy-white down and have disproportionately large feet.<ref name=Blood2001/> The male (called the "{{linktext|tiercel}}") and the female (simply called the "falcon") both leave the nest to gather prey to feed the young.<ref name=Wisconsin/> The hunting territory of the parents can extend a radius of {{convert|19|to|24|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the nest site.<ref name=Towry1987/> Chicks [[fledge]] 42 to 46 days after hatching, and remain dependent on their parents for up to two months.<ref name=Snow1998/>

==Relationship with humans==

===Use in falconry===
{{Main|Falconry}}
[[File:Falconry sport of kings (1920) Peregrine falcon striking red grouse.png|thumb|Tame peregrine striking a [[red grouse]], by [[Louis Agassiz Fuertes]] (1920)]]
The peregrine falcon is a highly admired falconry bird, and has been used in [[falconry]] for more than 3,000 years, beginning with nomads in [[central Asia]].<ref name=Blood2001/> Its advantages in falconry include not only its athleticism and eagerness to hunt, but an equable disposition that leads to it being one of the easier falcons to train.<ref name=Beebe1984/> The peregrine falcon has the additional advantage of a natural flight style of circling above the falconer ("waiting on") for game to be flushed, and then performing an effective and exciting high-speed diving stoop to take the [[quarry (prey)|quarry]]. The speed of the stoop not only allows the falcon to catch fast flying birds, it also enhances the falcon's ability to execute maneuvers to catch highly agile prey,<ref name=Mills2018/> and allows the falcon to deliver a knockout blow with a fist-like clenched talon against game that may be much larger than itself.<ref name=Scholz/>

Additionally the versatility of the species, with agility allowing capture of smaller birds and a strength and attacking style allowing capture of game much larger than themselves, combined with the wide size range of the many peregrine subspecies, means there is a subspecies suitable to almost any size and type of game bird. This size range, evolved to fit various environments and prey species, is from the larger females of the largest subspecies to the smaller males of the smallest subspecies, approximately five to one (approximately 1500&nbsp;g to 300&nbsp;g). The males of smaller and medium-sized subspecies, and the females of the smaller subspecies, excel in the taking of swift and agile small game birds such as dove, quail, and smaller ducks. The females of the larger subspecies are capable of taking large and powerful game birds such as the largest of duck species, pheasant, and grouse.

Peregrine falcons handled by falconers are also occasionally used to scare away birds at airports to reduce the risk of [[Bird strike|bird-plane strikes]], improving air-traffic safety.<ref name=Kuzir1999/> They were also used to intercept homing pigeons during World War II.<ref name=Enderson2005/>

Peregrine falcons have been successfully bred in captivity, both for falconry and for release into the wild.<ref name=SCPBRG/> Until 2004 nearly all peregrines used for falconry in the US were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the US [[Endangered Species Act]] was enacted and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list in 1999. The successful recovery program was aided by the effort and knowledge of falconers – in collaboration with [[The Peregrine Fund]] and state and federal agencies – through a technique called [[hack (falconry)|hacking]]. Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild peregrines was allowed in 2004, the first wild peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years.

The development of captive breeding methods has led to peregrines being commercially available for falconry use, thus mostly eliminating the need to capture wild birds for support of falconry. The main reason for taking wild peregrines at this point is to maintain healthy genetic diversity in the breeding lines. Hybrids of peregrines and [[gyrfalcon]]s are also available that can combine the best features of both species to create what many consider to be the ultimate falconry bird for the taking of larger game such as the [[sage-grouse]]. These hybrids combine the greater size, strength, and horizontal speed of the gyrfalcon with the natural propensity to stoop and greater warm weather tolerance of the peregrine.

Today, peregrines are regularly paired in captivity with other species such as the [[lanner falcon]] (''F.&nbsp;biarmicus'') to produce the "[[perilanner]]", a bird popular in [[falconry]] as it combines the peregrine's hunting skill with the lanner's hardiness, or the [[gyrfalcon]] to produce large, strikingly coloured birds for the use of falconers.

===Decline due to pesticides===
The peregrine falcon became an endangered species over much of its range because of the use of [[organochlorine pesticide]]s, especially [[DDT]], during the 1950s, '60s, and '70s.<ref name=Cade1988/> Pesticide [[biomagnification]] caused [[organochlorine]] to build up in the falcons' fat tissues, reducing the amount of calcium in their eggshells. With thinner shells, fewer falcon eggs survived until hatching.<ref name=Ehrlich1992/><ref name=Brown1976/> In addition, the PCB concentrations found in these falcons are dependent upon the age of the falcon. While high levels are still found in young birds (only a few months old) and even higher concentrations are found in more mature falcons, with levels peaking in adult peregrine falcons.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Risebrough |first1=R. W. |last2=Rieche |first2=P. |last3=Peakall |first3=D. B. |last4=Herman |first4=S. G. |last5=Kirven |first5=M. N. |title=Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Global Ecosystem |journal=Nature |date=December 1968 |volume=220 |issue=5172 |pages=1098–1102 |doi=10.1038/2201098a0 |pmid=5723605 |bibcode=1968Natur.220.1098R |s2cid=4148056 }}</ref> These pesticides caused falcon prey to also have thinner eggshells (one example of prey being the black petrels).<ref name=":0" /> In several parts of the world, such as the eastern [[United States]] and [[Belgium]], this species became [[local extinction|locally extinct]] as a result.<ref name=Snow1998/> An alternate point of view is that populations in eastern North America had vanished due to hunting and egg collection.<ref name=Lehr2000/> Following the ban of organochlorine pesticides, the reproductive success of Peregrines increased in Scotland in terms of territory occupancy and breeding success, although spatial variation in recovery rates indicate that in some areas Peregrines were also impacted by other factors such as persecution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McGrady |first1=Michael J. |last2=Hines |first2=James E. |last3=Rollie |first3=Chris J. |last4=Smith |first4=George D. |last5=Morton |first5=Elise R. |last6=Moore |first6=Jennifer F. |last7=Mearns |first7=Richard M. |last8=Newton |first8=Ian |last9=Murillo-García |first9=Oscar E. |last10=Oli |first10=Madan K. |title=Territory occupancy and breeding success of Peregrine Falcons Falco peregrinus at various stages of population recovery |journal=Ibis |date=April 2017 |volume=159 |issue=2 |pages=285–296 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12443 |bibcode=2017Ibis..159..285M |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/516720/1/N516720PP.pdf }}</ref>

===Recovery efforts===
Peregrine falcon recovery teams breed the species in captivity.<ref name=RDigest/> The chicks are usually fed through a chute or with a [[hand puppet]] mimicking a peregrine's head, so they cannot see to [[Imprinting (psychology)|imprint]] on the human trainers.<ref name=DOI95/> Then, when they are old enough, the rearing box is opened, allowing the bird to train its wings. As the fledgling gets stronger, feeding is reduced, forcing the bird to learn to hunt. This procedure is called [[Hack (falconry)|hacking back to the wild]].<ref name=Aitken2004/> To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird is placed in a special cage at the top of a tower or cliff ledge for some days or so, allowing it to acclimate itself to its future environment.<ref name=Aitken2004/>

Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful.<ref name=RDigest/> The widespread restriction of DDT use eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully.<ref name=DOI95/> The peregrine falcon was removed from the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Endangered Species]] list on 25 August 1999.<ref name=DOI95/><ref name=Henny1981/>

Some controversy has existed over the origins of captive breeding stock used by [[the Peregrine Fund]] in the recovery of peregrine falcons throughout the contiguous United States. Several peregrine subspecies were included in the breeding stock, including birds of Eurasian origin. Due to the [[local extinction]] of the eastern population of ''Falco peregrinus anatum'', its near-extinction in the Midwest, and the limited gene pool within North American breeding stock, the inclusion of non-native [[subspecies]] was justified to optimize the [[genetic diversity]] found within the species as a whole.<ref name=Cade2003/>

During the 1970s, peregrine falcons in Finland experienced a [[population bottleneck]] as a result of large declines associated with [[bio-accumulation]] of [[organochloride]] pesticides. However, the genetic diversity of peregrines in Finland is similar to other populations, indicating that high dispersal rates have maintained the genetic diversity of this species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ponnikas, S.|author2=Ollila, T. | author3=Kvist, L. | year=2017| title=Turnover and post-bottleneck genetic structure in a recovering population of Peregrine Falcons ''Falco peregrinus'' |journal=Ibis| volume=159 | issue=2 |pages=311–323 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12460 |url=http://urn.fi/urn:nbn:fi-fe2019040511233 }}</ref>

Since peregrine falcon eggs and chicks are still often targeted by illegal poachers,<ref name=scientific-web/> it is common practice not to publicise unprotected nest locations.<ref name=ABA2005/>

===Current status===

Populations of the peregrine falcon have bounced back in most parts of the world. In the United Kingdom, there has been a recovery of populations since the crash of the 1960s. This has been greatly assisted by conservation and protection work led by the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]]. The RSPB  estimated that there were 1,402 breeding pairs in the UK in 2011.<ref name=bbcnews-11may2011/><ref name=rspb/> In Canada, where peregrines were identified as endangered in 1978 (in the [[Yukon]] territory of northern [[Canada]] that year, only a single breeding pair was identified<ref name=COSEWIC-Yahoo>{{cite web|url=https://ca.news.yahoo.com/peregrine-falcon-recovery-apos-astounding-234647005.html?soc_src=social-sh&soc_trk=ma|title=Peregrine falcon recovery 'astounding,' says Yukon biologist|publisher=Yahoo News|date=6 December 2017|access-date=9 December 2017}}</ref>), the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada]] declared the species no longer at risk in December 2017.<ref name=COSEWIC>{{cite press release |author=Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada|title=Peregrine Falcon achieves landmark recovery but salmon struggle|url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/peregrine-falcon-achieves-landmark-recovery-but-salmon-struggle-1010326983|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313033146/https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/peregrine-falcon-achieves-landmark-recovery-but-salmon-struggle-1010326983|archive-date=13 March 2019|location=Ottawa|publisher=PR Newswire|date=4 December 2017}}</ref>

Peregrines now breed in many mountainous and coastal areas, especially in the west and north, and nest in some urban areas, capitalising on the urban [[feral pigeon]] populations for food.<ref name=rspb2003/> Additionally, falcons benefit from artificial illumination, which allows the raptors to extend their hunting periods into the dusk when natural illumination would otherwise be too low for them to pursue prey. In [[England]], this has allowed them to prey on nocturnal migrants such as [[redwing]]s, [[fieldfare]]s, [[common starling|starlings]], and [[Eurasian woodcock|woodcocks]].<ref name=bbcwildlife-26apr2018>{{cite news |last= Mathiesen |first= Karl |date= 26 April 2018 |title= How peregrines have adapted to urban living |url= https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/birds/urban-evolution |url-status= |work= [[BBC Wildlife]] |location= London |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200806112033/https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/birds/urban-evolution/ |archive-date= 6 August 2020 |access-date= 15 November 2023}}</ref>

In many parts of the world peregrine falcons have adapted to urban habitats, nesting on [[cathedral]]s, [[skyscraper]] window ledges, tower blocks,<ref name=bbcnews-3jun2005/> and the towers of [[suspension bridge]]s. Many of these nesting birds are encouraged, sometimes gathering media attention and often monitored by cameras,<ref name=Navarro2009/>{{refn|group=note|See, for example, [http://calfalcons.berkeley.edu Cal Falcons Webcam] and [http://library.umass.edu/falcons W.E.B. Du Bois FalconCam]<ref name=WEBDB_Cam/> }} but some falcons can be infected with human-borne pathogens and heavy metals from moving to more urban areas, which can be deadly for chicks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pyzik |first1=E. |last2=Dec |first2=M. |last3=Stepień-Pyśniak |first3=D. |last4=Marek |first4=A. |last5=Piedra |first5=J. L. |last6=Chałabis-Mazurek |first6=A. |last7=Szczepaniak |first7=K. |last8=Urban-Chmiel |first8=R. |title=The presence of pathogens and heavy metals in urban peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) |journal=Veterinary World |date=2021 |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1741–1751 |doi=10.14202/vetworld.2021.1741-1751 |pmid=34475693 |pmc=8404116 }}</ref>

In [[England]], peregrine falcons have become increasingly urban in distribution, particularly in southern areas where inland cliffs suitable as nesting sites are scarce. The first recorded urban breeding pair was observed nesting on the [[Swansea Guildhall]] in the 1980s.<ref name=bbcwildlife-26apr2018/> In [[Southampton]], a nest prevented restoration of mobile telephony services for several months in 2013, after [[Vodafone]] engineers despatched to repair a faulty [[transmitter mast]] discovered a nest in the mast, and were prevented by the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act]] – on pain of a possible prison sentence – from proceeding with repairs until the chicks fledged.<ref name=bbcnews-15apr2013/>

In [[Oregon]], [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] houses ten percent of the state's peregrine nests, despite only covering around 0.1 percent of the state's land area.<ref name=bbcwildlife-26apr2018/>

==Cultural significance==

Due to its striking hunting technique, the peregrine has often been associated with aggression and martial prowess. The Ancient Egyptian solar deity [[Ra]] was often represented as a man with the head of a peregrine falcon adorned with the solar disk, although most [[Egyptology|Egyptologists]] agree that it is most likely a [[Lanner falcon]]. [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] (c. 800–1500) used the peregrine, along with several other birds of prey, in imagery as a symbol of "aerial (celestial) power" and buried men of high status in costumes associating to the ferocity of raptorial birds.<ref name=Krech2009/> In the [[late Middle Ages]], the Western European nobility that used peregrines for hunting, considered the bird associated with [[prince]]s in formal hierarchies of birds of prey, just below the [[gyrfalcon]] associated with [[king]]s. It was considered "a royal bird, more armed by its courage than its claws". Terminology used by peregrine breeders also used the [[Old French]] term {{wikt-lang|fro|gentil}}, "of noble birth; aristocratic", particularly with the peregrine.<ref name=Evans1970/>

Since 1927, the peregrine falcon has been the official mascot of [[Bowling Green State University]] in [[Bowling Green, Ohio]].<ref name=bowlinggreen/> The 2007 U.S. [[Idaho]] [[50 State Quarters|state quarter]] features a peregrine falcon.<ref name=Shalaway2007/> The peregrine falcon has been designated the [[List of official city birds|official city bird]] of [[Chicago]].<ref name=UCC/>

''The Peregrine'', by [[J. A. Baker]],<ref>''The Peregrine'' by J. A. Baker, Introduction by Robert Macfarlane, New York Review Books 2005 {{ISBN|9781590171332}}</ref><ref>''The Peregrine, The Hill of Summer & Diaries; The Complete Works of J. A. Baker'', Introduction by Mark Cocker & Edited by John Fanshawe, Collins 2015 {{ISBN|978-0008138318}}</ref> is widely regarded as one of the best nature books in English written in the twentieth century. Admirers of the book include [[Robert Macfarlane (writer)|Robert Macfarlane]],<ref>''Landmarks'', Robert Macfarlane, Hamish Hamilton, London, 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-241-14653-8}}, chapter 5</ref> [[Mark Cocker]], who regards the book as "one of the most outstanding books on nature in the twentieth century"<ref>''Birds Britannica'', Mark Cocker & Richard Mabey. London: Chatto & Windus, 2005, {{ISBN|0 701 16907 9}}, page 150</ref> and [[Werner Herzog]], who called it "the one book I would ask you to read if you want to make films",<ref>{{cite web|title=Werner Herzog's Masterclass|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4b7vBWwbuo |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/n4b7vBWwbuo| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|website=Youtube| date=16 February 2016 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> and said elsewhere "it has prose of the calibre that we have not seen since [[Joseph Conrad]]".<ref>{{cite web|title=Werner Herzog's Required Reading|url=http://www.ttbook.org/book/werner-herzogs-required-reading-peregrine|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623011828/http://www.ttbook.org/book/werner-herzogs-required-reading-peregrine|archive-date=23 June 2016}}</ref> In the book, Baker recounts, in diary form, his detailed observations of peregrines (and their interaction with other birds) near his home in [[Chelmsford]], Essex, over a single winter from October to April.

An episode of the hour-long TV series ''[[Starman (TV series)|Starman]]'' in 1986 titled "Peregrine" was about an injured peregrine falcon and the endangered species program. It was filmed with the assistance of the University of California's peregrine falcon project in Santa Cruz.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/71484289/ |title=Starman: ABC-TV series shoots episode in Santa Cruz |date=October 24, 1986 |newspaper=Santa Cruz Sentinel |page=74 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |quote=This episode focuses on a falcon, which has brought the crew to Santa Cruz in the first place. They filmed Monday at UCSC's peregrine falcon project, followed by two more days at Henry Cowell [Redwoods State Park].}} (Note: the episode was titled "The Falcon" during filming and retitled "Peregrine" before broadcast. An end credit gives thanks to Brian Walton and the Peregrine Fund Facility at UCSC.)</ref>

In 1999 the Suzuki Corporation of Japan named a new motorcycle the [[Suzuki Hayabusa]] (隼 or はやぶさ、ハヤブサ), Japanese for peregrine falcon. The motorcycle was the fastest then available.<ref>{{cite web | title=Hayabusa A Legend is Born and Grows | website=Global Suzuki | url=https://www.globalsuzuki.com/suzuki_family/motorcycle/hayabusa_a_legend_is_born_and_grows.html | access-date=March 24, 2025}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Birds}}
* [[List of birds by flight speed]]
* [[Perilanner]], a hybrid of the peregrine falcon and the [[lanner falcon]] (''Falco biarmicus'')
* [[Perlin (falconry)|Perlin]], a hybrid of the peregrine falcon and the [[Merlin (bird)|merlin]] (''Falco columbarius'')

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

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<ref name=ABA2005>{{cite web |author=American Birding Association |year=2005 |url=http://www.aba.org/about/ethics.html |title=Code of Birding Ethics |publisher=[[American Birding Association]] |access-date=26 May 2008}}</ref>

<ref name=Aitken2004>{{cite book |last=Aitken |first=G. |year=2004 |title=A New Approach to Conservation |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-3283-2 |page=126 }}</ref>

<ref name=AOUp164>{{harvnb|American Ornithologists' Union|1910|p=164}}</ref>
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<ref name=Baker2005>{{Cite book |last=Baker |first=J.A. |year=2005 |title=The Peregrine |others=Introduction by Robert Macfarlane |publisher=New York Review Books |isbn=978-1-59017-133-2}}</ref>

<ref name=Baker2011>{{Cite book |last=Baker |first=J.A. |year=2011 |title=The Peregrine, The Hill of Summer & Diaries; The Complete Works of J.A. Baker |others=Introduction by Mark Cocker & Edited by John Fanshawe |publisher=Collins |isbn=978-0-00-739590-3}}</ref>
-->

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<ref name=bbcnews-11may2011>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-nottinghamshire-13358253 |title=Rare peregrine falcons raise four chicks in Nottingham |work=BBC News |date=11 May 2011 |access-date=30 August 2011}}</ref>

<ref name=bbcnews-15apr2013>{{cite news |title=Nesting falcon hits Vodafone customers in Southampton |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-hampshire-22144488 |work=BBC News |date=15 April 2013 |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref>

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<ref name=Cocker2005>{{cite book |first1=Mark |last1=Cocker |first2=Richard |last2=Mabey |year=2005 |title=Birds Britannica |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |isbn=0 701 16907 9 |page=150}}</ref>
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<ref name=Dottlinger1999>{{cite journal |last1=Doettlinger |first1=Hermann |last2=Hoffmann |first2=Thilo W. |title=Status of the Black Shaheen Or Indian Peregrine Falcon Falco ''Falco peregrinus peregrinator'' in Sri Lanka |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |date=1999 |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=239–243 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/155550 }}</ref>

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<ref name=Drewitt2008>{{cite journal |last1=Drewitt |first1=E.J.A. |last2=Dixon |first2=N. |date=February 2008 |title=Diet and prey selection of urban-dwelling Peregrine Falcons in southwest England |journal=British Birds |volume=101 |pages=58–67 |url=http://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V101/V101_N02/V101_N2_2_11.pdf |access-date=29 April 2015 |archive-date=18 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718121933/http://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V101/V101_N02/V101_N2_2_11.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

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* {{cite journal |last1=Tchernov |first1=E. |year=1968 |title=Peregrine Falcon and Purple Gallinule of late Pleistocene Age in the Sudanese Aswan Reservoir Area |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v085n01/p0133-p0133.pdf |journal=[[Auk (journal)|Auk]] |volume=85 |issue=1 |page=133 |doi=10.2307/4083637 |jstor=4083637 }}
* {{cite book |last=Towry |first=R.K. |year=1987 |chapter=Wildlife habitat requirements |pages=73–210 |editor1-first=R.L. |editor1-last=Hoover |editor2-first=D.L. |editor2-last=Wills |title=Managing Forested Lands for Wildlife |publisher=Colorado Division of Wildlife |location=Denver, Colorado}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Tucker |first1=V.A. |year=1998 |title=Gliding flight: speed and acceleration of ideal falcons during diving and pull out |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=201 |issue=3 |pages=403–414 |doi=10.1242/jeb.201.3.403 |pmid=9427673 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1998JExpB.201..403T }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vaurie |first1=C. |year=1961 |title=Systematic notes on Palearctic birds. No. 44, Falconidae, the genus ''Falco''. (Part 1, ''Falco peregrinus'' and ''Falco pelegrinoides'') |journal=American Museum Novitates |issue=2035 |pages=1–19|hdl=2246/3466 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=M. |last2=Seibold |first2=I. |last3=Lotfikhah |first3=F. |last4=Bednarek |first4=W. |year=1998 |chapter=Molecular systematics of holarctic raptors (Order Falconiformes) |editor1-last=Chancellor |editor1-first=R.D. |editor2-last=Meyburg |editor2-first=B.-U. |editor3-last=Ferrero |editor3-first=J.J. |title=Holarctic Birds of Prey |pages=29–48 |publisher=Adenex & WWGBP |chapter-url=http://www.raptors-international.org/book/holarctic_birds_of_prey_1998/Wink_Seibold_1998_29-48.pdf }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=M. |last2=Sauer-Gürth |first2=H. |year=2000 |chapter=Advances in the molecular systematics of African raptors |editor1-last=Chancellor |editor1-first=R.D. |editor2-last=Meyburg |editor2-first=B.-U. |title=Raptors at Risk |pages=135–147 |publisher=WWGBP/Hancock House, Berlin/Blaine |chapter-url=http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2000/29.%202000.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407101937/https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2000/29.%202000.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=M. |last2=Döttlinger |first2=H. |last3=Nicholls |first3=M.K. |last4=Sauer-Gürth |first4=H. |year=2000 |chapter=Phylogenetic relationships between Black Shaheen (''Falco peregrinus peregrinator''), Red-naped Shaheen (''F. pelegrinoides babylonicus'') and Peregrines (''F. peregrinus'') |editor1-last=Chancellor |editor1-first=R.D. |editor2-last=Meyburg |editor2-first=B.-U. |title=Raptors at Risk |pages=853–857 |publisher=WWGBP/Hancock House, Berlin/Blaine |chapter-url=http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2000/22.%202000.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310042444/https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2000/22.%202000.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2022 |access-date=22 October 2007 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=M. |last2=Sauer-Gürth |first2=H. |last3=Ellis |first3=D. |last4=Kenward |first4=R. |year=2004 |chapter=Phylogenetic relationships in the Hierofalco complex (Saker-, Gyr-, Lanner-, Laggar Falcon) |editor1-last=Chancellor |editor1-first=R.D. |editor2-last=Meyburg |editor2-first=B.-U. |title=Raptors Worldwide |pages=499–504 |publisher=WWGBP |location=Berlin |chapter-url=http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2004/27.2004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406190811/https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/2004/27.2004.pdf |archive-date=6 April 2023 |access-date=22 October 2007 |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{ cite journal | last1=Fuchs | first1=J. | last2=Johnson | first2=J.A. | last3=Mindell | first3=D.P. | year=2015 | title=Rapid diversification of falcons (Aves: Falconidae) due to expansion of open habitats in the Late Miocene | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=82 | pages=166–182 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2014.08.010 | pmid=25256056 | bibcode=2015MolPE..82..166F }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Falco peregrinus|the peregrine falcon}}
{{Wikispecies|Falco peregrinus}}

; Conservation organizations
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706164645/http://www.arcticraptors.ca/ Arctic Raptors – Ongoing research with raptors in the Canadian Arctic]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070924235622/http://www.frg.org/ Falcon Research Group]
* [http://peregrinefund.org/ Peregrine Falcon Fund]
* [http://www.peregrine-foundation.ca/ The Canadian Peregrine Foundation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123053732/http://www.peregrine-foundation.ca/ |date=23 November 2011 }}
* [http://www.species-at-risk.mb.ca/pefa/index.html Peregrine Falcon Recovery Project (Manitoba)]
* [http://london-peregrine-partnership.org.uk/ London Peregrine Partnership (UK)]

; Video and other media of peregrines
* [http://www.landshut.de/portal/natur-umwelt/naturschutz/wanderfalke.html Live webcams at a Peregrine nest site in Landshut (Scroll down and press play button.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816005638/http://www.landshut.de/portal/natur-umwelt/naturschutz/wanderfalke.html |date=16 August 2016 }}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j3mTPEuFcWk A video of the falcon stooping at a top speed of {{convert|389|km/h|mi/h|0|abbr=on}}].
* [http://www.derby.gov.uk/peregrines/ Derby Cathedral Peregrine Project, UK. Links to webcams and video sequences] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827195442/http://www.derby.gov.uk/peregrines |date=27 August 2008 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150502230041/http://upp.hawkandowl.org/norwich-peregrines/norwich-cathedral-peregrine-live-web-cam-2015/ Norwich Cathedral Peregrine Web Cam 2015, UK.]
* {{InternetBirdCollection|peregrine-falcon-falco-peregrinus}}
* [http://www.raptorresource.org/ The Raptor Resource Project. Links to Peregrine Falcon webcams]
* [http://www.peregrinefalcons.be/ Peregrines on Brussels Cathedral]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090623064250/http://www.warwingsart.com/DK/Robert_Horstmann/peregrine_falcons/index.htm Photo documentation of Peregrines returning to south California beach cliffs after over 50 years absence]
* [http://www.ntu.ac.uk/ecoweb/biodiversity/falcons/index.html Nottingham Trent University, where peregrines return to breed on the top of the Newton building every year. Includes images and webcam.]
* [http://www.library.umass.edu/falcons University of Massachusetts Amherst Live Falcon Cam at the top of the W.E.B. DuBois library, active each year from when the bonded pair of peregrine falcons brood eggs until the chicks are fledged.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120823020712/http://www.worcester.gov.uk/peregrine/ Worcester Peregrine Falcon Project, UK. Includes feeds from 'Peregrines in Worcester' Facebook Fan page, YouTube & Flickr photo groups]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=183fzaL70kc Peregrine Falcon Banding], Metropolitan Transportation Authority Bridges and Tunnels; 3 June 2010; 3-minute YouTube video clip
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UXoCqgPRDMU Throgs Neck Bridge Peregrine Banding 2011], Metropolitan Transportation Authority Bridges and Tunnels; 27 May 2011; 10:54 YouTube video clip
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pO8-wjTsox0 Peregrine Falcon Banding 2012], Metropolitan Transportation Authority Bridges and Tunnels; 4 June 2012; 2:40 YouTube video clip
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FM6vROrMMpU Peregrine Falcon Banding 2016], Metropolitan Transportation Authority Bridges and Tunnels; 2 June 2016; 4:15 YouTube video clip
<!--if you intend to add a webcam link here, read http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links, it may be better to submit to webcam directory pages -->

{{Taxonbar|from=Q30535}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Falco (genus)|Peregrine falcon]]
[[Category:Falconry|Peregrine falcon]]
[[Category:Cosmopolitan birds]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Africa]]
[[Category:Diurnal raptors of Australia]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Rocky Mountains|Peregrine falcon]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1771|Peregrine falcon]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Marmaduke Tunstall|Peregrine falcon]]
[[Category:Apex predators]]