Editing People of the Book

{{Short description|Islamic term originally used to refer to Jews and Christians}}
{{for|the novel by Geraldine Brooks|People of the Book (novel)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox Arabic term
| arabic                = {{wikt-lang|ar|أهل الكتاب}}
| arabic_rom            = {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-kitāb}}
| literal meaning       = "People of the Book"
}}
{{Islam and iman}}

'''People of the Book''', or '''Ahl al-Kitāb''' ({{langx|ar|أهل الكتاب}}), is a classification in [[Islam]] for the adherents of those religions that are regarded by [[Muslims]] as having received a divine revelation from [[God in Islam|Allah]], generally in the form of a [[Islamic holy books|holy scripture]]. The classification chiefly refers to pre-Islamic [[Abrahamic religions]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sharon|2004}}; {{harvnb|Madigan|2001}}.</ref> In the [[Quran]], they are identified as the [[Jews]], the [[Christians]], the [[Sabians]], and—according to some interpretations—the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]].<ref>On the Sabians, see {{harvnb|De Blois|2004}}. On the Zoroastrians, see {{harvnb|Darrow|2003}}; {{harvnb|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|Rustom|2015|p=834}} (verse 22:17).</ref> Beginning in the 8th century, this recognition was extended to other groups, such as the [[Samaritans]] (who are closely related to the Jews),<ref name="Esposito 2003">{{harvnb|Esposito|2003}}.</ref> and, controversially, [[Hindu–Islamic relations|Hindus]], [[Buddhism and Islam|Buddhists]], [[Islam and Jainism|Jains]], and [[Islam and Sikhism|Sikhs]], among others.<ref>{{harvnb|Kimball|2019|p=195}}. On Hindus, see also {{harvnb|Nasr|1972|p=139}}.</ref> In most applications, "People of the Book" is simply used by Muslims to refer to the followers of [[Islamic–Jewish relations|Judaism]] and [[Christianity and Islam|Christianity]], with which Islam shares many values, guidelines, and principles.

Historically, in countries and regions following [[Sharia|Islamic law]], the religious communities that Muslims recognized as People of the Book were subject to a legal status known as ''[[dhimmi]]'', meaning that they had the option to pay a special head tax called ''[[jizya]]'' in exchange for being granted the privilege to practice their faith and govern their community according to the rules and norms of their own religion.<ref name="Esposito 2003"/> ''Jizya'' was levied on all mentally and physically capable adult males from these recognized non-Muslim communities. Practitioners of non-recognized religions were not always granted this privilege, although many later [[Islamic state]]s, particularly those in the [[Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]], amended their laws to extend the application of ''dhimmi'' status beyond the originally designated Jewish and Christian communities.

In the Quran, the term is used in a variety of contexts, from religious polemics to passages emphasizing the community of faith among those who possess scriptures espousing [[monotheism]], as opposed to [[polytheism]] or any other form of belief.<ref name="EI"/>

The designation of People of the Book is also relevant to [[Marriage in Islam|Islamic marriages]]: a Muslim man is only permitted to marry a non-Muslim woman if she is Jewish or Christian, and he must additionally ensure that any children produced with his Jewish or Christian wife/[[Polygyny in Islam|wives]] are raised in the Muslim faith. Muslim women are not permitted to marry non-Muslim men, even if they are Jewish or Christian.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rahman|first=Fazlur|date=July 1980|title=A Survey of Modernization of Muslim Family Law|url=http://www.ikhtyar.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Fazlur-Rahman-Modernization-of-Muslim-family-law.pdf|access-date=2 February 2022|website=Ikhtyar.org}}</ref> In the case of a Muslim–Christian marriage, which is to be contracted only after permission from the Christian party, the [[Ashtiname of Muhammad|''Ashtiname'' of Muhammad]] dictates that the Muslim husband is not allowed to prevent his Christian wife from [[church service|attending church for prayer and worship]].<ref name="Ahmed2013">{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Akbar S. |title=Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise |date=11 January 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92417-2 |page=62 |language=en |quote=The Quran speaks favourably of the people of the Book. For example, Surah 3, verse 199, carries a universal message of goodwill and hope to all those who believe, the people of the Book irrespective of their religious label—Christian, Jew or Muslim. Muslims can marry with the people of the Book,}}</ref><ref name="TimaniAshton2019"/>

More recently, the term has been reappropriated by some Jews and Christians as a means of self-identification vis-à-vis Muslims.<ref>{{harvnb|Jeffrey|1996|pp=xi–xiv}}.</ref>

== In the Quran ==
=== Meaning of the term ===
When used in conjunction with a person, the term {{transliteration|ar|ahl}} identifies the members of that person's household, including their fellow tribesmen, relatives and all those who share a family background with them. However, it may also be used with place names to refer to people living in a certain locality (e.g., {{transliteration|ar|ahl al-Madīna}} in Quran 9:101, 'the people of [[Medina]]'), or with more abstract nouns, as in {{transliteration|ar|ahl madhhab}}, 'the people of a certain {{transliteration|ar|[[madhhab]]}} or school of thought'.<ref name="Sharon 2004">{{harvnb|Sharon|2004}}.</ref>

The word {{transliteration|ar|kitāb}}, meaning 'writing' or 'book', occurs very often in the Quran, generally in the sense of a divine rather than a human activity, which consists in writing down and recording everything that is created. More than just referring to a 'book', it conveys meanings of divine knowledge, divine authority, and divine revelation.<ref name="Madigan 2001">{{harvnb|Madigan|2001}}.</ref>

The term {{transliteration|ar|ahl al-kitāb}}, then, refers to those who have been given access to such knowledge and revelation:<ref name="Madigan 2001"/> they are the people to whom God has 'sent down' (see {{transliteration|ar|[[Tanzil|tanzīl]]}}) his wisdom by means of a [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophet]], as an act of [[divine grace]].<ref name="Sharon 2004"/> However, the revelations given to the People of the Book, taking the form of the [[Torah]] ({{transliteration|ar|al-Tawrāt}}), the [[Psalms]] ({{transliteration|ar|al-Zabūr}}), and the [[Gospel]] ({{transliteration|ar|al-Injīl}}),<ref name="EI" /> were all partial, and it is precisely by already being familiar with the books ({{transliteration|ar|kutub}}) previously sent down that the People of the Book were expected to be able to recognize Muhammad as a prophet, and the Quran as the final and most complete revelation.<ref name="Madigan 2001"/>

=== Identity ===

Several verses in the Quran are commonly understood as identifying the [[Jews]], the [[Christians]], and the [[Sabians]] as People of the Book. Thus for example [[Al-Ma'idah|{{transliteration|ar|Sūrat al-Māʾida}}]] 5:68–69, which mentions these groups along with the Muslims ("the believers") as being safe from fear and grief:<ref>{{harvnb|De Blois|2004}}.</ref>

{{blockquote|[68] Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “O People of the Book! You have nothing to stand on unless you observe the Torah, the Gospel, and what has been revealed to you from your Lord.” And your Lord’s revelation to you ˹O Prophet˺ will only cause many of them to increase in wickedness and disbelief. So do not grieve for the people who disbelieve. [69] Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians and Christians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good, there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.<ref>{{qref|5|68–69|b=y}} (tr. [[Mustafa Khattab]], ''The Clear Quran'').</ref>}}

[[Al-Baqara|{{transliteration|ar|Sūrat al-Baqara}}]] 2:62 is similar to this,<ref>{{harvnb|De Blois|2004}}. It reads: "Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians —whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve."{{qref|2|62|c=y}} (tr. [[Mustafa Khattab]], ''The Clear Quran'').</ref> but there is also a verse ([[Al-Hajj|{{transliteration|ar|Sūrat al-Ḥajj}}]] 22:17) which lists the same groups in another context, that of how God will judge them on the [[Judgement Day in Islam|Day of Resurrection]], but now adding two more groups to the list:<ref name="Darrow 2003">{{harvnb|Darrow|2003}}.</ref>

{{blockquote|Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians, Christians, Magi, and the polytheists—Allah will judge between them ˹all˺ on Judgment Day. Surely Allah is a Witness over all things.<ref>{{qref|22|17|c=y}} (tr. [[Mustafa Khattab]], ''The Clear Quran'').</ref>}}

The last named group, "the polytheists" (the {{transliteration|ar|[[Shirk (Islam)|mushrikūn]]}}, {{lit|those who associate}}), are the opposite of the first named, "the believers" (the Muslims). What is less clear, however, is the status of the groups mentioned in between, who now also include the "Magi" ({{transliteration|ar|al-majūs}}), that is to say, the [[Zoroastrians]] (who are named only once in the Quran, in this verse). This was a matter of dispute among medieval Muslim scholars, who questioned whether the Zoroastrians had a clear prophet and scripture, as well as whether their doctrines on the nature of God and creation were in accordance with those of Islam and the other religions recognized as having received a revelation.<ref name="Darrow 2003"/> Ultimately though, most Islamic jurists granted the Zoroastrians partial status as a People of the Book,<ref name="Darrow 2003"/> while still disagreeing on the extent to which legal privileges such as intermarriage with Muslims should be allowed.<ref>{{harvnb|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|Rustom|2015|p=834}} (verse 22:17).</ref>

=== Usage ===

The Quran emphasizes the community of faith between possessors of monotheistic scriptures, and occasionally pays tribute to the religious and moral virtues of communities that have received earlier revelations, calling on Muhammad to ask them for information.<ref name="EI">{{harvnb|Vajda|1960–2007}}.</ref> More often, reflecting the refusal of Jews and Christians in Muhammad's environment to accept his message, the Quran stresses their inability to comprehend the message they possess but do not put into practice and to appreciate that Muhammad's teaching fulfills that message.<ref name="EI" />

The People of the Book are mentioned several times in the 98th chapter of the Quran, {{transliteration|ar|[[al-Bayyina|Sūrat al-Bayyina]]}} ('The Clear Proof'):

{{blockquote|[1] The disbelievers from the People of the Book and the polytheists were not going to desist from disbelief until the clear proof came to them: [2] a messenger from Allah, reciting scrolls of utmost purity, [3] containing upright commandments. [4] It was not until this clear proof came to the People of the Book that they became divided about his prophethood— [5] even though they were only commanded to worship Allah alone with sincere devotion to Him in all uprightness, establish prayer, and pay alms-tax. That is the upright Way. [6] Indeed, those who disbelieve from the People of the Book and the polytheists will be in the Fire of Hell, to stay there forever. They are the worst of all beings. [7] Indeed, those who believe and do good—they are the best of all beings. [8] Their reward with their Lord will be Gardens of Eternity, under which rivers flow, to stay there for ever and ever. Allah is pleased with them and they are pleased with Him. This is only for those in awe of their Lord.<ref>{{qref|98|1–8|c=y}} (tr. [[Mustafa Khattab]], ''The Clear Quran'').</ref>}}

According to [[Islamic]] studies scholar [[Yvonne Haddad]], this short chapter condemns all those who reject the 'clear proof' ({{transliteration|ar|bayyina}}) of the Prophet to the eternal fire of hell, whether they are People of the Book or disbelievers ({{transliteration|ar|[[kuffār]]}}).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haddad |first1=Yvonne Yazbeck | date=1977 | title=An Exegesis of Sura Ninety-Eight| journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume = 97 |issue = 4 |pages=519–530 | jstor = 598634 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/598634|doi=10.2307/598634}}</ref>

The People of the Book are also referenced in the ''[[jizya]]'' verse ([[Q9:29]]),<ref name="EI" /> which has received [[Jizya#In the Qur'an|varied interpretations]].

The Quran permits marriage between Muslim men and women who are People of the Book (Jews and Christians).<ref name="Ahmed2013" />

==History==
=== Muhammad's era (610–632) ===
[[File:Icon Iakovos Moskos.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]], a treaty between Muslims and Christians, was purportedly recorded between Muhammad and [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]], which is depicted in this icon.]]
The [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]], a treaty purportedly made between [[Muhammad]] and the [[Christians]] of [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]], stated that if a Muslim man wished to marry a Christian woman, marriage could only occur with her consent and she must be permitted to continue [[church service|attending church]] to pray and worship.<ref name="TimaniAshton2019">{{cite book |last1=Timani |first1=Hussam S. |last2=Ashton |first2=Loye Sekihata |title=Post-Christian Interreligious Liberation Theology |date=29 November 2019 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-27308-8 |page=196 |language=en}}</ref> The Ashtiname states that Christians cannot be forced to fight in wars and that Muslims should fight on their behalf; it also states that Christian churches are to be respected and forbids stealing from them.<ref name="TimaniAshton2019" /> The Ashtiname forbids Muslims to remove Christians from their jobs, including those who serve as judges or monks.<ref name="TimaniAshton2019" /> Muslims are bound until the [[Last Judgment]] to adhere to the treaty or "he would spoil God's covenant and disobey His Prophet."<ref name="TimaniAshton2019" /> The policy of the Ottoman Sultans abided by the Ashtiname.<ref name="TimaniAshton2019" />

=== Rashidun Caliphate (634–661) ===
During the second caliph [[Umar]]'s reign ({{Reign|634|642}}), the [[Christian community of Najran|Christian community]] of [[Najran]] and the [[History of the Jews in Khaybar|Jewish community]] of [[Khaybar]] were deported to the newly conquered regions of [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and [[Iraq]].{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=74}} Umar set aside the Christian ban on the Jews and allowed them to pray and reside in [[Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Dubnov|1980|p=326}} Umar signed a [[Pact of Umar|pact]] with the Christians of Jerusalem, which granted them safety in the region.{{sfn|Meri|2005|p=205}} He also awarded the status of the People of the Book to the Zoroastrians, although some practices contrary to Islam were prohibited.{{sfn|Gordon|2005|p=28}}

At the beginning of the [[Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia]] in {{circa|640}}, the leader of the [[Mandaeans]] (one of the religious groups who historically claimed to be the [[Sabians]] mentioned in the Quran), [[Anush bar Danqa]], is said to have traveled to [[Baghdad]] in order to appear before the Muslim authorities, showing them a copy of the ''[[Ginza Rabba]]'' (the Mandaean holy book), and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be [[John the Baptist]] (known to [[Muslims]] as [[John the Baptist in Islam|Yahya ibn Zakariyya]]). Consequently, the Muslim authorities afforded them the status of People of the Book.{{Sfn|Buckley|2002|p=5}} However, this account is likely apocryphal, and if it took place at all, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762.<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|pp=14, cf. pp. 7–15}}.</ref> The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans was [[Ḥasan bar Bahlul|al-Hasan ibn Bahlul]] ({{floruit|950–1000}}) citing the Abbasid vizier [[Ibn Muqla|Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla]] ({{circa|885}}–940).<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|p=47}}; on the identification of al-Hasan ibn Bahlul's source (named merely "Abu Ali") as Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla, see p. 58.</ref> However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|p=54}}. On Ibn Muqla's possible motivations for applying the Quranic epithet to the Mandaeans rather than to the [[Harran]]ian pagans (who were more commonly identified as 'Sabians' in the Baghdad of his time), see p. 66.</ref>

===Later Islamic usage===
{{More citations needed|section|small=|date=December 2023}}
When the [[Umayyad]] general [[Muhammad ibn Qasim]] ({{circa|694}}–715) conquered [[Brahmanabad]], he is said to have granted [[Hindus]], [[Buddhists]], and [[Jains]] the status of People of the Book.<ref>{{harvnb|Kimball|2019|p=195}}.</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Kimball mentions that Muhammad ibn Qasim drew upon a Hanafi interpretation of Islamic law, but Abu Hanifa was still a young man when Muhammad ibn Qasim died.|date=June 2022}}

Islamic scholars differ on whether [[Hinduism|Hindus]] are People of the Book.<ref name="hinduism">{{harvnb|Nasr|1972|p=139}}.</ref> The [[Islamic conquest of India]] necessitated the definition be revised, as most India's inhabitants were followers of the [[Indian religions]]. Many of the Muslim clergy of India considered Hindus as people of the book,<ref name="hinduism"/> and from Muhammad bin Qasim in the Umayyad era to the Mughal ruler [[Aurangzeb]] in the 17th century, Muslim rulers were willing to consider Hindus as People of the Book.<ref name="hinduism2_127">{{cite book | title = Hinduism and Islam in India: Caste, Religion, and Society from Antiquity to Early Modern Times | first = S. V. | last = Desika Char |publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-1-55876-151-3 | page = 127}}</ref>

===Dhimmi===

{{Main|Dhimmi}}

''Dhimmi'' is a historical<ref name=Campo/> term referring to the status accorded to People of the Book living in an [[Islamic state]]{{failed verification|date=February 2025}}.<ref name=Campo>{{cite encyclopedia |title=dhimmi |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |editor=Juan Eduardo Campo |pages=194–195 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |date=2010-05-12 |quote= "Dhimmis are non-Muslims who live within Islamdom and have a regulated and protected status. ... In the modern period, this term has generally has occasionally been resuscitated, but it is generally obsolete."}}</ref> The word literally means "protected person."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dhimmi|title=Definition of DHIMMI|website=merriam-webster.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518075744/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dhimmi|archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> According to scholars, dhimmis had their rights fully protected in their communities, but as citizens in the Islamic state, had certain restrictions,<ref name=Bennett>{{Cite book|title=Muslims and Modernity: An Introduction to the Issues and Debates|author=Clinton Bennett|author-link=Clinton Bennett|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0826454812|page=163|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0vYYovH7OQC|access-date=2012-07-07}}</ref> and it was obligatory for them to pay the [[jizya]] tax, which complemented the [[zakat]], or alms, paid by the Muslim subjects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glenn |first= H. Patrick |author-link=H. Patrick Glenn |year=2007 |title=Legal Traditions of the World |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=218–219 |quote=A Dhimmi is a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance to sharia law. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and required loyalty to the empire, and a poll tax known as the jizya, which complemented the Islamic tax paid by the Muslim subjects, called Zakat.}}</ref> Dhimmis were excluded from specific duties assigned to Muslims, and did not enjoy certain political rights reserved for Muslims, but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation.<ref>H. Patrick Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 219.</ref><ref>The French scholar Gustave Le Bon (the author of ''La civilisation des Arabes'') writes "that despite the fact that the incidence of taxation fell more heavily on a Muslim than a non-Muslim, the non-Muslim was free to enjoy equally well with every Muslim all the privileges afforded to the citizens of the state. The only privilege that was reserved for the Muslims was the seat of the caliphate, and this, because of certain religious functions attached to it, which could not naturally be discharged y a non-Muslim." Mun'im Sirry (2014), ''Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions'', p.179. [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0199359363}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl|first1=Khaled|author-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl|title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|date=2007|publisher=[[HarperOne]]|isbn=978-0061189036|page=204|quote = According to the dhimma status system, non-Muslims must pay a poll tax in return for Muslim protection and the privilege of living in Muslim territory. Per this system, non-Muslims are exempt from military service, but they are excluded from occupying high positions that involve dealing with high state interests, like being the president or prime minister of the country. In Islamic history, non-Muslims did occupy high positions, especially in matters that related to fiscal policies or tax collection.}}</ref>

Under [[sharia]], the dhimmi communities were usually subjected to their own special laws, rather than some of the laws which were applicable only to the Muslim community. For example, the [[Jews|Jewish]] community in Medina was allowed to have its own [[beit din|Halakhic courts]],<ref name="Cohen">{{cite book|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|author=Cohen, Mark R.|author-link=Mark R. Cohen|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-691-01082-3 |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgbib5exskUC&q=cohen+Under+Crescent+and+Cross|access-date=10 April 2010 }}</ref> and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet system]] allowed its various dhimmi communities to rule themselves under separate legal courts. These courts did not cover cases that involved religious groups outside of their own community, or capital offences. Dhimmi communities were also allowed to engage in certain practices that were usually forbidden for the Muslim community, such as the [[Islamic dietary laws|consumption of alcohol and pork]].<ref>Al-Misri, ''Reliance of the Traveler'' (edited and translated by [[Nuh Ha Mim Keller]]), p. 608. Amana Publications, 1994.</ref><ref>Al-Misri, ''Reliance of the Traveler'' (ed. and trans. Nuh Ha Mim Keller), pp. 977, 986. Amana Publications, 1994.</ref>{{sfn|Ghazi|Kalin|Kamali|2013|pp=240–1}}

Historically, dhimmi status was originally applied to [[Jews]], [[Christians]], and [[Sabians]]. This status later also came to be applied to [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], [[Hindu]]s, [[Jainism|Jains]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhists]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Wael B. Hallaq|author-link = Wael Hallaq|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)|page=327 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|author-link=Annemarie Schimmel|year=2004|page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/107 107]|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1861891853|quote=The conqueror [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad Ibn Al Qasem]] gave both Hindus and Buddhists the same status as the Christians, Jews and Sabaeans the Middle East. They were all "dhimmi" ('protected people')|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/107}}</ref><ref name=bonner>{{cite book|author=Michael Bonner|title=Jihad in Islamic History|publisher=Princeton University Press (Kindle edition)|year=2008|page= 89}}</ref> Moderate Muslims generally reject the dhimma system as inappropriate for the age of nation-states and democracies.<ref name="El Fadl">"[…] the overwhelming majority of moderate Muslims reject the dhimma system as ahistorical, in the sense that it is inappropriate for the age of nation-states and democracies." {{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl|first1=Khaled|title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|date=23 January 2007|publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0061189036|page=214|author1-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl}}</ref>

==Usage by Jews and Christians==
In [[Judaism]], the term "People of the Book" ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: עם הספר, ''Am HaSefer'')<ref>{{cite book|author=Kerry M. Olitzky, Ronald H. Isaacs|title=A Glossary of Jewish Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCy77T7kpnkC&pg=PA217|page=217|publisher=Jason Aronson|year=1992|isbn=9780876685471}}</ref> has been [[Reappropriation|reappropriated]] as a term to designate the [[Jews|Jewish people]], in reference to the [[Torah]] or to the entire [[Hebrew Bible]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jeffrey|1996|p=xiii}}.</ref> Members of some [[Christian denominations]] have also embraced the term "People of the Book" in reference to themselves, foremost among them the [[Puritans]]<ref>{{harvnb|Jeffrey|1996|pp=xiii–xiv}}.</ref> as well as the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://archives.adventistworld.org/issue.php?issue=2010-1002&page=11 |title=Adventists and Muslims: Five Convictions – How to build on what we have in common|first=William G.|last=Johnsson |access-date=2014-06-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714163613/http://archives.adventistworld.org/issue.php?issue=2010-1002&page=11 |archive-date=14 July 2014 |date=February 2010 |magazine=Adventist World Magazine}} {{cite web |url=http://pobpublications.com/about |title=Who we are |work=PoBPublications.com |publisher=People of the Book Publications |access-date=2011-07-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628145450/http://pobpublications.com/about |archive-date=28 June 2011 }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=These sources are not written by an independent observer.|date=June 2022}}<!-- These sources are self-published and unreliable, but used here in accordance with WP:ABOUTSELF --> and the [[Baptists]].<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tuuys4HxSzcC&pg=PA78|title =Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis And Brief History|author=Dr. Andrea C. Paterson|access-date = 2007-10-18|isbn =9781452030494|date =2009-05-21|page=78|publisher =AuthorHouse}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=This source is not written by an independent observer.|date=June 2022}}<!-- Paterson is self-published and unreliable, but used here in accordance with WP:ABOUTSELF -->

==See also==
*[[Abrahamic religions]]
*[[Al-Bayyina]]
*[[Christianity and Islam]]
*[[Divisions of the world in Islam]]
*[[Islam and Judaism]]
*[[Islam and other religions]]
*[[Islamic schools and branches]]
*[[Judeo-Christian]]
*[[Pact of Umar]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===

* {{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn Jacobsen|title=The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=9780195153859}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Darrow|first1=William R.|date=2003|title=Magians|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00269}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=De Blois|first1=François|date=2004|title=Sabians|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00362}}
* {{cite book|last=Dubnov|first=Simon|title=Associated University Press|year=1980|publisher=Associated University Presse |isbn=9780845366592}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|editor1-link=John L. Esposito|date=2003|chapter=Ahl al-Kitab|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=10|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA10|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001|isbn=9780195125580}}
* {{cite book|last=Gordon|first=Matthew|title=The Rise of Islam|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2005|isbn=9780313325229}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jeffrey|first1=David Lyle|author1-link=David Lyle Jeffrey|date=1996|title=People of the Book: Christian Identity and Literary Culture|location=Grand Rapids|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=9780802841773|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G2YlLrQUgzsC&pg=PR11}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kimball|first1=Richard|date=2019|title=The People of the Book, ''ahl al-kitāb'': A Modern Comparative Theological Exploration|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijac/2/2/article-p189_189.xml|journal=International Journal of Asian Christianity|volume=2|issue=2|pages=189–210|doi=10.1163/25424246-00202004|s2cid=171806689 |issn=2542-4246}}
* {{cite book|last=Madelung|first=Wilferd|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=0-521-64696-0|author-link=Wilferd Madelung}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Madigan|first1=Daniel|date=2001|title=Book|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00027}}
* {{cite book|last=Meri|first=Josef W.|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=9780415966900}}
* {{cite book|last1=Nasr|first1=Seyyed Hossein|author1-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|date=1972|title=Sufi Essays|location=Albany|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-87395-233-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJ67xFBN2lQC&pg=PA139}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Nasr|editor1-first=Seyyed Hossein|editor1-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|editor2-last=Dagli|editor2-first=Caner K.|editor2-link=Caner Dagli|editor3-last=Dakake|editor3-first=Maria Massi|editor3-link=Maria Massi Dakake|editor4-last=Lumbard|editor4-first=Joseph E. B.|editor4-link=Joseph E. B. Lumbard|editor5-last=Rustom|editor5-first=Mohammed|editor5-link=Mohammed Rustom|date=2015|title=The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary|location=New York|publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0-06-112586-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Sharon|first1=Moshe|author1-link=Moshe Sharon|date=2004|title=People of the Book|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00319}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Vajda|first1=Georges|author1-link=Georges Vajda|date=1960–2007|title=Ahl al-Kitāb|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0383}}
* {{cite book|last1=Van Bladel|first1=Kevin|year=2017|title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004339460|isbn=978-90-04-33943-9|url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389}}

==Further reading==
* Boekhoff-van der Voort, Nicolet, "Ahl al-Kitab (People of the Book)", in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp.&nbsp;9–11.

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[https://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/guide/hs-books.html The Books of the People of the Book] at the US Library of Congress, Hebraic Collections

{{Characters and names in the Quran}}

[[Category:Islamic terminology]]
[[Category:Islam and Judaism]]
[[Category:Islam and other religions]]
[[Category:Christianity and Islam]]
[[Category:Christian–Islamic–Jewish interfaith dialogue]]