Editing Pennsylvania Dutch

{{short description|Ethnic group of the eastern United States}}
{{Distinguish|German Americans}}
{{For|the language spoken by this group|Pennsylvania German language}}
{{Unreliable|date=June 2024}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Pennsylvania Germans
| native_name      = {{native name|pdc|Pennsylvanisch Deitsche}}
| flag             = 
| flag_caption     = 
| popplace         = German Pennsylvania <br/>[[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Maryland]], [[Virginia]], [[North Carolina]], [[West Virginia]], [[California]], [[Ontario]]
| rels             = [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], [[Reformed Church in the United States|Reformed]], [[Evangelical and Reformed Church|German Reformed]], [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Moravian Church|Moravian]], [[Church of the Brethren]], [[Mennonite]], [[Amish]], [[Schwenkfelder]], [[River Brethren]], [[Old Order River Brethren|Yorker Brethren]], [[Judaism]], [[Pow-wow (folk magic)|Pow-wow]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]
| langs            = [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] <br /> [[Pennsylvania German English]]
| related          = [[Palatines]], [[Over-the-Rhine|Ohio Rhinelanders]], [[Fancy Dutch]], [[Missouri Rhineland]]ers, [[Province of Maryland|Maryland Palatines]]
}}

The '''Pennsylvania Germans''' ({{langx|pdc|Pennsylvanisch Deitsche}}),<ref name="oscarkuhns">{{cite book|title=The German and Swiss Settlements of Colonial Pennsylvania A Study of the So-called Pennsylvania German|author=Oscar Kuhns|year=2009|publisher=Abigdon Press|pages=254}}</ref><ref name="williamjfrawley">{{cite book|title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics 2003|author=William J. Frawley|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|pages=92}}</ref><ref name="pennsylvaniagermansencylopedia">{{cite book|title=Pennsylvania Germans An Interpretive Encyclopedia · Volume 63|author=Joshua R. Brown|author2=Simon J. Bronner|year=2017|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|pages=3}}</ref> also referred to as the '''Pennsylvania Dutch''', are an ethnic group in [[Pennsylvania]] in the [[United States]], [[Ontario]] in [[Canada]], and other regions of both nations.<ref name="universityofmichigan">{{cite book |title=Americas (English Ed.) Volume 8|author=University of Michigan|publisher=Organization of American States|year=1956|pages=21}}</ref><ref name="usdepartmentofagriculture">{{cite book |title=Weekly News Letter to Crop Correspondents|author=United States. Department of Agriculture|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1918|pages=5}}</ref> They largely originate from the [[Palatinate (region)|Palatinate]] region of [[Germany]], and settled in Pennsylvania during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. While most were from the Palatinate region of Germany, a lesser number were from other [[German language|German-speaking]] areas of Germany and Europe, including [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Hesse]], [[Saxony]], and [[Rhineland]] in Germany, [[Switzerland]], and the [[Alsace–Lorraine]] region of [[France]].<ref name="germanicheritage">{{cite book |title=Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, attrition and change|author=Janne Bondi Johannessen|author-link=Janne Bondi Johannessen|author2=Joseph C. Salmons|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2015|pages=11}}</ref><ref name="fredlewispattee">{{cite book |title=The House of the Black Ring: A Romance of the Seven Mountains|author=Fred Lewis Pattee|publisher=Penn State Press|year=2015|pages=218}}</ref><ref name="normcohen">{{cite book |title=Folk Music: A Regional Exploration|author=Norm Cohen|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2005|pages=105}}</ref>

The Pennsylvania Dutch are either monolingual English speakers or bilingual speakers of both English and the Pennsylvania Dutch language, which is also commonly referred to as Pennsylvania German.<ref name="Louden">Mark L. Louden: Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. JHU Press, 2006, pp. 1-2; pp. 60-66; pp. 342-343.</ref> Linguistically it consists of a mix of [[High German|German dialects]] which have been significantly influenced by English, primarily in terms of vocabulary. Based on dialect features, Pennsylvania Dutch can be classified as a variety of [[Rhine Franconian dialects|Rhine Franconian]], with the [[Palatine German dialects]] being most closely related.<ref name=mtp>Michael T. Putnam: Studies on German-Language Islands, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 375</ref><ref name=js>Joachim Scharloth, Nils Langer, Stephan Elspaß & Wim Vandenbussche: Germanic Language Histories 'from Below' (1700-2000), De Gruyter, 2011, p. 166.</ref>

Geographically, Pennsylvania Dutch are largely found in the [[Pennsylvania Dutch Country]] and [[Ohio Amish Country]]. The main division among Pennsylvania Dutch is that between sectarians (those belonging to the [[Old Order Mennonite]], [[Amish]] or related groups) and nonsectarians, sometimes colloquially referred to as ″Church Dutch″ or ″[[Fancy Dutch]]″.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f2V8ZZeYVEC&q=Nolt+Pennsylvania |page=13|title=Foreigners in their own land: Pennsylvania Germans in the early republic |author=Steven M. Nolt|date=March 2008 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |isbn=9780271034447 }}</ref>
 
Notable Americans of Pennsylvania Dutch descent include [[Henry J. Heinz]] (founder of the [[Heinz]] food conglomerate), [[Walter Chrysler]] (founder of [[Chrysler]] the automobile manufacturer), and [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]].

==Autonym==
Differing explanations exist on why the Pennsylvania Dutch are referred to as ''Dutch'', which typically refers to the inhabitants of the [[Netherlands]] or the [[Dutch language]], which is only distantly related to Pennsylvania German.

Several authors and etymological publications consider the word ''Dutch'' in ''Pennsylvania Dutch'', which in medieval times could also be used to refer to speakers of various German dialects, to be an archaism specific to 19th-century American English, particularly in its colloquial form.<ref>Mark L. Louden: Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. JHU Press, 2006, p.2</ref> An alternative interpretation commonly found among laypeople and scholars alike is that the ''Dutch'' in ''Pennsylvania Dutch'' is an anglicization or "corruption" ([[Folk etymology|folk-etymological]] re-interpretation) of the Pennsylvania German [[Endonym and exonym|autonym]] ''deitsch'', which in the Pennsylvania German language refers to the Pennsylvania Dutch or Germans in general.<ref>Robert Hendrickson (2000). The Facts on File Dictionary of American Regionalisms. United States of America: Infobase Publishing. p. 723.</ref><ref>Irwin Richman: The Pennsylvania Dutch Country. Arcadia Publishing, 2004, p.16.</ref><ref>Nicoline van der Sijs:Cookies, Coleslaw, and Stoops: The Influence of Dutch on the North American Languages. Amsterdam University Press, 2009, page 15.</ref><ref>Sally McMurry: Architecture and Landscape of the Pennsylvania Germans, 1720-1920. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated, 2011, page 2.</ref> However, some authors have described{{Explain|reason=Why? And what is their own alternative explanation?|date=October 2024}} this hypothesis{{Clarify|reason=Which hypothesis exactly? Several are stated above.|date=October 2024}} as a misconception.<ref>Mark L. Louden: Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. JHU Press, 2006, p.2</ref><ref>Hostetler, John A. (1993), ''Amish Society'', The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, p. 241</ref>

The migration of the Pennsylvania Dutch to the [[United States]] predates the emergence of a distinct German national identity, which did not form until the late 18th century.<ref>[[Hans Kohn (Historiker)|Hans Kohn]] (1951): ''The Eve of German Nationalism (1789–1812).'' In: ''Journal of the History of Ideas.'' Bd. 12, Nr. 2, S. 256–284, hier S. 257 ({{JSTOR|2707517}}).</ref> The formation of the [[German Empire]] in [[1871]] resulted in a [[semantic shift]], in which ''deutsch'' was no longer principally a linguistic and cultural term, but was increasingly used to describe all things related to Germany and its inhabitants. This development did not go unnoticed among the Pennsylvania Dutch who, in the 19th and early 20th century, referred to themselves as ''Deitsche'', while calling newer German immigrants ''Deitschlenner'' {{lit}} 'Germany-ans'.<ref>Mark L. Louden: Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. JHU Press, 2006, pp. 3–4.</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Pennsylvania German Ancestry 2012.webp|thumb|upright=1|Diagram indicating Pennsylvania Dutch settlement in the United States]]
{{Main|Pennsylvania Dutch Country}}
The Pennsylvania Dutch live primarily in the [[Delaware Valley]] and in the Pennsylvania Dutch Country, a large area that includes [[South Central Pennsylvania]], in the area stretching in an arc from [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania|Bethlehem]] and [[Allentown, Pennsylvania|Allentown]] in the [[Lehigh Valley]] westward through [[Reading, Pennsylvania|Reading]], [[Lebanon, Pennsylvania|Lebanon]], and [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] to [[York, Pennsylvania|York]] and [[Chambersburg, Pennsylvania|Chambersburg]]. Smaller enclaves include  Pennsylvania Dutch-speaking areas in [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Delaware]], [[Maryland]], [[Ohio]], [[West Virginia]], [[North Carolina]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Virginia]], and the Canadian province of [[Ontario]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f2V8ZZeYVEC&q=Nolt+Pennsylvania |page=13 |title=Foreigners in their own land: Pennsylvania Germans in the early republic |author=Steven M. Nolt|date=March 2008 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |isbn=9780271034447 }}</ref><ref name="markllouden">{{cite book |title=Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language|author=Mark L. Louden|year=2016|publisher=JHU Press|location=United States of America|pages=404}}</ref><ref name="davidwguth">{{cite book |title=Bridging the Chesapeake, A 'Fool Idea' That Unified Maryland|author=David W. Guth|year=2017|publisher=Archway Publishing|page=426}}</ref>

==History==
===Immigration to America===
[[File:Baptismal Wish for Catarina Titzlir by the Sussel-Washington Artist.jpg|thumb|A portrayal of colonial era [[Palatines]] in [[Fraktur (folk art)|Fraktur art style]]]]
The Pennsylvania Dutch, primarily German-speaking immigrants from Germany (particularly the [[Palatinate (region)|Palatinate region]]), Switzerland, and Alsace, moved to America seeking better opportunities and a safer, more tolerant environment. Many, including Amish and Mennonites, faced religious persecution in Europe. Pennsylvania, established by [[William Penn]] as a haven for religious minorities, promised the religious freedom they sought. Economic hardship, marked by war, famine, and limited land access in 17th and 18th century Germany, pushed many to seek a better life in the New World, which offered abundant land and resources. 

Europe’s, and especially Germany's, political instability, with frequent wars like the devastating [[Thirty Years' War]], contrasted with the relatively stable environment of the American colonies. The availability of fertile land was a significant draw for the immigrants, who were mainly farmers and craftsmen, for whom the chance to own and cultivate their own farms was highly appealing. Positive reports from early settlers as well as active recruitment by William Penn encouraged friends and family to join them, fostering tightly-knit communities.

[[file:German Society.jpg|thumb|Pennsylvania German society was founded to protect [[Palatine]] indentured servants, [[redemptioners]]]]
About three fourths of all Germans in Pennsylvania were subject to several years of indentured servitude contracts. These indentured servants, known as [[redemptioners]], were made to work on plantations or perform other work to pay off the costs of the sponsor or shipping company which had advanced the cost of their transatlantic voyage.<ref name="kennethlkusmer">{{cite book |title=Black Communities and Urban Development in America, 1720-1990: The Colonial and early national period|author=Kenneth L. Kusmer|publisher=Gardland Publisher|year=1991|pages=63,228}}</ref> In 1764, the [[German Society of Pennsylvania]] was founded to protect the German redemptioners.<ref name="germantowncrier">{{cite book |title=Germantown Crier, Volumes 30-32|author=Pennsylvania State University|publisher=Germantown Historical Society|year=1978|pages=12, 13}}</ref><ref name="hcarter">{{cite book |title=The Past as Prelude: New Orleans, 1718-1968|author=H. Carter|year=1968|publisher=Pelican Publishing|pages=37}}</ref>

The bulk of German migration to the American colonies began in 1683 but concentrated on the first half of the 18th century.<ref name="sudiedoggettwike">{{cite book |title=German Footprints in America, Four Centuries of Immigration and Cultural Influence|author=Sudie Doggett Wike|year=2022|publisher=McFarland Incorporated Publishers|page=155}}</ref> Overall, the historian Marianne Wokeck estimates that just under 81,000 German-speakers entered the port of Philadelphia between 1683 and 1775, with two thirds of the immigrants arriving before 1755 of whom the majority (ca. 35,000) arrived in the five year period between 1749 and 1754.<ref> Marianne Sophia Wokeck: Trade in Strangers: The Beginnings of Mass Migration to North America. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999, pp. 44-47</ref> In 1790, ethnic Germans comprised 38% of the population of Pennsylvania, or approximately 165,000 people. Of these, over half resided in the counties of Berks, Lancaster, Northampton and York.<ref name="Louden"/>

[[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]]s held much anti-Palatine sentiment in the Pennsylvania Colony. Below is a quotation of [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s complaints about the Palatine refugees in his work ''Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind (1751)'':
{{blockquote|Why should the '''Palatine boors''' be suffered to swarm into our settlements, and by herding together establish their language and manners to the exclusion of ours? Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a colony of ''aliens'', who will shortly be so numerous as to Germanize us instead of us Anglifying them, and will never adopt our language or customs, any more than they can acquire our complexion.}}

The Germans who immigrated to the United States saw themselves as related though distinct from later (post-1830) waves of German-speaking immigrants. The Pennsylvania Dutch referred to themselves as ''Deitsche'' and would refer to Germans who arrived after the period of almost non-existent emigration between 1760 and 1830 from the German lands as ''Deitschlenner'', literally "Germany-ers", compare {{langx|de|Deutschländer}}.<ref name="Mark L. Louden 2006, p.3-4">Mark L. Louden: Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. JHU Press, 2006, p.3-4</ref><ref name="americaandthegermans">{{cite book |title=America and the Germans, Volume 1: An Assessment of a Three-Hundred Year History--Immigration, Language, Ethnicity|author1=Frank Trommler|author2=Joseph McVeigh|year=2016|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|pages=51}}</ref>

===Pennsylvania Dutch during the American Revolutionary War===
{{Further|Germans in the American Revolution}}
[[File:Germantown_battle,_Chew's_house_Colorized.jpg|thumb|In the [[Battle of Germantown]] in 1777, Pennsylvania Dutch soldiers fought in the [[Pennsylvania Navy|Pennsylvania Militia]]]]
[[File:Herkimer at oriskany.jpg|thumb|[[Nicholas Herkimer]] at the [[Battle of Oriskany]] in 1777]]
The Pennsylvania Dutch composed nearly half of the population of the [[Province of Pennsylvania]]. The Fancy Dutch population generally supported the Patriot cause in the [[American Revolution]]; the nonviolent Plain Dutch minority did not fight in the war.<ref>John B. Stoudt, "The German Press in Pennsylvania and the American Revolution." ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 59 (1938): 74–90 [http://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/view/28336/28092 online]</ref> Heinrich Miller of the Holy Roman [[Principality of Waldeck]] (1702-1782), was a journalist and printer based in Philadelphia, and published an early German translation of the ''Declaration of Independence'' (1776) in his newspaper ''Philadelphische Staatsbote''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entries/henrich-miller/|title=Henrich Miller|author=Patrick Erben|website=immigrantentrepreneurship.org|access-date=February 19, 2023}}</ref> Miller, having Swiss ancestry, often wrote about Swiss history and myth, such as the [[William Tell]] legend, to provide a context for patriot support in the conflict with Britain.<ref>A. G.. Roeber, "Henry Miller's ''Staatsbote'': A Revolutionary Journalist's Use of the Swiss Past", ''Yearbook of German-American Studies'', 1990, Vol. 25, pp 57–76</ref>

[[Frederick Muhlenberg]] (1750–1801), a Lutheran pastor, became a major patriot and politician, rising to be elected as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives.<ref>"[https://history.house.gov/People/Detail/18657 Muhlenberg, Frederick Augustus Conrad]" (biography), in "History, Art & Archives." Washington, D.C.: United States House of Representatives, retrieved online December 18, 2022.</ref>

The Pennsylvania Dutch contribution to the war effort was notable:
{{blockquote|In the marked influence for right and freedom of these early [[Holland Dutch|Hollanders]] and [[Palatine Dutch|Palatines]], in their brave defense of home, did such valiant service in promoting a love of real freedom to the preserving and hence making of our country.}}

{{blockquote|In the town halls in Dutch cities liberty bells were hung, and from the "Liberty Bell" placed in Philadelphia by Pennsylvania Dutchmen, on July 4th 1776, freedom was proclaimed "throughout all the land and to all the inhabitants thereof." Palatine Dutchmen, especially [[Nicholas Herkimer]], proved some of our bravest men in American Revolutionary War.<ref name="herkimercountyhistoricalsociety">{{cite book |title=Papers Read Before the Herkimer County Historical Society During the Years... Volumes 1-2|author=A. T. Smith|others=Herkimer County Historical Society|year=1899|publisher=Macmillan|pages=171, 300}}</ref>}}

Many Hessian prisoners, German mercenaries fighting for the British, were held in camps at the interior city of Lancaster, home to a large German community known as the Pennsylvania Dutch. Hessian prisoners were subsequently treated well, with some volunteering for extra work assignments, helping to replace local men serving in the Continental Army. Due to shared German heritage and abundance of land, many Hessian soldiers stayed and settled in the Pennsylvania Dutch Country after the war's end.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lancastercountymag.com/lititz-keeping-history-alive/|title=Lititz – Keeping History Alive|website=lancastercountymag.com}}</ref>

====Pennsylvania Dutch Provost Corps====
Pennsylvania Dutch were recruited for the American [[Provost (military police)|Provost corps]] under Captain Bartholomew von Heer,<ref name=Valuska>{{cite web |last=Valuska |first=David L., Ph.D. |title=Von Heer's Provost Corps Marechausee: The Army's Military Police. An All Pennsylvania German Unit |year=2007 |publisher=The Continental Line, Inc. |url=http://www.continentalline.org/articles/article.php?date=0702&article=070201 |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-date=November 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127131648/http://www.continentalline.org/articles/article.php?date=0702&article=070201 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref group=Note>"It is interesting to note that nearly all men recruited into the Provost Corps were Pennsylvania German." -[http://www.continentalline.org/articles/article.php?date=0702&article=070201   David L. Valuska] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127131648/http://www.continentalline.org/articles/article.php?date=0702&article=070201 |date=November 27, 2022 }}</ref> a Prussian who had served in a similar unit in Europe<ref name=Ruppert>{{cite web |url=https://allthingsliberty.com/2014/10/bartholomew-von-heer-and-marechaussee-corps/ |date=1 October 2014 |title=Bartholomew von Heer and the Marechausse Corps |last=Ruppert |first=Bob |publisher=Journal of the American Revolution |access-date=29 Aug 2019}}</ref> before immigrating to [[Reading, Pennsylvania]], prior to the war.

During the Revolutionary War the ''[[Gendarmerie|Marechaussee]]'' Corps were utilized in a variety of ways, including intelligence gathering, route security, enemy prisoner of war operations, and even combat during the [[Battle of Springfield (1780)|Battle of Springfield]].<ref name=MPRA>{{cite journal |url=http://www.mpraonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/mpra_0215lr1.pdf |title=Order of the Marechaussee |publisher=Military Police Regimental Association |location=Fort Leonard Wood |date=Spring 2015 |access-date=5 December 2015 |page=8 |volume=26 |number=2 |journal=The Dragoon |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208161557/http://www.mpraonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/mpra_0215lr1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Marechausee also provided security for Washington's headquarters during the [[Siege of Yorktown|Battle of Yorktown]], acted as his security detail, and was one of the last units deactivated after the Revolutionary War.<ref name=Valuska/> The Marechaussee Corps was often not well received by the Continental Army, due in part to their defined duties but also due to the fact that some members of the corps spoke little or no English.<ref name=Ruppert /> Six of the provosts had even been [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessian]] prisoners of war prior to their recruitment.<ref name=Ruppert /> Because the provost corps completed many of the same functions as the modern U.S. [[Military Police Corps (United States)|Military Police Corps]], it is considered a predecessor of the current United States Military Police Regiment.<ref name=MPRA/>

===Pennsylvania Dutch during the Civil War===
{{further|Battle of Gettysburg}}
[[File:Flag--PA-79th_Infantry_Regt_(State_Color)(1985_129).jpg|right|thumb|Battle flag of the [[79th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment|79th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment]], composed of Pennsylvania Dutch]]
Nearly all of the regiments from Pennsylvania that fought in the [[American Civil War]] had German-speaking or Pennsylvania Dutch-speaking members on their rosters, the majority of whom were Fancy Dutch.<ref name="donaldbkraybill">{{cite book |title=The Amish and the State
|author=Donald B. Kraybill|year=2003|publisher=JHU Press|pages=45}}</ref>

Some regiments like the 153rd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry were entirely composed of Pennsylvania Dutch soldiers.<ref name="damndutch" /> The [[47th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment]] also had a high percentage of German immigrants and Pennsylvania-born men of German heritage on its rosters; the regiment's K Company was formed with the intent of it being an "all-German company."<ref>''[https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?sid=d90fb765cd0cf9e7bdb007dd740c9fa1&c=moa&idno=ABY3439.0001.001&view=toc%20 History of Pennsylvania Volunteers, 1861-5; prepared in compliance with acts of the legislature]'', Vol. I, pp. 1150-1190. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: B. Singerly, State Printer, 1869.</ref><ref>Snyder, Laurie. "[https://47thpennsylvaniavolunteers.com/about/ About the 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers]," in ''47th Pennsylvania Volunteers: One Civil War Regiment's Story''. Pennsylvania: 2014.</ref><ref>Schmidt, Lewis. ''[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/15166408 A Civil War History of the 47th Regiment of Pennsylvania Veteran Volunteers]''. Allentown, Pennsylvania: L. G. Schmidt, 1986.</ref>

Pennsylvania Dutch companies sometimes mixed with English-speaking companies. (The Pennsylvania Dutch had the habit of labeling anyone who did not speak Pennsylvania Dutch "English.") Many of the Pennsylvania Dutch soldiers who fought in the Civil War were recruited and trained at [[Camp Curtin]], Pennsylvania.<ref name="damndutch" />

Pennsylvania Dutch regiments composed a large portion of the Federal Forces who fought in the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] at [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]], the bloodiest battle of the Civil War.<ref name="johngsabol">{{cite book |title=Gettysburg Unearthed: The Excavation of a Haunted History|author=John G. Sabol Jr.|year=2007|publisher=AuthorHouse|location=United States of America|pages=172}}</ref>

==Decline of the Pennsylvania Dutch==
{{further|German Society of Pennsylvania}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=June 2024}}
[[File:Journey to Pennsylvania 1756.gif|right|thumb|upright=0.6|Pennsylvania Dutch have a long literary tradition.]]
Immediately after the Civil War, the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] took steps to replace Pennsylvania German schools with English-only schools. The Pennsylvania Dutch fought to retain German as an official language in Pennsylvania to little success.<ref name="merrittgeoprgeyorgey">{{cite book |title=A Pennsylvania Dutch Boy And the Truth About the Pennsylvania Dutch|year=2008|author=Merritt George Yorgey|publisher=Xlibris US|location=United States of America|pages=17, 18, 19}}</ref>{{better source|date=November 2024}}

Literary German disappeared from Pennsylvania Dutch life little by little, starting with schools, and then to churches and newspapers. Pennsylvania Dutch became mainly a spoken language, and as education came to only be provided in English, many Pennsylvania Dutch became bilingual.<ref name="merrittgeoprgeyorgey" />{{better source|date=November 2024}}

===Anti-German sentiment and Americanization===
{{further|Anti-German sentiment}}
[[File:Restaurant operator Fred Horak of Somerville, 1939.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.7|An Anti-German sign reading "No German customers wanted here"]]
The next blow to Pennsylvania Dutch came during World War I and World War II. Prior to the wars, Pennsylvania Dutch was an urban language spoken openly in the streets of towns such as Allentown, Reading, Lancaster and York; afterwards, it became relegated only to rural areas.<ref name="merrittgeoprgeyorgey" />{{better source|date=November 2024}}

There was rampant social & employment discrimination for anyone suspected of being German. Meritt G. Yorgey, a Pennsylvania Dutch descendant who grew up during the height of anti-German sentiment, remembers the instructions of his father: "Don't ever call yourself "Dutch" or "Pennsylvania German." You're just American."<ref name="merrittgeoprgeyorgey" />{{better source|date=November 2024}}

Many Pennsylvanians of German heritage have chosen to assimilate into Anglo-American culture, except for a significant number of Amish and Mennonite plain people who have chosen to remain insular, which has added to the modern misconception that "Pennsylvania Dutch" is synonymous with "Amish."<ref name="merrittgeoprgeyorgey" />

===Pennsylvania Dutch during World War I===
[[American Palatines|Palatine Dutch]] of New York in the [[27th Infantry Division (United States)|27th Infantry Division]] broke through the [[Hindenburg Line]] in 1918.<ref name="nelsongreene">{{cite book |title=History of the Mohawk Valley, Gateway to the West, 1614-1925 Covering the Six Counties of Schenectady, Schoharie, Montgomery, Fulton, Herkimer, and Oneida · Volume 1|author=Nelson Greene|year=1925|publisher=S. J. Clarke|location=United States of America|pages=475}}</ref>

===Interwar period===
Before World War II, the Nazi Party sought to gain the loyalty of the German-American community, and established pro-Nazi [[German-American Bund]], emphasizing German-American immigrant ties to the "Fatherland". The Nazi propaganda effort failed in the Pennsylvania Dutch community, as the Pennsylvania Dutch felt no sense of loyalty to Germany.<ref name="irwinrichman">{{cite book |title=The Pennsylvania Dutch Country|author=Irwin Richman|year=2004|publisher=Arcadia|location=United States of America|pages=22}}</ref>

===Pennsylvania Dutch during World War II===
{{One source|section|date=June 2024}} 
[[Image:Dwight D Eisenhower2.jpg|thumb|upright=1|President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] was of Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry.]]
During World War II, a platoon of Pennsylvania Dutch soldiers on patrol in Germany was once spared from being machine-gunned by Nazi soldiers who listened to them approaching. The Germans heard them speaking Pennsylvania Dutch amongst each other and assumed that they were natives of the Palatinate.<ref name="roberthendrickson">{{cite book |title=The Facts on File Dictionary of American Regionalisms|author=Robert Hendrickson|year=2000|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=United States of America|pages=724}}</ref>

==Canadian Pennsylvania Dutch==
[[Image:Conestoga Wagon 1883.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Many Pennsylvania Dutch Mennonites arrived in [[Waterloo County, Ontario]], in [[Conestoga wagon]]s.]]
An early group, mainly from the [[Roxborough, Philadelphia|Roxborough]]-Germantown area of Pennsylvania, emigrated to then colonial Nova Scotia in 1766 and founded the [[Township of Monckton]], site of present-day [[Moncton, New Brunswick]]. The extensive [[Steeves]] clan descends from this group.<ref>Bowser, Les (2016). ''The Settlers of Monckton Township'', Omemee ON: 250th Publications.</ref>

After the American Revolution, [[John Graves Simcoe]], lieutenant governor of Upper Canada, invited Americans, including Mennonites and German Baptist Brethren, to settle in British North American territory and offered tracts of land to immigrant groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/simcoe_john_graves_5E.html|title=Biography – Simcoe, John Graves – Volume V (1801–1820) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography|website=Biographi.ca|access-date=August 28, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wampumkeeper.com/mennonites.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050328004233/http://www.wampumkeeper.com/mennonites.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=March 28, 2005 |title=Ontario's Mennonite Heritage |publisher=Wampumkeeper.com |access-date=May 10, 2013}}</ref> This resulted in communities of Pennsylvania Dutch speakers emigrating to Canada, many to the area called the German Company Tract, a subset of land within the [[Haldimand Tract]], in the Township of Waterloo, which later became [[Waterloo County, Ontario]].<ref name="TransCanadaHighway.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.transcanadahighway.com/ontario/kitchener-waterloo/kitchener-waterloo-history/|title=Kitchener-Waterloo Ontario History – To Confederation|website=TransCanadaHighway.com|access-date=October 26, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Walter Bean Grand River Trail – Waterloo County: The Beginning |url=http://www.walterbeantrail.ca/wloobeginning.htm |website=www.walterbeantrail.ca |access-date=September 30, 2018 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Some still live in the area around [[Markham, Ontario]],<ref name="guidingstar.ca">{{cite web|url=http://www.guidingstar.ca/Markham_Ontario_History.htm|title=History of Markham, Ontario, Canada|website=Guidingstar.ca|access-date=August 28, 2017|archive-date=January 15, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115075638/http://guidingstar.ca/Markham_Ontario_History.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Pz7TRQllwC&q=german+mennonites+toronto+markham+berczy&pg=PA164|title=Toronto's Many Faces|first=Tony|last=Ruprecht|date=December 14, 2010|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=9781459718043|access-date=August 28, 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref> and particularly in the northern areas of the current [[Waterloo Region, Ontario|Waterloo Region]]. Some members of the two communities formed the [[Markham-Waterloo Mennonite Conference]]. Today, the Pennsylvania Dutch language is mostly spoken by [[Old Order Mennonites]].<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.whs.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/1930.pdf |title=History |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1930 |website=Waterloo Historical Society 1930 Annual Meeting |publisher=Waterloo Historical Society |access-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref><ref name="TransCanadaHighway.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mhso.org/sites/default/files/publications/Ontmennohistory15-2.pdf|title=Building Community on the Frontier: the Mennonite contribution to shaping the Waterloo settlement to 1861|author=Elizabeth Bloomfield|website=Mhso.org|access-date=August 28, 2017}}</ref>

From 1800 to the 1830s, some Mennonites in [[Upstate New York]] and Pennsylvania moved north to Canada, primarily to the area that would become [[Cambridge, Ontario|Cambridge]], [[Kitchener, Ontario|Kitchener]]/[[Waterloo, Ontario|Waterloo]] and [[St. Jacobs, Ontario|St. Jacobs]]/[[Elmira, Ontario|Elmira]] in Waterloo County, Ontario, plus the [[Listowel, Ontario|Listowel]] area adjacent to the northwest. Settlement started in 1800 by Joseph Schoerg and Samuel Betzner, Jr. (brothers-in-law), Mennonites, from [[Franklin County, Pennsylvania]]. Other settlers followed mostly from Pennsylvania typically by [[Conestoga wagon]]s. Many of the pioneers arriving from Pennsylvania after November 1803 bought land in a sixty thousand-acre section established by a group of Mennonites from Lancaster County Pennsylvania, called the German Company Lands.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="foundlocally.com">{{cite web|url=http://kitchener.foundlocally.com/Local/Info-CityHistoryToConfederation.htm|title=Kitchener-Waterloo Ontario History – To Confederation|website=Kitchener.foundlocally.com|access-date=August 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525125004/http://kitchener.foundlocally.com/Local/Info-CityHistoryToConfederation.htm|archive-date=May 25, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Fewer of the Pennsylvania Dutch settled in what would later become the [[Greater Toronto Area]] in areas that would later be the towns of [[Altona, Ontario]], [[Pickering, Ontario]], and especially [[Markham Village, Ontario]], and [[Stouffville, Ontario]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gameo.org/index.php?title=York_County_(Ontario,_Canada)|title=York County (Ontario, Canada) |website=Gameo.org|access-date=August 28, 2017}}</ref> [[Peter Reesor]] and brother-in-law [[Abraham Stouffer]] were higher profile settlers in Markham and Stouffville.

[[William Berczy]], a German entrepreneur and artist, had settled in upstate New York and in May 1794, he was able to obtain sixty-four acres in Markham Township, near the current city of [[Toronto]]. Berczy arrived with approximately one hundred and ninety German families from Pennsylvania and settled here. Others later moved to other locations in the general area, including a hamlet they founded, [[German Mills, Ontario]], named for its grist mill; that community is now called [[Thornhill, Ontario]], in the township that is now part of [[York Region]].<ref name="guidingstar.ca"/><ref name="auto1"/>

===Canadian Black Mennonites===
In [[Canada]], an 1851 census shows many Black people and Mennonites lived near each other in a number of places and exchanged labor; the Dutch would also hire Black laborers. There were also accounts of Black families providing childcare assistance for their Pennsylvania Dutch neighbors. These Pennsylvania Dutch were usually Plain Dutch Mennonites or Fancy Dutch Lutherans.<ref name="samueljsteiner">{{cite book |title=In Search of Promised Lands: A Religious History of Mennonites in Ontario|author=Samuel J. Steiner|year=2015|publisher=MennoMedia, Inc.|pages=14}}</ref> The Black-Mennonite relationship in Canada soon evolved to the level of church membership.<ref name="samueljsteiner" />

==Society== 
[[File:George W. Bush meets with Amish and Mennonite residents in Lancaster.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[George W. Bush]] meeting Amish and Mennonites in Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]
[[File:First Black Judge of Pennsylvania Herbert Millen, Pennnsylvania Dutch Speaker.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Herbert Millen, Pennsylvania's first Black Judge spoke fluent [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]; he was born and raised in [[Strasburg, Pennsylvania|Strasburg]], [[Pennsylvania Dutch Country]].]]
{{main|Fancy Dutch|Plain people}}

Pennsylvania Dutch society can be divided into two main groups: the sectarian "Plain Dutch" and the nonsectarian "Church Dutch" also known as "Fancy Dutch".<ref>Lee C. Hopple, "Spatial organization of the southeastern Pennsylvania plain Dutch group culture region to 1975." ''Pennsylvania Folklife'' 29.1 (1979): 13-26.</ref><ref>Rian Larkin, "Plain, Fancy and Fancy-Plain: The Pennsylvania Dutch in the 21st Century." (2018).</ref> These classifications highlight differences in religious practices, lifestyle, and degrees of assimilation into broader American society.

The Plain Dutch consist of Anabaptist sects, including the Amish, Mennonites, and Brethren. They are known for their conservative, simple lifestyle, characterized by plain dress and limited use of modern technology. These communities typically reside in rural areas, maintaining traditional farming practices and close-knit communal living. Pennsylvania Dutch (a dialect of German) is widely spoken among them, both in daily life and religious settings. The Plain Dutch adhere strictly to their religious and community norms, emphasizing a strong cultural and religious identity with minimal integration into mainstream American culture.

The Church Dutch, in contrast, belong to more mainstream Protestant denominations such as Lutheran, Reformed, United Church of Christ, and some Methodist and Baptist congregations. This group is more integrated into broader American society and is more likely to adopt modern conveniences and technologies. While they may still preserve some Pennsylvania Dutch traditions and language, English is predominantly used in daily life and religious practices. The Church Dutch exhibit a higher degree of assimilation into American culture, while still retaining elements of their Pennsylvania Dutch heritage.

The primary differences between these groups lie in their religious practices, lifestyle, language use, and cultural integration. The Plain Dutch are more conservative and focused on maintaining their distinct cultural identity, whereas the Church Dutch are more assimilated and open to modern influences. In time the Fancy Dutch came to control much of the best agricultural lands, ran many newspapers and maintained their German-inspired architecture when founding new towns in Pennsylvania.<ref name="damndutch">{{cite book |title=Damn Dutch: Pennsylvania Germans at Gettysburg|author=David L. Valuska, Christian B. Keller|year=2004|publisher=Stackpole Books|location=United States of America|pages=5,6,9,216}}</ref>

There is little evidence specifically of Black Pennsylvania Dutch speakers during the early 19th century; following the Civil War, some Black Southerners who had moved to Pennsylvania developed close ties with the Pennsylvania Dutch community, adopting the language and assimilating into the culture. An 1892 article in ''[[The New York Sun]]'' noted a community of "Pennsylvania German Negroes" in [[Lebanon County, Pennsylvania|Lebanon County]] for whom German was their first language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mkifriends.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/MKI_Summer-2021_Newsletter.pdf |title=African Americans and the German Language in America |publisher=[[Max Kade Institute]] |accessdate=2023-07-30}}</ref>

Today Pennsylvania Dutch culture is still prevalent in some parts of Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Dutch speak English, with some being bilingual in English and Pennsylvania Dutch. They share cultural similarities with the Mennonites in the same area. Pennsylvania Dutch English retains some German grammar and literally translated vocabulary, some phrases include "outen or out'n the lights" (German: ''{{Lang|de|die Lichter ausmachen}}'') meaning "turn off the lights", "it's gonna make wet" (German: ''{{Lang|de|es wird nass}}'') meaning "it's going to rain", and "it's all" (German: ''{{Lang|de|es ist alle}}'') meaning "it's all gone". They also sometimes leave out the verb in phrases turning "the trash needs to go out" in to "the trash needs out" (German: ''{{Lang|de|der Abfall muss raus}}''), in alignment with German grammar.

===Cuisine===
{{main|Cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch}}
The Pennsylvania Dutch have some foods that are uncommon outside of places where they live. Some of these include [[Shoofly pie|shoo-fly pie]], [[funnel cake]], pepper cabbage, filling and jello salads such as strawberry pretzel salad.

===Religion===
[[File:A young Amish woman from Lancaster County serves fresh-cooked soft pretzels, a time-honored Philadelphia delicacy at the Reading Terminal Market in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania LCCN2011633595.tif|thumb|upright=1|A young [[Amish]] woman from [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]]]]

The Pennsylvania Dutch maintain numerous religious affiliations; the greatest number are [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] or [[Evangelical and Reformed Church|German Reformed]] with a lesser number of [[Anabaptist]]s, including [[Mennonites]], [[Amish]], and [[Schwarzenau Brethren|Brethren]]. The Anabaptist groups espoused a simple lifestyle, and their adherents were known as [[Plain people|Plain Dutch]]; this contrasts with the [[Fancy Dutch]], mostly of the Lutheran, or Evangelical and Reformed churches, who tended to assimilate more easily into the American mainstream. By the late 1700s, other denominations were also represented in smaller numbers.<ref>{{cite web |author=Donald F. Durnbaugh |title=Pennsylvania's Crazy Quilt of German Religious Groups |url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/download/25670/25439 |access-date=August 28, 2017 |website=Journals.psu.edu}}</ref>

Among immigrants from the 1600s and 1700s, those known as the Pennsylvania Dutch included Mennonites, Swiss Brethren (also called Mennonites by the locals) and Amish but also Anabaptist-Pietists such as [[Schwarzenau Brethren|German Baptist Brethren]] and those who belonged to German [[Evangelical Church in Germany|Lutheran]] or [[Reformed Church in the United States|German Reformed Church]] congregations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://padutch.net/what-is-pd/|title=What is Pennsylvania Dutch?|date=May 24, 2014|website=Padutch.net|access-date=August 28, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anabaptists.org/history/german-migration-to-north-america.html|title=The Germans Come to North America|website=Anabaptists.org|access-date=August 28, 2017}}</ref> Other settlers of that era were of the Moravian Church while a few were [[Seventh Day Baptists]].<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibSjAQAAQBAJ&q=Pennsylvania+Dutch+Lutherans&pg=PT36|title=Making Authentic Pennsylvania Dutch Furniture: With Measured Drawings|first=John G.|last=Shea|date=December 27, 2012|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=9780486157627|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pennsylvaniadut00gibbgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/pennsylvaniadut00gibbgoog/page/n175 171]|quote=Seventh Day Baptists pennsylvania dutch.|title="Pennsylvania Dutch": And Other Essays|first=Phebe Earle|last=Gibbons|date=August 28, 1882|publisher=J.B. Lippincott & Company|access-date=August 28, 2017|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Calvinist Palatines and several other denominations were also represented to a lesser extent.<ref name="auto3">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lAXPBAAAQBAJ&q=calvinist&pg=PA130|title=Moravian Architecture and Town Planning: Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Other Eighteenth-Century American Settlements|first=William J.|last=Murtagh|date=August 28, 1967|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0812216377|access-date=August 28, 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/download/25670/25439|format=PDF|title=Pennsylvania's Crazy Quilt of German Religious Groups|author=Donald F. Durnbaugh|website=Journals.psu.edu|access-date=August 28, 2017}}</ref>

Over sixty percent of the immigrants who arrived in Pennsylvania from Germany or Switzerland in the 1700s and 1800s were Lutherans and they maintained good relations with those of the German Reformed Church.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lAXPBAAAQBAJ&q=moravians+pennsylvania+dutch&pg=PA130|title=Moravian Architecture and Town Planning: Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Other Eighteenth-Century American Settlements|first=William J.|last=Murtagh|date=August 28, 1967|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0812216377|access-date=August 28, 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref> The two groups founded Franklin College (now [[Franklin & Marshall College]]) in 1787.

According to Elizabeth Pardoe, by 1748, the future of the German culture in Pennsylvania was in doubt, and most of the attention focused on German language schools. Lutheran schools in Germantown and Philadelphia thrived, but most outlying congregations had difficulty recruiting students. Furthermore Lutherans were challenged by Moravians who actively recruited Lutherans to their schools. In the 1750s, Benjamin Franklin led a drive for free charity schools for German students, with the proviso that the schools would minimize Germanness. The leading Lutheran school in Philadelphia school had internal political problems in the 1760s, but Pastor [[Henry Melchior Muhlenberg]] resolved them. The arrival of [[John Christopher Kunze]] from Germany in 1770 gave impetus to the Halle model in America. Kunze began training clergy and teachers in the Halle system. Reverend Heinrich Christian Helmuth arrived in 1779 and called for preaching only in German, while seeking government subsidies. A major issue was the long-term fate of German culture in Pennsylvania, with most solutions focused on schools. Helmuth saw schools as central to the future of the ethnic community. However  most Lutheran clergy believed in assimilation and rejected Helmuth's call to drop English instruction. Kunze's seminary failed, but the first German college in the United States was founded in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787 as Franklin College; it was later renamed [[Franklin and Marshall College]].<ref>Elizabeth Lewis Pardoe,  "Poor children and enlightened citizens: Lutheran education in America, 1748-1800." ''Pennsylvania History'' 68.2 (2001): 162-201. [https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/download/25677/25446 online]</ref><ref>Leonard R. Riforgiato, ''Missionary of moderation: Henry Melchior Muhlenberg and the Lutheran Church in America'' (1980)</ref><ref>Samuel R. Zeiser, "Moravians and Lutherans: Getting beyond the Zinzendorf-Muhlenberg Impasse", ''Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society'', 1994, Vol. 28, pp. 15–29</ref> The Moravians settled Bethlehem and nearby areas and established schools for Native Americans.<ref name="auto3"/>

In Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Dutch Christians and Pennsylvania Dutch [[History of the Jews in Germany|Jews]] have often maintained a special relationship due to their common German language and cultural heritage. Because both [[Yiddish]] and the Pennsylvania Dutch language are [[High German]] languages, there are strong similarities between the two languages and a limited degree of [[mutual intelligibility]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.yiddishbookcenter.org/collections/oral-histories/excerpts/woh-ex-0001571/yiddish-and-pennsylvania-dutch |title=Yiddish and Pennsylvania Dutch |publisher=[[Yiddish Book Center]] |access-date=2022-06-05}}</ref> Historically, Pennsylvania Dutch Christians and Pennsylvania Dutch Jews often had overlapping bonds in German-American business and community life. Due to this historical bond there are several mixed-faith cemeteries in [[Lehigh County, Pennsylvania|Lehigh County]], including Allentown's Fairview Cemetery, where German-Americans of both the Jewish and Protestant faiths are buried.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mcall.com/news/mc-xpm-1987-05-01-2578726-story.html |title=German Jews' Ties With Pa. Dutch Explored in Talk |date=May 1987 |publisher=[[The Morning Call]] |access-date=2022-06-05}}</ref>

===Language===
{{Main|Pennsylvania Dutch language}}
[[File:Deitsch 2015-01.jpg|thumb|Pennsylvania Dutch arts history in [[Pennsylvania Dutch language]]]]
Although speakers of Pennsylvania Dutch can be found among both sectarians and nonsectarians, most speakers belong to the [[Old Order Amish]] and [[Old Order Mennonite]]s. Nearly all Amish and Mennonites are naturally [[Multilingualism|bilingual]], speaking both Pennsylvania Dutch and English natively.<ref name="Louden"/> The Pennsylvania Dutch language is based on [[High German|German dialects]] which have been significantly influenced by English, primarily in terms of vocabulary. Based on dialect features, Pennsylvania Dutch can be classified as a variety of [[Rhine Franconian dialects|Rhine Franconian]], with the [[Palatine German dialects]] being most closely related.<ref name=mtp/><ref name=js/> The language is both commonly referred to as ''Pennsylvania Dutch'' and ''Pennsylvania German'', with the latter being more common in scholarly publications.<ref name="Louden"/>

The primary use of Pennsylvania Dutch, both historically and today, has focussed on spoken communication. Although there is a relatively large collection of written texts in the language dating back to the mid-nineteenth century (such as newspaper columns, short stories, poems, plays, and dialogues) their production and reception have been limited to a minority of speakers. The significance of English among today's sectarians extends far beyond its use for communication with outsiders for business and other purposes as English is the primary language for active literacy. While Amish and Mennonite sectarians can read the Bible, prayer books, and hymnals in German, most other reading materials are in English.<ref name="Louden"/> Research has show that nonsectarian speakers of Pennsylvania Dutch have a more pronounced Pennsylvania Dutch accent when speaking English compared to sectarian speakers such as the Old Order Amish or Old Order Mennonites.<ref>Glenn G. Gilbert: Studies in Contact Linguistics: Essays in Honor of Glenn G. Gilbert, Austria, P. Lang, 2006, pp. 130.</ref>

In the 20th century, the linguists Albert F. Buffington and Preston A. Barba developed a system for writing Pennsylvania Dutch that was largely based on contemporary German orthography, however this is not in common use. No prescribed norms for writing Pennsylvania Dutch exist and in practice most speakers orientate themselves on both German and English spelling systems.<ref name="Louden"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Poem by [[John Birmelin]] (1873-1950) on how to spell Pennsylvania German:<ref name="Louden"/>
|-
! Pennsylvania German  !! Standard German !! English
|-
| Saagt mer mol, wie soll mer schpelle. || Sag mir mal, wie sollen wir buchstabieren?  || So tell me, how should you spell?
|-
| Sel macht immer bissel Schtreit; || Das macht immer ein bisschen Streit; || That always makes a bit of an argument.
|-
| was ner nau net hawwe welle, || was wir nun nicht haben wollen, || What you don't want to deal with,
|-
| schiebt mer graad mol uf die Seit. || schieben wir gerade mal auf die Seite. || you just push off to the side.
|-
|  Saagt, wie soll mer buchschtawiere, || Sag mir mal, wie sollen wir buchstabieren, || Tell me, how should you orthographize,
|-
| in de scheene deitsche Schproch! || in der schönen deutschen Sprache! || in beautiful Pennsylvania Dutch language!
|-
| Brauch mer noh ke Zeit verliere, || Brauchen wir nur keine Zeit zu verlieren, || No point in wasting any time,
|-
| macht mer's ewwe yuscht so nooch. || machen wir es eben just so nach. || you just follow whatever model you please.
|}

Due to [[anti-German sentiment]] between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], the use of the Pennsylvania Dutch language declined, except among the more insular and tradition-bound [[Plain people]], such as the Old Order Amish and [[Old Order Mennonite]]s. Many German cultural practices continue in Pennsylvania in the present-day, and [[Germans|German]] remains the largest ancestry claimed by Pennsylvanians, according to the 2008 census.<ref>{{cite web |author=American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-context=adp&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3308&-redoLog=false&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US42&-format=&-_lang=en |title=American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |access-date=July 31, 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200211181836/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-context=adp&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3308&-redoLog=false&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US42&-format=&-_lang=en |archive-date=February 11, 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="merrittgeoprgeyorgey" />

==Notable people==
{{div col}}
* [[Jacob Albright]] (1759–1808), founder of the [[Evangelical Association]]
* [[Anne F. Beiler]] (1949–present), founder of [[Auntie Anne's Pretzels]]
* [[John Birmelin]] (1873–1950), poet, playwright
* [[Solomon DeLong]] (1849–1925), writer, journalist
* [[George Ege]] (1748–1829), Representative for Pennsylvania
* [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1890–1969), 34th [[President of the United States]]
* [[H. L. Fischer]] (1822–1909), writer, translator
* [[Heinrich Funck]] ({{circa|1697}} – 1730), miller, author, Mennonite bishop
* [[John Fries]] (1750–1818), auctioneer, organizer of [[Fries's Rebellion]]
* [[Betty Groff]] (1935–2015), celebrity chef, cookbook author
* [[Michael Hillegas]] (1729–1804), first Treasurer of the United States
* [[Hedda Hopper]] (1885–1966), actress, gossip columnist
* [[Ralph Kiner]]  (1922–2014), Hall of Fame baseball player and Pittsburgh Pirates and New York Mets legend.
* [[William Kohl]] (1820–1892), sea captain, shipowner, shipbuilder, businessman
* [[James H. Maurer]] (1864–1944), Labor leader, three-term Pennsylvania House of Representatives member, and two-time Vice Presidential nominee
* [[Stephen Miller (Minnesota governor)|Stephen Miller]] (1816–1881), 4th Governor of Minnesota
* [[Bodo Otto]] (1711–1787), physician in the Continental Army
* [[Harry Hess Reichard]] (1878–1956), writer, scholar
* [[Joseph Ritner]] (1780–1869), 8th Governor of Pennsylvania
* [[Victor Schertzinger]] (1888–1941), composer, film director, producer, screenwriter
* [[Evelyn Ay Sempier]] (1933–2008), [[Miss America]] 1954
* [[Francis R. Shunk]] (1788–1848), 10th Governor of Pennsylvania
* [[Simon Snyder]] (1759–1813), 3rd Governor of Pennsylvania
* [[Clement Studebaker]] (1831–1901), co-founder of [[Studebaker Corporation]]
* [[Clement Studebaker Jr.]] (1871–1932), businessman, son of Clement Studebaker Sr.
* [[John Studebaker]] (1833–1917), co-founder of [[Studebaker Corporation]]
* [[Conrad Weiser]] (1696–1760),  colonial diplomat between Pennsylvania and Native American nations.
* [[Richard M. Weaver]] (1910-1963), scholar and English professor{{div col end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|United States|Germany|Philadelphia}}
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
*[[List of Amish and their descendants]]
* [[German American]]
* [[Preston Barba]], historian and linguist
* [[Helen Reimensnyder Martin]], author
* [[Anna Balmer Myers]], author
* [[Michael Werner (publisher)]]
* [[John Schmid]], singer
* [[Fraktur (Pennsylvania German folk art)]]
* [[Hex sign]]
* ''[[Hiwwe wie Driwwe]]'' newspaper
* [[Kurrent]] handwriting
* [[Schwenkfelder Church|Schwenkfeldian (church)]]
* [[Old German Baptist Brethren]] (church)
* [[Pow-wow (folk magic)|Pow-wow]]
* [[Weaver family (North Carolina)]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Bronner, Simon J.  and Joshua R. Brown, eds. ''Pennsylvania Germans: An Interpretive Encyclopedia'' (Johns Hopkins UP, 2017), xviii, 554 pp.
* Donner, William W. " 'Neither Germans nor Englishmen, but Americans': Education, Assimilation, and Ethnicity among Nineteenth Century Pennsylvania Germans," ''Pennsylvania History''  75.2 (2008): 197-226. [https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/download/59550/59274 online]
* {{cite book|author=Eelking, Max von|title=The German Allied Troops in the North American War of Independence, 1776–1783|url=https://archive.org/details/germanalliedtro01rosegoog|others=Translated from German by [[Joseph George Rosengarten|J. G. Rosengarten]]|year=1893|publisher=Joel Munsell's Sons, Albany, NY.|lccn=72081186|ref={{sfnref|Eelking|1893}} }}
* Grubb, Farley. "German Immigration to Pennsylvania, 1709 to 1820", ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' Vol. 20, No. 3 (Winter, 1990), pp.&nbsp;417–436 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/204085 in JSTOR]
* Larkin, Rian. "Plain, Fancy and Fancy-Plain: The Pennsylvania Dutch in the 21st Century." (2018). [https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/15992/Masters%20Project%202017_Rian%20Larkin.pdf online]
* Louden, Mark L. ''Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language''. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016.
* McMurry, Sally, and Nancy Van Dolsen, eds. ''Architecture and Landscape of the Pennsylvania Germans, 1720–1920'' (University of Pennsylvania Press; 2011) 250 studies their houses, churches, barns, outbuildings, commercial buildings, and landscapes
* Nolt, Steven, ''Foreigners in Their Own Land: Pennsylvania Germans in the Early American Republic'', Penn State U. Press, 2002 {{ISBN|0-271-02199-3}}
* Pochmann, Henry A. ''German Culture in America: Philosophical and Literary Influences 1600–1900'' (1957). 890pp; comprehensive review of German influence on Americans esp 19th century. [https://archive.org/details/germancultureina00poch online]
* Pochmann, Henry A. and  Arthur R. Schult. '' Bibliography of German Culture in America to 1940'' (2nd ed 1982); massive listing, but no annotations. 
* Roeber, A. G. ''Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America'' (1998)
* Roeber, A. G. "In German Ways? Problems and Potentials of Eighteenth-Century German Social and Emigration History", ''William & Mary Quarterly'', Oct 1987, Vol. 44 Issue 4, pp 750–774 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1939743 in JSTOR]
* {{cite book |last1=Von Feilitzsch |first1=Heinrich Carl Philipp |last2=Bartholomai |first2=Christian Friedrich |title=Diaries of Two Ansbach Jaegers |translator-last=Burgoyne |translator-first=Bruce E. |publisher=Heritage Books |year=1997 |location=Bowie, Maryland |isbn=0-7884-0655-8 |ref={{sfnref|Burgoyne|1997}} }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=pdc}}
{{NIE Poster}}
* {{commons category-inline}}
* [http://www.pgs.org The Pennsylvania German Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150117063334/http://www.padutchcountry.com/index.asp Lancaster County tourism website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20000817182024/http://www.horseshoe.cc/pennadutch/culture/ Overview of Pennsylvania German Culture]
* [https://gahmusa.org/ German-American Heritage Museum of the USA in Washington, DC]
* [[:pdc:G. Mays, 'Why the Pennsylvania German still prevails ...', 1904|"Why the Pennsylvania German still prevails in the eastern section of the State", by George Mays, M.D.. Reading, Pa., Printed by Daniel Miller, 1904]]
* [http://www.schwenkfelder.com The Schwenkfelder Library & Heritage Center]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100813211321/http://midatlantic.rootsweb.ancestry.com/familyhart/ FamilyHart Pennsylvania Dutch Genealogy Family Pages and Database]
* [http://firestone1753.weebly.com/ Alsatian Roots of Pennsylvania Dutch Firestones]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100619023529/http://midatlantic.rootsweb.ancestry.com/padutch/ Pennsylvania Dutch Family History, Genealogy, Culture, and Life]
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/search/field/subjec/searchterm/Pennsylvania%20Dutch/mode/exact Several digitized books on Pennsylvania Dutch arts and crafts, design, and prints] from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries

; In Pennsylvania German
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080826115013/http://deitscherei.org/ Deitscherei.org—Fer der Deitsch Wandel]
* [http://www.hiwwe-wie-driwwe.de ''Hiwwe wie Driwwe''—''The Pennsylvania German Newspaper'']

{{German Creoles}}
{{European Americans}}
{{GermanDiaspora}}
{{Amish}}

[[Category:German-American culture in Pennsylvania| ]]
[[Category:German diaspora in the United States| ]]
[[Category:German-Canadian culture in Ontario]]
[[Category:Amish in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Culture of Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Culture of Ontario]]
[[Category:German diaspora in North America]]
[[Category:German-Jewish culture in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Indiana culture]]
[[Category:Maryland culture]]
[[Category:Mennonitism in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:North Carolina culture]]
[[Category:Ohio culture]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania Dutch culture]]
[[Category:Virginia culture]]
[[Category:West Virginia culture]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania culture]]