Editing Penal colony

{{Short description|Remote settlement housing convicts}}
{{for|the band|Penal Colony (band)}}
{{distinguish|Corrective labor colony}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
[[File:Mernagh monument.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Inscribed stone honouring Irish prisoner John Mernagh]]

A '''penal colony''' or '''exile colony''' is a [[Human settlement|settlement]] used to exile prisoners and separate them from the general population by placing them in a remote location, often an island or distant [[colony|colonial territory]]. Although the term can be used to refer to a [[correctional facility]] located in a remote location, it is more commonly used to refer to communities of prisoners overseen by wardens or governors having absolute authority.

Historically, penal colonies have often been used for [[penal labour]] in an economically underdeveloped part of a state's (usually colonial) territories, and on a far larger scale than a [[prison farm]].

==British Empire==
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Andamans QE3 116.jpg|thumb|right|Penal colony in the [[Andaman Islands]], [[British Raj]] ({{circa|1890s}})]]

With the passage of the ''[[Transportation Act 1717]]'', the British government initiated the [[penal transportation]] of [[Indentured servitude|indentured servants]] to [[British America|Britain's colonies in the Americas]], although none of the North American colonies were solely penal colonies. British merchants would be in charge of transporting the convicts across the Atlantic to the colonies where they would be auctioned off to planters. Many of the indentured servants were sentenced to seven-year terms, which gave rise to the colloquial term "His Majesty's Seven-Year Passengers".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XB5EdIEOKesC&pg=PA90 Bound with an Iron Chain – The Untold Story of how the British Transported 50,000 Convicts to Colonial America]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hul1AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21 Preliminaries of the Revolution, 1763–1775], [[George Elliott Howard]]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=uUk_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA207 ''The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science'']</ref><ref>[[Lerone Bennett Jr.]], ''The Shaping of Black America'', p. 48</ref> It is estimated that between 1718 and 1776 about 30,000 convicts were transported to at least nine of the continental colonies, whereas between 1700 and 1775 about 250,000 to 300,000 white immigrants came to mainland North America as a whole. More than two-thirds of these felons were transported to [[Chesapeake Colonies|the Chesapeake]] to work for [[American gentry|Southern landowners]]; in Maryland, during the thirty years before 1776, convicts composed more than one-quarter of all immigrants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |date=1985 |title=The Organization of the Convict Trade to Maryland: Stevenson, Randolph and Cheston, 1768-1775 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1920428 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=201–227 |doi=10.2307/1920428 |jstor=1920428 |issn=0043-5597}}</ref> However, it is commonly maintained that the vast majority of felons taken to America were [[political prisoner|political criminals]], not those guilty of social crimes such as theft; for example, it was noted of Virginia that "the crimes of which they were convicted were chiefly political, and the number transported for social crimes was never considerable."<ref>{{citation|author=Butler, James Davie|title=British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies |publisher=Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History|work=American Historical Review 2|page=13|date=October 1896|url=}} <br><span style="color:#0000FF">"Writing of the early Virginians, he [Bancroft] said: 'Some of them were even convicts; but it must be remembered the crimes of which they were convicted were chiefly political. The number transported to Virginia for social crimes was never considerable.' Most other writers have held that, among transports shipped to America, political offenders formed a large majority."</span></ref> The [[Province of Georgia|colony of Georgia]], by contrast, was planned by [[James Oglethorpe]] specifically to take in [[debtors' prison|debtors]] and other social criminals. Oglethorpe referred to them as "the worthy poor" in a philanthropic effort to create a rehabilitative colony where prisoners could earn a second chance at life, learning trades and working off their debts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/fofr/learn/historyculture/james-edward-oglethorpe.htm |title=James Edward Oglethorpe |publisher=United States National Park Service}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://oglethorpe.edu/about/history-traditions/james-edward-oglethorpe/ |title=James Edward Oglethorpe |publisher=Oglethorpe}}</ref> The success of Oglethorpe's vision is debated.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/colonial-settlement-1600-1763/georgia-colony-1732-1750/ |title=Establishing the Georgia Colony, 1732–1750 |publisher=United States Library of Congress}}</ref>

When routes to the Americas closed after the outbreak of [[American Revolutionary War]] in 1776, British prisons started to become [[Prison overcrowding|overcrowded]].{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} Since immediate stopgap measures proved themselves ineffective, in 1785 Britain decided to use parts of what is now known as Australia as [[Convicts in Australia|''de jure'' penal settlements]], becoming the first colonies in the British Empire founded solely to house convicts. Leaving Portsmouth, England on 13 May 1787, the [[First Fleet]] transported the first ~800 convicts and ~250 marines to Botany Bay.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 [[Penal transportation|convicts were transported]] from [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] to various [[list of Australian penal colonies|penal colonies in Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/convicts-and-the-british-colonies|title=Convicts and the British colonies in Australia|publisher=[[Government of Australia]]|access-date=8 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101181100/http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/convicts-and-the-british-colonies|archive-date=1 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Australian penal colonies in late 18th century included [[Norfolk Island]] and [[Colony of New South Wales|New South Wales]], and in early 19th century also [[Van Diemen's Land]] ([[Tasmania]]) and [[Moreton Bay Penal Settlement|Moreton Bay]] (Queensland).{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Among the 162,000 convicts sent to Colonial Australia were 3,600 political prisoners. This included a range of dissenters, including [[Tolpuddle Martyrs|the Tolpuddle Martyrs]], [[Luddite]]s, and members of Irish nationalist groups such as [[Society of United Irishmen|the Society of United Irishmen]] and [[Young Ireland]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/world/513140/the-forgotten-political-history-of-australia-s-convicts|title=The forgotten political history of Australia's convicts|publisher=[[Radio New Zealand]]|date=1 April 2024|accessdate=24 January 2025}}</ref>

Without the allocation of the available convict labour to farmers, to [[Squatting (pastoral)|pastoral squatters]], and to government projects such as roadbuilding, colonisation of Australia may not have been possible,{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} especially considering the considerable drain on non-convict labor caused by several [[Australian gold rushes|gold rushes]] that took place in the second half of the 19th century after the flow of convicts had dwindled and (in 1868) ceased. A proposal to make the [[Cape Colony]] a penal colony was deeply unpopular with local residents, sparking the [[Convict crisis]] of 1849.

[[Bermuda]], off the North American continent, was also used during the Victorian period. Convicts housed in [[Hulk (ship type)|hulks]] were used to build the [[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda|Royal Naval Dockyard]] there, and during the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902), Boer prisoners-of-war were sent to the archipelago and imprisoned on one of the smaller islands.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

In [[British Raj|British India]], the colonial government established various penal colonies. Two of the largest ones were on the [[Andaman Islands]] and [[Hijli]]. In the early days of settlement, [[Singapore Island]] was the recipient of Indian convicts, who were tasked with clearing the jungles for settlement and early public works.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

==France==
{{anchor|France}}France sent criminals to tropical penal colonies including [[Louisiana]] in the early 18th century.<ref>Taylor, Alan. ''American Colonies''. Penguin: London (2001).</ref> [[Devil's Island]] in French Guiana, received some 80,000 forgers and other criminals between 1852 and 1939. At its worst the mortality rate was 75%, earning it the nicknamed the '[[Dry Guillotine]]'. [[New Caledonia]] and its [[Isle of Pines (New Caledonia)|Isle of Pines]] in [[Melanesia]] (in the [[Pacific Ocean|South Sea]]) received transported dissidents like the [[Communards]], [[Algerians of the Pacific|Kabyles rebels]] and convicted criminals between the 1860s and 1897.

==Americas==
{{Location map+|South America|float=right|width=250|caption=Selection of former penal colonies in South America|places=
<!-- North-East--> 
{{Location map~|South America|lat=5.293611 |long=-52.583056 |label=[[Devil's Island|Île du Diable]]|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=2.9675 |long=-78.1803 |label=[[Gorgona Island (Colombia)|Gorgona Island]]|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-0.83 |long=-89.43 |label=[[San Cristóbal Island]]|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg| outside=1<!--prevents flagging for being off the map-->}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-3.853808 |long=-32.423786 |label=[[Fernando de Noronha]]|position=left|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-10.807222 |long=-73.295278 |label=[[El Sepa]]|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-22.816667 |long=-57.783333 |label=[[Tevego]]|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-39.85 |long=-73.43 |label=[[Valdivian Fort System|Valdivia]]|position=left
|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-51.532606 |long=-58.131669 |label=[[Port Louis, Falkland Islands|Puerto Luis]]|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-53.63 |long=-70.92 |label=[[Fuerte Bulnes]]|position=left|mark=Green pog.svg}}
{{Location map~|South America|lat=-54.801944 |long=-68.303056 |label=[[Ushuaia]]|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg}}
}}
* Brazil had a prison on the island of [[Fernando de Noronha]] from 1938 to 1945.
* [[Gorgona Island (Colombia)|Gorgona Island]] in Colombia housed a state high-security prison from the 1950s. Convicts were dissuaded from escaping by the venomous snakes in the interior of the island and by the sharks patrolling the 30&nbsp;km to the mainland. The penal colony closed in 1984 and the last prisoners were transferred to the mainland. {{As of|2015}} most of the former jail buildings are covered by dense vegetation, but some remain visible.
* [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] in Cuba is used by the United States as a penal colony.<ref>[https://www.thenation.com/article/world/guantanamo-bay-detention-visit/ ''Journey to Guantánamo: A Week in America's Notorious Penal Colony: A journalist heads to the US naval base and detention center, seeking out truths we're not meant to see.''] Moustafa Bayoumi. ''The Nation''. New York. 25 July 25/1 August 2022. Accessed 11 November 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221111194220/https://www.thenation.com/article/world/guantanamo-bay-detention-visit/ Archived.]</ref><ref>[https://truthout.org/articles/the-imperialist-and-racist-origins-of-the-guantnamo-penal-colony/ ''The Imperialist and Racist Origins of the Guantánamo Penal Colony.''] Adam Hudson. ''Truthout''. Sacramento, California. 12 June 2013. Accessed 11 November 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221111194208/https://truthout.org/articles/the-imperialist-and-racist-origins-of-the-guantnamo-penal-colony/ Archived.]</ref><ref>[https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-2002-02-13-0202120790-story.html ''Guantanamo Could be Terrorist Penal Colony.''] John Mintz. ''The Washington Post''. Washington, DC. Reprinted by ''South Florida Sun-Sentinel''. Fort Lauderdale, Florida. 13 February 2002. Accessed 11 November 2022.  [https://web.archive.org/web/20221111194236/https://www.sun-sentinel.com/ Archived.]</ref><ref>[https://captimes.com/news/opinion/column/john-laforge-over-150-still-suffer-at-guantanamo-our-penal-colony/article_6aeb836b-34d6-5d5e-9969-31ff46f8f3fe.html ''John LaForge: Over 150 still suffer at Guantanamo, our penal colony.''] John Laforge. ''Captimes''. Wisconsin State Journal. Madison, Wisconsin. 26 Dec 2013. Accessed 11 November 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221111194259/https://captimes.com/news/opinion/column/john-laforge-over-150-still-suffer-at-guantanamo-our-penal-colony/article_6aeb836b-34d6-5d5e-9969-31ff46f8f3fe.html Archived.]</ref>
* Mexico uses the island of [[Isla María Madre]] (in the [[Islas Marías|Marías Islands]]) as a [[Islas Marías Federal Prison|penal colony]]. With a small population (fewer than 1,200), the colony is governed by a state official who is both the governor of the islands and chief judge. The military command is independent of the government and is exercised by an officer of the Mexican Navy. The other islands are uninhabited. Mexico announced on 18 February 2019 that it will close the Islas Marías Federal Prison, replacing it with a new cultural center.<ref>''San Francisco Chronicle'', 19 February 2019, p. A-2</ref>
* During the 19th century Chile used [[Fuerte Bulnes]] and [[Punta Arenas]] on the [[Strait of Magellan]] as a penal colony (1844–1852).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-598975.html|title=Colonización de Magallanes (1843–1943)|access-date=2020-04-05|website=[[Memoria Chilena]]|publisher=[[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Martinic |first1=Mateo |author-link=Mateo Martinic |date=1977 |title=Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes |language=es |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html |location=Santiago |publisher=Andrés Bello |pages=140 }}</ref>
* Ecuador has used two islands in the [[Galápagos]] archipelago as penal colonies: the Island of [[San Cristóbal Island|San Cristóbal]] (1869–1904) and [[Isabela Island (Galápagos)|Isabela Island]] (1945–1959).
* Paraguay's first ruler and supreme dictator [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]] opened the penal colony of [[Tevego]] in 1813, where mostly petty criminals were sent. It was abandoned in 1823, but re-established in 1843 as San Salvador. It was evacuated towards the end of the [[Paraguayan War]] of 1864–1870; soon afterwards [[Empire of Brazil|Brazilian]] troops destroyed it.
*Argentina had a penal colony in [[Ushuaia]], [[Tierra del Fuego]], in the [[Patagonia]] region. It was active between 1902 and 1947.
*Once Spanish presence in [[Valdivia]] was [[Dutch expedition to Valdivia#Spanish response|reestablished in 1645]] authorities had convicts from all-over the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] construct the [[Valdivian Fort System]].<ref name=museoniebla>{{Cite web|url=https://www.museodeniebla.gob.cl/643/w3-propertyvalue-42964.html?_noredirect=1|title=Historia|access-date=2020-04-07|website=Museo de Sitio Castillo de Niebla|publisher=Servicio Nacional del Patrimonio Cultural|language=es|archive-date=4 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804005645/https://www.museodeniebla.gob.cl/643/w3-propertyvalue-42964.html?_noredirect=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> The convicts, many of whom were [[Afro-Peruvian]]s, became later soldier-settlers.<ref name=museoniebla/> Close contacts with indigenous [[Mapuche]] meant many soldiers spoke Spanish and had some command of [[Mapuche language|Mapudungun]].<ref name=Urbina2017>{{Cite journal |last1=Urbina C. |first1=María Ximena|author-link=Ximena Urbina |date=2017 |title=La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares |trans-title=John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumours, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares |url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-22442017000200011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es |journal=[[Magallania]] |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=11–36 |doi=10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Elsewhere==
* Following Alexander the Great's conquest of modern day Afghanistan and Pakistan, the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] was used as a penal colony.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chrysopoulos |first1=Philip |title=Bactria: The Ancient Greek State in Afghanistan |url=https://greekreporter.com/2021/08/16/bactria-the-ancient-greek-state-in-afghanistan-video/ |website=Greek Reporter |date=16 August 2021 |access-date=12 April 2022}}</ref> Today, 18% of the population of [[Peshawar]] has Greek genetic markers.<ref>{{cite web |editor=Dr Gul Rahim Khan |title=Greek genes and the numismatic expert from Peshawar |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1427866 |website=Dawn |date=19 August 2018 |access-date=12 April 2022}}</ref>
* The [[Government of Meiji Japan|Meiji Government]] of Japan used [[Abashiri Prison]] in [[Abashiri]], [[Hokkaido]] as a penal colony in 1890. The prison later turned into an ordinary jail in 1894.
* The [[Qing Empire]] of 1636–1912 used general-ruled provinces [[Jilin]] ([[Ningguta]]) in north-east China and [[Xinjiang]] in north-west China as penal colonies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Joanna Waley |title=Exile in Mid-Qing China: Banishment to Xinjiang, 1758–1820 |year= 1991 |publisher=Yale Historical Publications |doi=10.2307/j.ctt2250vjs |jstor=j.ctt2250vjs |isbn=978-0300048278 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2250vjs}}</ref>
* Imperial Russia used [[Siberia]] and [[Russian Far East]] for penal colonies ([[katorga]]) for criminals and dissidents. Though geographically contiguous with heartland Russia, Siberia provided both remoteness and a harsh climate. In 1857 a penal colony was established on the island of [[Sakhalin]]. The Soviet [[Gulag]] system and its tsarist predecessor, the [[katorga]] system, provided penal labor to develop forestry, logging, and mining industries, construction enterprises, as well as highways and [[railroad]]s across Siberia and in other areas. In the modern Russian Federation, [[corrective labor colonies]] are a common type of prison.
* The [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] under the rule of King [[Kamehameha III]] (reigned 1825–1854) replaced the death penalty with exile, and [[Kahoolawe]] became a men's penal colony sometime around 1830, while Kaena Point on [[Lanai]] served as the female penal colony. The law making the island a penal colony was repealed in 1853.
* [[Boven Digoel Regency|Boven Digoel]] in [[South Papua|Papua]] was once used by [[Dutch East Indies]] authorities as penal colony for revolutionaries.
* [[Buru|Buru Island]] in [[Indonesia]] was used as a penal colony during the [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]] era to hold political prisoners.
* [[Apartheid]] South Africa used [[Robben Island]] as a penal colony for anti-apartheid activists.
* The Netherlands had a penal colony from the late 19th century. The Department of Justice took over the town of [[Veenhuizen (Noordenveld)|Veenhuizen]] (originally set up by a private company to "re-educate" vagrants from the large cities in the west like [[Amsterdam]]) to turn it into a collection of prison buildings. The town stands in the least populated province of [[Drenthe]] in the north of the country, isolated in the middle of a vast area of peat and marshland.
* Some sources refer to [[Nazi Germany|Nazi-era]] forced-labor camps (''[[Arbeitslager]]'') in [[German-occupied Europe]] as penal colonies.<ref>
For example:
{{cite book |last1=Feig |first1=Konnilyn G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNqEAAAAIAAJ |title=Hitler's Death Camps: The Sanity of Madness |publisher=Holmes & Meier Publishers |year=1981 |isbn=978-0841906761 |edition=reissue |publication-date=1981 |page=296 |quote=[...] a forced-labor camp [...] named Arbeitslager [[Treblinka I]] [...] an order exists, dated 15 November 1941, establishing that penal colony. |access-date=2015-06-29}}
</ref>
* North Korea operates a [[Law enforcement in North Korea|penal system]] including prison labor camps and re-education camps.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Jager
| first1                = Sheila Miyoshi
| author-link1= Sheila Miyoshi Jager
| title                 = Brothers at War: The Unending Conflict in Korea
| year =  2013
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=IOBiCA5SZhQC 
| publisher             = Profile Books
| page                  = 458
| isbn                  = 978-1847652027
| access-date            = 2015-06-29
| quote                 = Prison labor camps, or ''kwalliso'', were first established in North Korea after liberation from Japan to imprison enemies of the revolution, landowners, collaborators, and religious leaders. After the war, these places housed un-repatriated South Korean prisoners of war. [...] There are six such camps in existence today, according to a May 2011 Amnesty International report, 'huge areas of land and located in vast wilderness sites in South Pyong'an, South Hamyong and North Hamyong Provinces.' ... Perhaps the most notorious penal colony is ''kwalliso'' no. 15. or Yodok [...].
}}
</ref>
* [[Tarrafal camp|Tarrafal]] operated as a Portuguese penal colony in the [[Cape Verde Islands]], set up in 1936 by the head of the Portuguese government, [[António de Oliveira Salazar|Salazar]], where opponents of this right-wing regime were sent. At least 32 anarchists, communists and other opponents of Salazar's regime died in this camp. The camp closed in 1954 but re-opened in the 1970s to jail African leaders fighting [[Portuguese Colonial War|Portuguese colonialism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=
https://www.museudoaljube.pt/en/2023/04/23/the-tarrafal-concentration-camp/|title=The Tarrafal Concentration Camp|publisher=Museum of Aljube|date=23 April 2023|accessdate=24 January 2025}}</ref>

* Spain maintained a penal colony on [[Bioko|Fernando Po]] in present-day Equatorial Guinea.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Stewart
| first1                = John
| edition               = 3rd
| title                 = African States and Rulers
| year = 2006
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=I7UUAQAAIAAJ
| publisher             = McFarland & Company
| page                  = 96
| isbn                  = 978-0786425624
| access-date            = 2015-06-29
| quote                 = From 1879 the Spanish basically used Fernando Po as a penal colony for captured Cuban rebels.
}}
</ref> The tiny island of [[Cabrera, Balearic Islands|Cabrera]] was also a short-lived penal colony in which approximately 7,000 French [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] from the [[Battle of Bailén]] (1808) were left on their own for years; less than half of them survived.<ref>Gates, David (1986). ''The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War''. W W Norton & Co. {{ISBN|0-393-02281-1}}.</ref>
* Taiwan had a penal colony at [[Green Island, Taiwan|Green Island]] during Chiang Kai-shek's [[White Terror (Taiwan)|White Terror]] of 1949–1987. {{As of | 2015}}, the island is a tourist destination.
* [[Côn Đảo Island]] in Vietnam was used as a penal colony both by the French colonists (from 1861 onwards) and by the [[Republic of Vietnam]] (from 1954 and during the [[Vietnam War]] of 1955–1975).{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}
* The [[Ottoman Empire]] used [[Fezzan]] as a penal colony, because it was the most remote province from the then capital city, [[Istanbul]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}
* There are penal colonies in the Philippines, namely [[Iwahig Prison and Penal Farm]] in Palawan, and [[Davao Prison and Penal Farm]] in Davao.

==See also==
{{Portal|Law}}
* [[Alcatraz]]
* [[History of Australia]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation|title = Worcestershire under arms |last1 = Atkin |first1=Malcolm |publisher=Pen and Sword |year =2004|ol=11908594M |isbn=1-84415-072-0 |location=Barnsley }}
* Diiulio, John J., ''Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of Correctional Management'', Simon and Schuster, 1990. {{ISBN|0-02-907883-0}}.
* Dupont, Jerry, "The Common Law Abroad: Constitutional and Legal Legacy of the British Empire", Wm. S. Hein Publishing, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-8377-3125-4}}.
* Johnsen, Thomas C., "Vita: Howard Belding Gill: Brief Life of a Prison Reformer: 1890–1989", [[Harvard Magazine]], September–October 1999, p.&nbsp;54.
* Serrill, M. S., "Norfolk – A Retrospective – New Debate Over a Famous Prison Experiment," ''Corrections Magazine'', Volume 8, Issue 4 (August 1982), pp.&nbsp;25–32.
* Mun Cheong Yong, V. V. Bhanoji Rao, "Singapore-India Relations: A Primer", Study Group on Singapore-India Relations, National University of Singapore Centre for Advanced Studies Contributor Mun Cheong Yong, V. V. Bhanoji Rao, Yong Mun Cheong, Published by NUS Press, 1995. {{ISBN|978-9971-69-195-0}}.
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Incarceration}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Penal colonies| ]]
[[Category:Imprisonment and detention]]
[[Category:Penal labour|colony]]
[[Category:Settlement schemes]]