Editing Pawnee mythology

{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
[[File:Atira corn goddess symbol.jpg|thumb|Symbol representing the goddess [[Atira (goddess)|Atira]] in the Pawnee Hako (or Calumet)<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|154}}ceremony, 1912. The corn is painted so the Rainstorm, the Thunder, the Lightning and the Wind are represented.]]
'''Pawnee mythology''' is the body of [[oral history]], cosmology, and myths of the [[Pawnee people]] concerning their gods and heroes. The Pawnee are a [[federally recognized tribe]] of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], formerly located on the [[Great Plains]] along tributaries of the [[Missouri]] and [[Platte River|Platte]] Rivers in [[Nebraska]] and [[Kansas]] and currently located in [[Oklahoma]]. They historically speak [[Pawnee language|Pawnee]], a [[Caddoan]] language. The Pawnees lived in villages of [[earth lodge]]s. They grew corn and went on long bison hunts on the open plains twice a year. The tribe has four bands: the Skidi and "the South Bands" consisted of the Chawi, the Kitkahahki and the Pitahawirata Pawnee.

There were some differences in the mythology of the Skidi and the South Bands.<ref name=MurieII>[[James Rolfe Murie]]. (1981b): "Ceremonies of the Pawnee. Part II. The South Bands." ''Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology''. No. 27. Washington.</ref>{{rp|465}} The Skidis were "the great star specialists",<ref name=MurieII/>{{rp|465}} with a belief system focusing on visible objects on the night sky. Stars east of the Milky Way were regarded as male gods, while the female powers reigned in the western sky.<ref name=MurieI>Murie, James R. (1981a): "Ceremonies of the Pawnee. Part I. The Skiri." ''Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology''. No. 27. Washington.</ref>{{rp|40}} The South Bands acknowledged the creative powers of some celestial objects and meteorological phenomena, but largely counted upon animals for support and guidance.<ref name=MurieII/>{{rp|186}}

Much of the written literature about Pawnee religion and cosmology was recorded by the anthropologist [[James Rolfe Murie]] ([[Skiri Pawnee]]), (1862–1921), who was a fluent Pawnee speaker.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Straus |first1=Straus |title=Review: Ceremonies of the Pawnee |journal=[[American Indian Quarterly]] |date=Autumn 1984 |volume=8 |issue=4 |page=375 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1183678 |access-date=27 November 2024 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln, NE|doi=10.2307/1183678 |jstor=1183678 }}</ref>

==Deities and spirit animals==
Atí{{hamza}}as Tirawa, which means "Our Father Above" in the Pawnee language (often translated, inaccurately, as "Great Spirit"),<ref name="Tirawa">{{cite web |url=http://www.native-languages.org/morelegends/tirawa.htm |title=Legendary Native American Figures: Tirawa (Atius Tirawa)|website=www.native-languages.org |access-date=November 16, 2014}}</ref> was the [[creator god]]. Another variant, perhaps most used, is Tirawahat.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|38 and 179}} <ref name=Blaine1990>Blaine, Martha R. (1990): ''Pawnee Passage, 1870-1875''. Norman and London.</ref>{{rp|66}} He was believed to have taught the Pawnee people [[tattoo]]ing, fire-building, hunting, agriculture, speech and clothing, religious rituals (including the use of [[tobacco]] and sacred bundles), and sacrifices. He was associated with most natural phenomena, including stars and planets, wind, lightning, rain, and thunder. The wife of Tirawa was [[Atira (goddess)|Atira]], goddess of the Earth. Atira (literally, Mother Corn) was associated with corn.<ref>{{cite web|title=Atira|url=http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinner_party/heritage_floor/atira.php|work=The Dinner Party|publisher=Brooklyn Museum|access-date=11 October 2011}}</ref>

The male Morning Star in the East was believed to be created first. Being the [[war god]]<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|158}} he wore the dress of a warrior.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|38}} After him came the female Evening Star in the West.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|39}} She resisted the divine plan to create humankind. Morning Star had to fight and overcome a number of forces in the western sky with his fireball<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|126}} to finally mate with her. The first human being thus created was a girl.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|31}}

Six major stars represented other gods controlled by Tirawahut. Two of them were the female Southwest and Northwest Stars. The male stars were the North, the Northeast, the Southeast, and the South Stars. Some had specific tasks to fulfill:
*The North Star was the son of South Star. He watched over the people and had to [[Polaris|keep his post]].<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|40}}
*Northeast Star (or Big Black Meteoric Star) controlled the animals, in particular the bison. He was also in charge of the shift from day to night.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|39}} According to some Skidis, this unidentified and enigmatic star was a buffalo bull carrying the heaven on his back.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|42}} The mythology of the South Bands does not mention this god at all and only a number of the other star gods.<ref name=MurieII/>{{rp|465}}
*Southeast Star (or Red Star) regulated the coming of day and had authority among the animals.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|39}}
*South Star rose sometimes on the heaven to see if his son (North Star) remained on his fixed position. South Star ruled in the land of the dead. He received no prayers and no ceremony was held in his name.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|39}} Paths in the Milky Way guided the dead human beings to his dominion.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|42}}

The Thunder, the Lightning, the Cloud and the Wind were four great powers in the west. They obeyed the Evening Star. By means of constant song they generated the Earth<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|42}} on which the first girl (the child of Evening and Morning Stars) was placed.

The solar and lunar deities were Shakuru and Pah, respectively. They were the last of all gods placed in the heavens.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|41}} Their offspring was a boy, and he was put on Earth, too. Aside from this, the Sun and the Moon are of relatively minor standing in the Skidi Pawnee mythology.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|39}}

[[Meteorite]]s brought good fortune to the finders. They were seen as the children of Tirawahut sent down to Earth.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|67}}

While the Skidi Pawnee relied a great deal on the powers and the aid of stars and other objects in [[cosmos]], the South Bands came through foremost by the assistance and advice of a number of animals.<ref name=MurieII/>{{rp|465}} Yet, the gods in heaven existed, and the animals acted as [[intermediary|go-betweens]] when they instructed and guided the South Bands.<ref name=MurieII/>{{rp|186}}

The White [[Beaver]] ceremony of the Chawi served nearly the same purpose as the renewing or restarting Spring Awakening ceremony (Thunder ceremony) of the Skidi. However [[Hibernation|hibernating]] animals were revitalized through this rite rather than the renewal of corn crops.<ref name=MurieII/>{{rp|201}}

Tirawa conferred miraculous powers on certain animals.  These spirit animals, the ''nahurac'', would act as Tirawa's messengers and servants, and could intercede with him on behalf of the Pawnee. The nahurac had five dwellings or lodges:<ref name=grinnell>Grinnell, George Bird (1893).  [https://books.google.com/books?id=Hbx1AAAAMAAJ&q=george+bird+grinnell ''Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk Tales''.]  New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.  Retrieved 2010-09-16.</ref>
* The foremost among them was [[Pahuk]], usually translated "hill island", a bluff on the south side of the [[Platte River]], near the town of [[Cedar Bluffs, Nebraska|Cedar Bluffs]] in present-day [[Saunders County, Nebraska]].<ref name=pahuknom>Jensen, Richard E.  (1973).  "National Register of Historic Places Inventory&mdash;Nomination Form: Pahuk".</ref>
*[[Lalawakohtito]], or "dark island", was an island in the Platte near [[Central City, Nebraska]].
*[[Ahkawitakol]], or "white bank", was on the [[Loup River]] opposite the mouth of the [[Cedar River (Nebraska)|Cedar River]] in what is now [[Nance County, Nebraska]].
*[[Waconda Spring|Kitzawitzuk]], translated "water on a bank", also known to the Pawnee as Pahowa, was a spring on the [[Solomon River]]<ref name=grinnell />{{rp|358}} near [[Glen Elder, Kansas]].  It now lies beneath the waters of [[Waconda Reservoir]].<ref>[http://www.glenelder.com/waconda_springs.htm "The History of Waconda".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825003215/http://www.glenelder.com/waconda_springs.htm |date=2010-08-25 }}  [http://www.glenelder.com/index.htm Glen Elder, Kansas.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129001100/http://glenelder.com/Index.htm |date=2011-01-29 }}  Retrieved 2010-09-16.</ref>
*The fifth lodge of the nahurac was known to the Pawnee as [[Guide Rock (hill)|Pahur]] (/pa'hur/, translated as "hill that points the way" or "guide rock").<ref name=grinnell />{{rp|xxi, 359}}

==Celestial observation==
The Pawnee seasonal rituals were tied to the observation of the stars and planets. Their earthwork lodges were built at the same time as observatories and as "microcosm" (scale-model of the universe).
Each lodge "was at the same time the universe and also the womb of a woman, and the household activities represented her reproductive powers."<ref>[https://archive.org/details/lostuniversepawn00welt <!-- quote=Gene Weltfish. --> Weltfish, ''The Lost Universe: Pawnee Life and Culture''], Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1965; reprint 1977, p 64</ref> 
The lodge also represented the universe in a more practical way. The physical construction of the house required setting up four posts to represent the four [[cardinal directions]], "aligned almost exactly with the north&ndash;south, east&ndash;west axis."<ref>Patricia J. O'Brien, "Prehistoric evidence of Pawnee Cosmology", ''American Anthropologist'' (New Series) Vol. 88, No. 4 (Dec 1986), pp 939–946</ref>
A Pawnee observatory-lodge also required an  unobstructed view of the eastern sky. The lodge's axis would be oriented east&ndash;west in such a way that the sunrise of [[March equinox|vernal equinox]] would cast light on the altar. The dimensions of the lodge's smoke hole and door would be designed to allow observation of the sky, e.g. with the smoke-hole aligned to enable observation of the [[Pleiades]].<ref>'Weltfish, p. 942</ref>

According to one Skidi-band Pawnee man at the beginning of the twentieth century, "The Skidi were organized by the stars; these powers above made them into families and villages, and taught them how to live and how to perform their ceremonies.  The shrines of the four leading villages were given by the four leading stars and represent those stars which guide and rule the people."<ref>Alice C. Fletcher, "Star Cult among the Pawnee: A Preliminary Report",  ''American Anthropologist'' (New Series)  Vol 4, No 4 (Oct 1902), pp. 730–736</ref>

Regular ceremonies were performed before major events, such as semi-annual [[American Bison|buffalo]] hunts. Kawaha, an often-besought god of good luck, was closely connected to buffalo hunts.<ref name=MurieII/>{{rp|71–72}} Many other important activities of the year were started with a ceremony, such as sowing seeds in the spring and harvesting in the fall .

The most important ceremony of the Pawnee culture, the Spring Awakening ceremony, was meant to awaken the earth and ready it for planting. It can be tied to celestial observation, held at the time when the priest first tracked "two small twinkling stars known as the Swimming Ducks in the northeastern horizon near the [[Milky Way]]." and then heard a rolling thunder from the West.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|14 and 53}} (See above for the role of Thunder in the [[Creation myth]]).<ref>"The position of the stars was an important guide to the time when this ceremony should be held.  The earth-lodge served as an astronomical observatory and as the priests sat inside at the west, they could observe the stars in certain positions through the smokehole and through the long east-oriented entranceway.  They also kept careful watch of the horizon right after sunset and just before dawn to note the order and position of the stars." Weltfish,   p. 79</ref>

== Morning Star ceremony ==
{{for|the Aboriginal Australian (Yolngu) ceremony of the same name|Barnumbirr#The Morning Star Ceremony}}
{{see|Child sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures}}
[[File:Pawnee Sacrifice.jpg|thumb|400px|Photograph of a miniature diorama's depiction of the ceremony, published in 1922 on behalf of the [[Field Museum of Natural History]], [[Chicago]].]]

The Morning Star ceremony was a religious ceremony occasionally involving a ritual [[human sacrifice]] of a young girl, performed only by a single village (Village Across a Hill)<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|32}} of the [[Skidi]] band of the Pawnee.  It was connected to the Pawnee creation narrative, in which the mating of the male Morning Star with the female Evening Star created the first human being, a girl.
 
The Skidi Pawnee practiced the Morning Star ritual regularly, although seemingly not annually,<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|14}} through the 1810s. In June 1818, the ''Missouri Gazette'' reported a sacrifice "some time ago". The newborn of a captive [[Comanche]] woman was sacrificed after the woman herself had managed to escape on a stolen horse.<ref name=Thurman1983>Thurman, Melburn D.: "The Timing of the Skidi-Pawnee Morning Star Sacrafice.&#91;sic&#93;" ''Ethnohistory'', Vol. 30 (1983), No. 3, pp. 155-163.</ref>{{rp|159}} However, two members of the [[Long Expedition]] in 1820 believed that the young Pawnee man [[Petalesharo]] had rescued the Comanche girl and urged an end to the Morning Star ritual. Edwin James gave the year for this action as 1817, while [[John R. Bell (military officer)|John R. Bell]] placed it around 1815.<ref name=Thurman1983/>{{rp|159}}

U.S. [[Indian agents]] sought to convince chiefs to suppress the ritual,<ref name=Jones1969>Jones, Dorothy V.: "John Dougherty and the Pawnee Rite of Human Sacrifice: April, 1827." ''Missouri Historical Review'', Vol. 63 (1969), pp. 293-316.</ref>{{rp|294}} and major leaders, such as Knife Chief and his relative Petalesharo or Man Chief,<ref name=Jones1969/>{{rp|294–295}} worked to change the practices objected to by the increasing number of American settlers on the Plains. An additional aim of the agents could have been to protect the [[fur trade]] by reducing intertribal animosity.<ref name=Thurman1970a>Thurman, Melburn D.: "The Skidi Pawnee Morning Star Sacrifice of 1827." ''Nebraska History''. 1970, pp. 268-280.</ref>{{rp|276}}<ref name=Thurman1983/>{{rp|161}}

The custom came to the wider attention of the public in the Eastern United States in 1820 due to reports of a young Pawnee warrior, Man Chief, who risked his life to rescue a Comanche girl from the sacrificial scaffold in defiance of the Skidi Pawnee priesthood.<ref>Weltfish, p. 9</ref> Indian Agent John Dougherty and some influential Pawnees tried without luck to save the life of a [[Cheyenne]] girl before mid-April&nbsp;1827.<ref name=Jones1969/> The last known sacrifice was of Haxti, a 14-year-old [[Oglala Lakota]] girl on April 22, 1838.<ref>[[George Hyde (historian)|Hyde, George]]. ''The Pawnee Indians''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. {{ISBN|0-8061-2094-0}}
 pp. 19–359</ref> (A later stated 1833 sacrifice was confused with the one in April&nbsp;1827).<ref name=Thurman1970b>Thurman, Melbrun D.: "A Case of Historical Mythology: The Skidi Pawnee Morning Star Sacrifice of 1833." ''Plains Anthropologist''. Vol. 50 (1970), pp. 309-311.</ref>

===The identity of the Morning Star===
The identity of the Morning Star is not clear. "The earliest accounts specified [[Venus]] as Morning Star, while most ethnographers favored [[Mars]]", given it was said to be red.<ref name=Thurman1983/>{{rp|155}} [[Jupiter]] is also a candidate.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|41}}

During the known 1827 and 1838 ceremonies, calculations show that Venus rose in the morning sky.<ref name=Thurman1983/>{{rp|158}}

===Human sacrifice===
{{Mythology}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=January 2018}}
The ceremony was performed  in spring, in years when "[[Mars]] was [[wikt:Special:Search/morning star|morning star]]" (see above: The identity of the Morning Star), but usually not as an actual [[human sacrifice]], but merely as a symbolic ceremony. However, one source states, "Several or more years frequently elapsed between occurrences of the Morning Star Ceremony".<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|14}} An actual human sacrifice would be performed only when a man of the village dreamed that the Morning Star had come to him and told him to perform the proper ceremony.  He would then  consult with the keeper of the Morning Star [[sacred bundle|bundle]], receiving from him a warrior costume. At the first instruction, both the visionary and the [[priest]] would cry, knowing that the mission put upon them by the Morning Star was wrong to carry out.<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|115}} The man, aided by volunteers, then had to carry out an attack on an enemy village and capture a girl of suitable age.<ref>"The sacrifice was performed only in years when Mars was morning star and usually originated in a dream in which the Morning Star appeared to some man and directed him to capture a suitable victim.  The dreamer went to the keeper of the Morning Star bundle and received from him the warrior's costume kept in it.  He then set out, accompanied by volunteers, and made a night attack upon an enemy village.  As soon as a girl of suitable age was captured the attack ceased and the party returned.  The girl was dedicated to the Morning Star at the moment of her capture and was given into the care of the leader of the party who, on its return, turned her over to the chief of the Morning Star." Ralph Linton, "The origin of the Pawnee Morning Star Sacrifice", ''American Anthropologist''.(New Series) Vol 28, No 3 (July 1926), pp 457–466</ref>

Returning to the village, the captured girl would be handed over to the servant (priest) of the Morning Star. The people in contact with the girl treated her with respect, but kept her isolated from the rest of the tribe.  When it was time for the spring sacrifice, she was [[Ritual purification|ritually cleansed]].  A five-day ceremony then began with the priest singing songs describing the advancing stages in the rite, and the girl was symbolically transformed from human to celestial form, as the ritual representation of the Evening Star. On the final day of the ceremony, a procession of men, boys and male infants carried by their mothers accompanied the girl outside the village to a [[gallows|scaffold]].<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|124}} The scaffold was made of sacred woods and skins, representing "Evening Star's garden in the west, the source of all animal and plant life."<ref>Linton, 1926, p. 458</ref>

Anthropologist [[Ralph Linton]] reported that evidence indicated the practice "was carried out somewhat unwillingly" by Pawnee religious leaders, who regarded it as an obligation or duty and took no pleasure from the practice.<ref>Linton (1926), p 22</ref> The priests removed her clothing and she was left alone on the scaffold at the moment of the rising of the Morning Star (Mars). Symbolizing the Morning Star and his [[fireball (meteor)|fireball]]s, two men would come from the east and touch flaming branches to her armpits and groin. She would then be touched with [[gunstock war club|war clubs]] by four other men.  A sacred arrow from the Skull bundle was shot through her heart by the man who captured her while simultaneously another man struck her over the head with the war club from the Morning Star bundle. The dead girl's chest would then be cut open by the priest with a flint knife while her captor caught her blood on dried meat. ("A very small cut is made ... The heart is not exposed or removed.")<ref name=MurieI/>{{rp|123}} All male members of the tribe would then press forward and shoot arrows into the dead body, then circle the scaffold four times and disperse.<ref>{{cite book|quote="The procession was timed so that she would be left alone on the scaffold at the moment the morning star rose.  When the morning star appeared, two men came from the east with flaming brands and touched her lightly in the arm pits and groins.  Four other men then touched her with war clubs.  The man who had captured her then ran forward with the bow from the Skull bundle and a sacred arrow and shot her through the heart while another man struck her on the head with the war club from the Morning Star bundle. The officiating priest then opened her breast with a flint knife and smeared his face with the blood while her captor caught the falling blood on dried meat.  All the male members of the tribe then pressed forward and shot arrows into the body.  They then circled the scaffold four times and dispersed." |last=Linton|year=1926|page=459|title=The origin of the Pawnee Morning Star Sacrifice|work=American Anthropologist.|volume=28|number=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|quote=To fulfill the creation of life, the men of the village would take on the role of the Morning Star, which is why two men would come from the east with flaming brands, representing the sun.  The men  acted out the violence which had allowed the Morning Star to mate with the Evening Star (by breaking her vaginal teeth) in their creation story, with a "meteor stone." |last=Weltfish|title=The Lost Universe: Pawnee Life and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/lostuniversewith00welt |url-access=registration |year=1965|page=[https://archive.org/details/lostuniversewith00welt/page/82 82]|publisher=New York, Basic Books }}</ref>

By shooting arrows into her body, the village men, as embodiments of Morning Star, were symbolically mating with her. Her blood would drip down from the scaffolding and onto the ground which had been made to represent the Evening Star's garden of all plant and animal life.  They took her body and laid the girl face down on the prairie, where her blood would enter the earth and fertilize the ground. The spirit of the Evening Star was understood to be released and the ceremony supposedly ensured the success of the crops, the continuation of all life on the Plains, and the perpetuation of the Universe.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pawnee Mythology}}
[[Category:Pawnee]]
[[Category:Native American religion]]
[[Category:Indigenous culture of the Great Plains]]
[[Category:Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of North America]]