Editing Palmer Raids

{{Short description|United States government arrests of leftists, 1919–20}}
[[Image: Alexander Mitchell Palmer.jpg|thumb|[[A. Mitchell Palmer]]]]
{{Anti-communism|History}}

The '''Palmer Raids''' were a series of raids conducted in November 1919 and January 1920 by the [[United States Department of Justice]] under the administration of President [[Woodrow Wilson]] to capture and arrest suspected [[Socialism|socialists]], especially [[Anarchism|anarchists]] and [[Communism|communists]], and [[Deportation|deport]] them from the United States. The raids particularly targeted [[Italian diaspora|Italian immigrants]] and [[Eastern European]] [[American Jews|Jewish immigrants]] with alleged [[Left-wing politics|leftist]] ties, with particular focus on [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]] and immigrant leftist [[Union organizer|labor activists]]. The raids and arrests occurred under the leadership of [[United States Attorney General]] [[A. Mitchell Palmer]], with 6,000 people arrested across 36 cities. Though 556 foreign citizens were deported, including a number of prominent leftist leaders, Palmer's efforts were largely frustrated by officials at the [[United States Department of Labor|U.S. Department of Labor]], which had authority for deportations and objected to Palmer's methods.

The Palmer Raids occurred in the larger context of the [[First Red Scare]], a period of [[reactionary]] fear of communists in the U.S. in the years immediately following [[World War I]] and the successful [[Russian Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/topics/red-scare/palmer-raids|title = Palmer Raids|publisher=[[History.com]]| date=16 March 2023 }}</ref> There were [[Strike action|strike]]s that garnered national attention, and prompted [[Red Summer (1919)|race riots]] in more than 30 cities, as well as [[1919 United States anarchist bombings|two sets of bombings]] in April and June 1919, including one bomb mailed to Palmer's home in response to his policy of politically motivated mass arrests and deportations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palmer-Raids|title=Palmer Raids {{!}} History, Facts, & Significance|work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|language=en|access-date=2020-04-26}}</ref>

==Background==
During the [[First World War]] there was a nationwide right-wing campaign in the United States against the real and imagined divided political loyalties of immigrants and ethnic groups, who were feared to have too much loyalty for their nations of origin. In 1915, [[Woodrow Wilson|President Wilson]] warned against [[hyphenated American]]s who, he charged, had "poured the poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our national life." "Such creatures of passion, disloyalty and anarchy", Wilson continued, "must be crushed out".{{sfn|Kennedy|1980|page=24}} The [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolutions of 1917]] added special force to fear of labor agitators and partisans of ideologies such as anarchism and communism. The [[Seattle General Strike|general strike in Seattle]] in February 1919 represented a new development in [[labor unrest]].<!--not in source? that the war had suppressed.-->{{sfn|Shepley|2015|pages=18–19}}

The fears of Wilson and other government officials were confirmed when [[Galleanists]]—Italian immigrant followers of the anarchist [[Luigi Galleani]]—carried out a series of [[1919 United States anarchist bombings|bombings in April and June 1919]].{{sfn|Avrich|1991|pages=140–143, 147, 149–156}} At the end of April, some 30 Galleanist [[letter bomb]]s had been mailed to a host of individuals, mostly prominent government officials and businessmen, but also law enforcement officials.{{sfn|Avrich|1991|pages=140–143, 147, 149–156}}  Only a few reached their targets, and not all exploded when opened. Some people suffered injuries, including a housekeeper in Senator [[Thomas W. Hardwick]]'s residence, who had her hands blown off.{{sfn|Avrich|1991|pages=140–143, 147, 149–156}}  On June 2, 1919, the second wave of bombings occurred, when several much larger package bombs were detonated by Galleanists in eight American cities, including one that damaged the home of Attorney General [[A. Mitchell Palmer]] in Washington, D.C.{{sfn|Avrich|1991|pages=140–143, 147, 149–156}}  At least one person was killed in this second attack, night watchman William Boehner, and fears were raised because it occurred in the capital.{{sfn|Avrich|1991|pages=140–143, 147, 149–156}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Plotter Here Hid Trail Skillfully; His victim Was a Night Watchman; Police Study Anarchistic Handbills Adroitly Placed by the Conspirator-Expert Declares Bomb Held Twenty-five Pounds of Dynamite. Thinks Bomb Contained Dynamite. Windows All About Shattered. PLOTTER HERE HID TRAIL SKILLFULLY Handbills Studied by Police. Hylan Consults Enright |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/06/04/archives/plotter-here-hid-trail-skillfully-his-victim-was-a-night-watchman.html |work=The New York Times |date=4 June 1919}}{{subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=WRECK JUDGE NOTT'S HOME; Man and Woman Killed May Have Been Bomb Setters. MRS. NOTT IN THE HOUSE She and Caretaker's Family Escape, Though Front of Building Was Shattered. JUDGE NOTT IN THE COUNTRY Police Rush Guards to Homes of Officials and Judges Throughout the City. Child's Amazing Escape. Stairways Fall. Other Houses Shattered. WRECK JUDGE NOTT'S HOME. All Police Agencies Active. Crowds Hamper Police. Judge Nott's Public Career |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/06/03/archives/wreck-judge-notts-home-man-and-woman-killed-may-have-been-bomb.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=3 June 1919}}{{subscription}}</ref> [[Flyer (pamphlet)|Flyer]]s declaring war on capitalists in the name of anarchist principles accompanied each bomb.{{sfn|Avrich|1991|pages=140–143, 147, 149–156}}

===Preparations===
In June 1919, Attorney General Palmer told the [[United States House Committee on Appropriations|House Appropriations Committee]] that all evidence promised that radicals would "on a certain day...rise up and destroy the government at one fell swoop." He requested an increase in his budget to [[U.S. Dollars|$]]2,000,000 from $1,500,000 to support his investigations of radicals, but Congress limited the increase to [[U.S. Dollars|$]]100,000.{{sfn|Hagedorn|2007|pages=229–30}}{{sfn|Coben|1963|page=211}}

An initial raid in July 1919 against an anarchist group in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[New York (state)|New York]], achieved little when a federal judge tossed out Palmer's case. He found in the case that the three arrested radicals, charged under a law dating from the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], had proposed transforming the government by using their [[freedom of speech|free speech]] rights and not by violence.{{sfn|Pietrusza|2007|pages=146–7}} That taught Palmer that he needed to exploit the more powerful immigration statutes that authorized the deportation of [[alien (law)|alien]] [[anarchist]]s, violent or not. To do that, he needed to enlist the cooperation of officials at the Department of Labor. Only the Secretary of Labor could issue warrants for the arrest of alien violators of the Immigration Acts, and only he could sign deportation orders following a hearing by an immigration inspector.{{sfn|Coben|1963|pages=217–8}}

On August 1, 1919, Palmer named 24-year-old [[J. Edgar Hoover]] to head a new division of the Justice Department's [[Federal Bureau of Investigation#Beginnings: The Bureau of Investigation|Bureau of Investigation]], the [[FBI Index#General Intelligence Division|General Intelligence Division]] (GID), with responsibility for investigating the programs of radical groups and identifying their members.{{sfn|Coben|1963|pages=207–9}} The [[Boston Police Strike]] in early September raised concerns about possible threats to political and social stability. On October 17, the Senate passed a unanimous resolution demanding Palmer explain what actions he had or had not taken against radical aliens and why.{{sfn|Coben|1963|pages=214–5}}

At 9&nbsp;p.m. on November 7, 1919, a date chosen because it was the second anniversary of the [[Bolshevik]] revolution, agents of the Bureau of Investigation, together with local police, executed a series of well-publicized and violent raids against the [[Union of Russian Workers]] in 12 cities. Newspaper accounts reported some were "badly beaten" during the arrests. Many later swore they were threatened and beaten during questioning. Government agents cast a wide net, bringing in some American citizens, passers-by who admitted being Russian, some not members of the Russian Workers. Others were teachers conducting night school classes in space shared with the targeted radical group. Arrests far exceeded the number of warrants. Of 650 arrested in New York City, the government managed to deport just 43.{{efn-ua|Post says eleven cities.{{sfn|Coben|1963|pages=219–21}} ''Cf.'', {{sfn|Post|2010|pages=28–35}}}}

When Palmer replied to the Senate's questions of October 17, he reported that his department had amassed 60,000 names with great effort. Required by the statutes to work through the Department of Labor, they had arrested 250 dangerous radicals in the November 7 raids. He proposed a new Anti-Sedition Law to enhance his authority to prosecute anarchists.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/11/16/archives/palmer-for-stringent-law-attorney-general-asks-senate-for-sedition.html|title=PALMER FOR STRINGENT LAW; Attorney General Asks Senate for Sedition Act to Fit Reds. NEW PUNISHMENT PLAN He Would Send All Aliens from Country and Denaturalize Convicted Citizens. TELLS OF REDS' ACTIVITIES Work of Union of Russians Revealed--472 Publications Preaching Anarchy. The Attorney General's Letter. PALMER FOR STRINGENT LAW Penal Code Test Case. Where the Laws Are Weak. Difficulties of Deportation. Many "Red" Publications. Radical Papers Increase. Proposed Anti-Sedition Law. ASKS FOR IRON-CLAD LAWS. Mayor of Portland Appeals to Senate for Immediate Legislation|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=16 November 1919}}{{subscription}}</ref>

==Raids and arrests in January 1920==
[[Image: Radicals awaiting deportation.jpg|thumb|right|Men arrested in raids awaiting deportation hearings on Ellis Island, January 13, 1920]]
[[File:Cartoon by Archibald B. Chapin - South Bend News-Times - November 8 1919.jpg|thumb|alt=Newspaper cartoon|Cartoon by Archibald B. Chapin on the ''[[South Bend News-Times]]'' – November 8, 1919]]
Inasmuch as Attorney General Palmer struggled with exhaustion and devoted all his energies to the [[United Mine Workers]] [[A. Mitchell Palmer#Coal strike|coal strike in November and December 1919]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Miners Finally Agree|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/12/11/118243636.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/12/11/118243636.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=June 11, 2014|work=The New York Times|date=December 11, 1919}}</ref> Hoover organized the next raids. He successfully persuaded the Department of Labor to ease its insistence on promptly alerting those arrested of their right to an attorney. Instead, Labor issued instructions that its representatives could wait until after the case against the defendant was established, "in order to protect government interests."{{sfn|Coben|1963|pages=222–3}}  Less openly, Hoover decided to interpret Labor's agreement to act against the Communist Party to include a different organization, the [[Communist Labor Party of America|Communist Labor Party]]. Finally, despite the fact that Secretary of Labor [[William Bauchop Wilson|William B. Wilson]] insisted that more than membership in an organization was required for a warrant, Hoover worked with more compliant Labor officials and overwhelmed Labor staff to get the warrants he wanted. Justice Department officials, including Palmer and Hoover, later claimed ignorance of such details.{{sfn|Murray|1955|pages=223–7}}

The Justice Department launched a series of raids on January 2, 1920, with follow up operations over the next few days. Smaller raids extended over the next 6 weeks. At least 3000 were arrested, and many others were held for various lengths of time. The entire enterprise replicated the November action on a larger scale, including arrests and seizures without search warrants, as well as detention in overcrowded and unsanitary holding facilities. Hoover later admitted "clear cases of brutality."{{sfn|Murray|1955|pages=227–9}} The raids covered more than 30 cities and towns in 23 states, but those west of the [[Mississipp River|Mississippi]] and south of the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] were "publicity gestures" designed to make the effort appear nationwide in scope.{{efn-ua|States (cities where available): California ([[Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco]]), Colorado ([[Denver]]), Connecticut ([[Ansonia, Connecticut|Ansonia]], [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]], [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]], [[Meriden, Connecticut|Meriden]], [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], [[New London, Connecticut|New London]], [[Manchester, Connecticut|South Manchester]], [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]]), Florida, Illinois ([[Chicago]], [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]], [[East St. Louis, Illinois|East St. Louis]]), Indiana, Iowa ([[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]]), Kansas ([[Kansas City, Kansas|Kansas City]]), Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts ([[Boston]], [[Chelsea, Massachusetts|Chelsea]], [[Brockton, Massachusetts|Brockton]], [[Bridgewater, Massachusetts|Bridgewater]], [[Norwood, Massachusetts|Norwood]], [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]], [[Springfield, Massachusetts|Springfield]], [[Chicopee, Massachusetts|Chicopee Falls]], [[Holyoke, Massachusetts|Holyoke]], [[Gardner, Massachusetts|Gardner]], [[Fitchburg, Massachusetts|Fitchburg]], [[Lowell, Massachusetts|Lowell]], [[Lawrence, Massachusetts|Lawrence]], [[Haverhill, Massachusetts|Haverhill]]), Michigan ([[Detroit]]), Minnesota ([[Saint Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]]), Nebraska ([[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]]), New Hampshire ([[Claremont, New Hampshire|Claremont]], [[Derry, New Hampshire|Derry]], [[Lincoln, New Hampshire|Lincoln]], [[Manchester, New Hampshire|Manchester]], [[Nashua, New Hampshire|Nashua]], [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]]), New Jersey ([[Camden, New Jersey|Camden]]), New York ([[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] and "nearby towns", [[New York City]]), Ohio ([[Cleveland]], [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], [[Youngstown, Ohio|Youngstown]]), Oregon ([[Portland, Oregon|Portland]]), Pennsylvania ([[Chester, Pennsylvania|Chester]], [[Pittsburgh]]), Washington ([[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]]), Wisconsin ([[Milwaukee]], [[Racine, Wisconsin|Racine]]). Others were arrested in West Virginia by agents working from Pittsburgh. {{sfn|Post|2010|pages=91–2, 96, 104–5, 108, 110, 115–6, 120–1, 124, 126, 131}}}} Because the raids targeted entire organizations, agents arrested everyone found in organization meeting halls, not only arresting non-radical organization members but also visitors who did not belong to a target organization, and sometimes American citizens not eligible for arrest and deportation.{{efn-ua|''Passim''{{sfn|Murray|1955|pages=96–147}}}}

The Department of Justice at one point claimed to have taken possession of several bombs, but after a few iron balls were displayed to the press they were never mentioned again. All the raids netted a total of just four ordinary pistols.{{sfn|Post|2010|pages=91–5, 96–147}}

While most press coverage continued to be positive, with criticism only from [[leftist]] publications like ''[[The Nation]]'' and ''[[The New Republic]]'', one attorney raised the first noteworthy protest. Francis Fisher Kane, the [[U.S. Attorney]] for the Eastern District of [[Pennsylvania]], resigned in protest. In his letter of resignation to the President and the Attorney General he wrote: "It seems to me that the policy of raids against large numbers of individuals is generally unwise and very apt to result in injustice. People not really guilty are likely to be arrested and railroaded through their hearings... We appear to be attempting to repress a political party... By such methods, we drive underground and make dangerous what was not dangerous before." Palmer replied that he could not use individual arrests to treat an "epidemic" and asserted his own fidelity to constitutional principles. He added: "The Government should encourage free political thinking and political action, but it certainly has the right for its own preservation to discourage and prevent the use of force and violence to accomplish that which ought to be accomplished, if at all, by parliamentary or political methods."{{sfn|Coben|1963|page=230}}<ref>''The New York Times'': [https://www.nytimes.com/1920/01/24/archives/palmer-upholds-red-repression-replies-to-federal-attorney-kane-who.html "Palmer Upholds Red Repression," January 24, 1920], accessed January 15, 2010. {{subscription}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'' endorsed Palmer's claim for urgency over legal process: "There is no time to waste on hairsplitting over infringement of liberty."<ref>''[[The Washington Post]]'', "The Red Assassins," January 4, 1920 {{subscription}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
In a few weeks, after changes in personnel at the Department of Labor, Palmer faced a new and very independent-minded Acting Secretary of Labor in Assistant Secretary of Labor [[Louis Freeland Post]], who canceled more than 2,000 warrants as being illegal.{{sfn|Coben|1963|page=232}} the 10,000 arrested, 3,500 were held by authorities in detention; 556 resident aliens were eventually deported under the [[Immigration Act of 1918]].{{sfn|Avakov|2007|page=36}}

At a Cabinet meeting in April 1920, Palmer called on Secretary of Labor [[William B. Wilson]] to fire Post, but Wilson defended him. The President listened to his feuding department heads and offered no comment about Post, but he ended the meeting by telling Palmer that he should "not let this country see red." Secretary of the Navy [[Josephus Daniels]], who made notes of the conversation, thought the Attorney General had merited the President's "admonition", because Palmer "was seeing red behind every bush and every demand for an increase in wages."{{sfn|Daniels|1946|pages=545–6}}

Palmer's supporters in Congress responded with an attempt to [[Federal impeachment in the United States|impeach]] Louis Post or, failing that, to [[Censure in the United States|censure]] him. The drive against Post began to lose energy when Attorney General Palmer's forecast of an attempted radical uprising on [[May Day]] 1920 failed to occur. Then, in testimony before the [[House Rules Committee]] on May 7–8, Post proved "a convincing speaker with a caustic tongue"{{sfn|Coben|1963|page=232}} and defended himself so successfully that Congressman [[Edward W. Pou]], a Democrat presumed to be an enthusiastic supporter of Palmer, congratulated him: "I feel that you have followed your sense of duty absolutely." {{sfn|Post|2010|page=273}}

On May 28, 1920, the nascent [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU), which was founded in response to the raids,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aclu.org/about/aclu-history|title=ACLU History}}</ref> published its ''Report Upon the Illegal Practices of the United States Department of Justice'',<ref>{{cite book|publisher=[[National Popular Government League]] |last1=Brown |first1=Rome Green|title=Report Upon the Illegal Practices of the United States Department of Justice| date=1920|url=https://archive.org/details/toamericanpeople00natiuoft}}</ref> which carefully documented unlawful activities in arresting suspected radicals, illegal [[entrapment]] by [[agent provocateur|''agents provocateur'']], and unlawful incommunicado detention. Such prominent lawyers and law professors as [[Felix Frankfurter]], [[Roscoe Pound]] and [[Ernst Freund]] signed it. [[Harvard]] Professor [[Zechariah Chafee]] criticized the raids and attempts at deportations and the lack of [[legal process]] in his 1920 volume ''Freedom of Speech''. He wrote: "That a [[Quaker]] should employ prison and exile to counteract evil-thinking is one of the saddest ironies of our time."{{sfn|Chafee|1920|page=197}}

The Rules Committee gave Palmer a hearing in June, where he attacked Post and other critics whose "tender solicitude for social revolution and perverted sympathy for the criminal anarchists...set at large among the people the very public enemies whom it was the desire and intention of the Congress to be rid of." The press saw the dispute as evidence of the Wilson administration's ineffectiveness and division as it approached its final months.{{sfn|Murray|1955|pages=255–6}}

In June 1920, a decision by [[Massachusetts]] District Court Judge [[George W. Anderson (judge)|George W. Anderson]] ordered the discharge of 17 arrested aliens and denounced the Department of Justice's actions. He wrote that "a mob is a mob, whether made up of Government officials acting under instructions from the [[Department of Justice]], or of criminals and loafers and the vicious classes." His decision effectively prevented any renewal of the raids.{{sfn|Murray|1955|pages=250–1}} {{sfn|Post|2010|page=97}}

Palmer, once seen as a likely [[President of the United States|presidential]] candidate, lost his bid to win the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nomination for president later in the year.{{sfn|Pietrusza|2007|page=257}} The anarchist bombing campaign continued intermittently for another twelve years.{{sfn|Avrich|1991|page=214}}{{sfn|Avrich|1991|pages=140–143, 147, 149–156}}

==Epilogue==
The legal issues involved in the 1919 Palmer Raids  during the [[Woodrow Wilson]] administration have been resurrected during the [[Deportation in the second presidency of Donald Trump|deportations during the second Trump administration]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/11/11/when-america-tried-to-deport-its-radicals |title=American Chronicles: When America Tried to Deport Its Radicals |quote=A hundred years ago, the Palmer Raids imperilled thousands of immigrants. Then a wily official got in the way. |first1=Adam |last1=Hochschild |date=November 4, 2019 |work=[[The New Yorker]] |accessdate=April 7, 2025}}{{subscription}}</ref>

Current Trump administration policy has been compared to The Palmer Raids, and The "Repatriations" of the 1930s":

<blockquote>Former President Donald Trump's call for historic "mass deportations" of immigrants from the United States is forcing the nation to revisit past expulsions that left deep wounds still felt today.

The big picture: From the Palmer Raids of Jewish and Italian immigrants of 1919 to the mass deportation of Mexican immigrants in the 1950s, previous deportation operations ignored civil liberties, heightened racial tensions and disrupted families of American citizens for generations.<ref name="Contreras">{{cite web |url=https://www.axios.com/2024/09/28/trump-mass-deportations-us-history|date=September 28, 2024 |title=Politics & Policy: Axios Explains How Trump's plan for mass deportations fits into U.S. history |first1=Russell |last1=Contreras |publisher=[[Axios.com]] |accessdate=April 7, 2024}}</ref></blockquote>

It has also been compared to The [[Irish Expulsion]], The Palmer Raids and the “Soviet Ark”, the  “[[Mexican Repatriation]]” during [[The Great Depression]], “[[Operation Wetback]]” during the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] administration, and The [[Deporter-in-Chief]] during the [[Barack Obama]] administration.<ref name="Bianco">{{cite journal |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2024/12/29/mass-deportation-immigration-history-00195729
|title=HISTORY DEPT.: The US Has Deported Immigrants En Masse Before. Here's What Happened. |quote=Donald Trump has promised to deport millions on “Day One.” He wouldn’t be the first president to round up undocumented immigrants en masse.|first1=Ali |last1=Bianco |date=December 29, 2024 |work=[[Politico]]|accessdate=April 7, 2025}}</ref>

In the 105 years between 1892 and 1997, the United States deported 2.1 million people.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Obama Deported More People Than Any Other President? | author =  | work = [[Snopes.com]] | date =October 20, 2016 | accessdate = 2016-11-15 | url = http://www.snopes.com/obama-deported-more-people/ | language =   | quote =  }}</ref>  Between 2001 and 2008, during the [[Presidency of George W. Bush]], about 2.0 million people were deported, while between 2009 and 2016, during the [[Presidency of Barack Obama]], about 3.2 million people were deported.<ref name="nydn_Obama">{{Cite web | title = Obama deported record number of immigrants, despite Trump's claim | author =  | work = [[New York Daily News]] | date =September 1, 2016  | accessdate = 2016-11-15 | url = http://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/obama-deported-record-number-immigrants-trump-claim-article-1.2774180 | quote =  }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[1918-1920 New York City rent strikes]]
* [[Activist deportations in the second Trump presidency]]
* [[Deportation and removal from the United States]]
* [[Espionage Act of 1917]]
* [[Industrial Workers of the World]]
* [[Internment of Japanese Americans]]
* [[McCarthyism]]
* [[Sedition Act of 1918]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}}

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book |last1=Avakov |first1=Aleksandr Vladimirovich |title=Plato's Dreams Realized: Surveillance and Citizen Rights from KGB to FBI |publisher=[[Algora Publishing]] |year=2007 |id= {{ISBN|0-87586-495-3}}|isbn=978-0-87586-495-2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Avrich |first1=Paul |title=[[Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]]|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]  |id= {{ISBN|0691026041}} |isbn=978-0691026046|year=1991}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/freedomofspeech00chafuoft/page/n3/mode/2up|last1=Chafee|first1=Zechariah|title=Freedom of Speech |location=New York |publisher=[[Harcourt Brace|Harcourt, Brace, and Howe]]|year=1920}}
*{{cite book |last1=Coben|first1=Stanley|title=A. Mitchell Palmer: Politician|location=New York |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|date=January 1, 1963|id= {{ISBN|0231025718}} |isbn=978-0231025713 |type=Hardcover}}
*{{cite book |last1=Daniels|first1=Josephus|title=The Wilson Era: Years of War and After, 1917–1923 |location=Chapel Hill |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|year=1946}}
*{{cite book |last1=Dunn|first1=Robert W. |title=The Palmer Raids |location=New York |publisher=[[International Publishers]]|year=1948}}
*{{cite book |last1=Finan |first1=Christopher M. |title=From the Palmer Raids to the Patriot Act: A History of the Fight for Free Speech in America |year=2007 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |isbn=978-0-8070-4428-5 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Hagedorn|first1= Ann|title=Savage Peace: Hope and Fear in America, 1919|location=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=2007|isbn=9781416539711}}
*{{cite book |last1=Kennedy|first1= David M.|title=Over Here: The First World War and American Society|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1980|isbn=0195027299}}
*{{cite book |last1=Murray|first1=Robert K.|title=Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920|location=Minneapolis |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]]|year=1955}}
*{{cite book |last1=Pietrusza|first1=David|title=1920: The Year of Six presidents|location=New York |publisher=[[Carroll & Graf]] |year=2007 |id= {{ISBN|0786716223}}|ISBN=978-0786716227}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/deportationsdeli00post_0|last1=Post|first1= Louis F.|title=The Deportations Delirium of Nineteen-twenty: A Personal Narrative of a Historic Official Experience|location=New York |origyear=1923 |date=December 20, 2010 |edition=Reissued |id= {{ISBN|0-306-71882-0}} |publisher=[[Gale Publishing|Gale, Making of Modern Law]]|isbn=1-4102-0553-3}}
*{{cite book |last1=Shepley |first1=Nick |title=The Palmer Raids and the Red Scare: 1918-1920: Justice and Liberty for All |date=2015 |publisher=[[Andrews UK Limited]] |isbn=978-1-84989-945-1 }}{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Harlan Grant |title=The (Un)favorable Judgment of History: Deportation Hearings, the Palmer Raids, and the Meaning of History |journal=[[New York University Law Review]] |date=2003 |volume=78 |pages=1431 |url=https://www.nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/4_0.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Popkova |first1=Anna |title=Imagining the Russian Community: Novoye Russkoe Slovo, the First Red Scare, and the Palmer Raids, 1919-1920 |journal=[[Journalism History (journal)|Journalism History]] |date= January 2, 2022 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=41–60 |publisher=[[Western Michigan University]] |location=Kalamazoo, Michigan |doi=10.1080/00947679.2022.2027140 |s2cid=246293091}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pusey |first1=Allen |title=Palmer Raids Target Immigrants |journal=[[ABA Journal]] |date=2015 |volume=101 |pages=100 |url=https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/jan_2_1920_palmer_raids_target_immigrants|publisher=[[American Bar Association]]}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons-inline}}

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[[Category:Anti-anarchism in the United States]]
[[Category:Anti-communism in the United States]]
[[Category:Anti-Italian sentiment]]
[[Category:Antisemitism in the United States]]
[[Category:Civil detention in the United States]]
[[Category:History of the Industrial Workers of the World]]
[[Category:Industrial Workers of the World in the United States]]
[[Category:Italian-American history]]
[[Category:Political and cultural purges]]
[[Category:Political repression in the United States]]
[[Category:Presidency of Woodrow Wilson]]
[[Category:November 1919 in the United States]]
[[Category:December 1919 in the United States]]
[[Category:January 1920 in the United States]]
[[Category:Red Scare]]
[[Category:Law enforcement operations in the United States]]
[[Category:United States Department of Justice]]
[[Category:Reactions to the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
[[Category:Deportation from the United States]]