Editing Orientalism

{{Short description|Imitation or depiction of Eastern culture}}
{{About|the imitation or depiction of Eastern culture|the Christian denomination|Oriental Orthodoxy|the book|Orientalism (book){{!}}''Orientalism'' (book)}}
[[File:Jean-Léon Gérôme - Le charmeur de serpents.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], ''[[The Snake Charmer]]'', {{circa|1879}}. [[Clark Art Institute]].]]
In [[art history]], [[literature]], and [[cultural studies]], '''Orientalism''' is the imitation or depiction of aspects of the [[Eastern world]] (or "[[Orient]]") by writers, designers, and artists from the [[Western world]]. Orientalist painting, particularly of the [[Middle East]],<ref>Tromans, 6</ref> was one of the many specialties of 19th-century [[academic art]], and Western literature was influenced by a similar interest in Oriental themes.

Since the publication of [[Edward Said]]'s ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to use the term 'Orientalism' to refer to a general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian, and [[North Africa]]n societies. In Said's analysis, 'the West' [[Essentialism|essentializes]] these societies as static and undeveloped—thereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and reproduced in the service of [[Imperialism|imperial power]]. Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.<ref>Mahmood Mamdani, ''Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terrorism'', New York: Pantheon, 2004; {{ISBN|0-375-42285-4}}; p. 32.</ref> This allows 'Western imagination' to see 'Eastern' cultures and people as both alluring and a threat to Western civilization.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Karnadi |first=Chris |date=2022-03-30 |title=Horizon Forbidden West purports to be post-racial — but it's not |url=https://www.polygon.com/23002044/horizon-forbidden-west-tremortusk-orientalist-tropes |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Polygon |language=en-US}}</ref>

Journalist and art critic [[Jonathan Jones (journalist)|Jonathan Jones]] pushed back on Said's claims, and suggested that the majority of Orientalism was derived out of a genuine fascination and admiration of Eastern cultures, not prejudice or malice.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jones |first=Jonathan |date=2008-05-22 |title=Orientalism is not racism |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2008/may/22/orientalismisnotracism |access-date=2024-09-02 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==Background==
===Etymology===
[[File:Femmes d'Alger dans leur appartement, Eugène Delacroix - Musée du Louvre Peintures INV 3824.jpg|thumb|[[Eugène Delacroix]], ''The [[Women of Algiers]],'' 1834, the [[Louvre]], Paris]]
Orientalism refers to the [[Orient]], in reference and opposition to the [[Occident]]; the East and the West, respectively.<ref>Latin ''Oriens'', ''Oxford English Dictionary''. p. 000.</ref><ref>[[Said, Edward]]. "Orientalism," New York: Vintage Books, 1979. p. 364.</ref> The word Orient entered the English language as the [[Middle French]] ''orient''. The root word ''oriēns'', from the [[Latin]] ''Oriēns'', has synonymous [[denotation]]s: The eastern part of the world; the sky whence comes the sun; the east; the rising sun, etc.; yet the denotation changed as a term of geography.

In the "[[Monk's Tale]]" (1375), [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] wrote: "That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a fair citee." The term ''orient'' refers to countries east of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Southern Europe]]. In ''In Place of Fear'' (1952), [[Aneurin Bevan]] used an expanded denotation of the Orient that comprehended [[East Asia]]: "the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas." Edward Said said that Orientalism "enables the political, economic, cultural and social domination of the West, not just during colonial times, but also in the present."<ref>Said, Edward. "Orientalism," New York: Vintage Books, 1979: 357</ref>

===Art===
[[File:Anonymous Venetian orientalist painting, The Reception of the Ambassadors in Damascus', 1511, the Louvre.jpg|thumb|300px|Unknown Venetian artist, ''The Reception of the Ambassadors in Damascus'', 1511, [[Louvre]]. The deer with antlers in the foreground is not known ever to have existed in the wild in [[Syria]].]]
In [[art history]], the term ''Orientalism'' refers to the works of mostly 19th-century Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in [[Western Asia]], during the 19th century. At that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France, where the dismissive use of the term "Orientalist" was made popular by the art critic [[Jules-Antoine Castagnary]].<ref>Tromans, 20</ref> Despite such social disdain for a style of [[Representation (arts)|representational art]], the [[Société des Peintres Orientalistes Français|French Society of Orientalist Painters]] was founded in 1893, with [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] as the honorary president;<ref>Harding, 74</ref> whereas in Britain, the term Orientalist identified "an artist".<ref>Tromans, 19</ref>

The formation of the French Orientalist Painters Society changed the consciousness of practitioners towards the end of the 19th century, since artists could now see themselves as part of a distinct art movement.<ref>Benjamin, R., ''Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French North Africa, 1880–1930,'' 2003, pp. 57–78</ref> As an art movement, Orientalist painting is generally treated as one of the many branches of 19th-century [[academic art]]; however, many different styles of Orientalist art were in evidence. Art historians tend to identify two broad types of Orientalist artist: the realists who carefully painted what they observed such as Gustav Bauernfeint; and those who ''imagined'' Orientalist scenes without ever leaving the studio.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.1163/9789004282537_019|chapter = Middle Eastern Collections of Orientalist Painting at the Turn of the 21st Century: Paradoxical Reversal or Persistent Misunderstanding?|title = After Orientalism: Critical perspectives on Western Agency and Eastern Reappropriations|year = 2014|last1 = Volait|first1 = Mercedes|isbn = 9789004282520|chapter-url = https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01094882/file/AO_Volait%202011_author-version.pdf|editor-last1 = Pouillon|editor-first1 = François|editor-last2 = Vatin|editor-first2 = Jean-Claude|series=Leiden Studies in Islam and Society|volume=2|pages = 251–271| s2cid=190911367 }}</ref> French painters such as [[Eugène Delacroix]] (1798–1863) and [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1824–1904) are widely regarded as the leading luminaries of the Orientalist movement.<ref>Encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/art-and-architecture/art-general/orientalism</ref>

===Oriental studies===
{{main|Oriental studies}}
[[File:Georg_August_Wallin_by_Robert_Wilhelm_Ekman_-_Arppeanum_-_DSC05234.JPG|thumb|Professor [[G. A. Wallin]] (1811–1852), a [[Finland|Finnish]] explorer and orientalist, who was remembered for being one of the first Europeans to study and travel in the Middle East during the 1840s.<ref>''Notes Taken During a Journey Though Part of Northern Arabia in 1848''. Published by the [[Royal Geographical Society]] in 1851. ([https://archive.org/details/jstor-1798039 Online version.])</ref><ref>''Narrative of a Journeys From Cairo to Medina and Mecca by Suez, Arabia, Tawila, Al-Jauf, Jubbe, Hail and Nejd, in 1845'', Royal Geographical Society, 1854.</ref><ref>William R. Mead, ''G. A. Wallin and the Royal Geographical Society'', Studia Orientalia 23, 1958.</ref> Portrait of Wallin by [[R. W. Ekman]], 1853.]]
In the late 18th century, 19th century and early 20th century, the term [[Oriental studies|Orientalist]] identified a scholar who specialized in the languages and literatures of the [[Eastern world]]. Among such scholars were officials of the [[East India Company]], who said that the [[Arab culture]], the [[culture of India|Indian culture]], and the [[Islamic culture]]s should be studied as equal to the [[Culture of Europe|cultures of Europe]].<ref>{{cite book |last = Macfie |first = A. L.|year = 2002 |title = Orientalism |publisher = Longman| location = London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FrJAwAAQBAJ |isbn = 978-0582423862|ref = none| page = Ch One}}</ref> Among such scholars is the philologist [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], whose studies of [[Indo-European languages]] established modern [[philology]]. [[Company rule in India]] favored Orientalism as a technique for developing and maintaining positive relations with the Indians—until the 1820s, when the influence of "anglicists" such as [[Thomas Babington Macaulay]] and [[John Stuart Mill]] led to the promotion of a Western-style education.<ref>Holloway (2006), pp. 1–2. "The Orientalism espoused by Warren Hastings, William Jones and the early East India Company sought to maintain British domination over the Indian subcontinent through patronage of Hindu and Muslim languages and institutions, rather than through their eclipse by English speech and aggressive European acculturation."</ref>

Additionally, [[Hebraists|Hebraism]] and [[Jewish studies]] gained popularity among British and German scholars in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0008_0_08624.html|title=Hebraists, Christian|website=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> The academic field of [[Oriental studies]], which comprehended the cultures of the [[Near East]] and the [[Far East]], became the fields of [[Asian studies]] and [[Middle Eastern studies]].

===Critical studies===

====Edward Said====

In his book ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' (1978), [[cultural critic]] Edward Said redefines the term ''Orientalism'' to describe a pervasive Western tradition—academic and artistic—of prejudiced outsider-interpretations of the [[Eastern world]], which was shaped by the cultural attitudes of European [[imperialism]] in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Tromans, 24</ref> The thesis of ''Orientalism'' develops [[Antonio Gramsci]]'s theory of [[cultural hegemony]], and [[Michel Foucault]]'s theorisation of [[discourse]] (the [[knowledge]]-[[Power (social and political)|power]] relation) to criticise the scholarly tradition of Oriental studies. Said criticised contemporary scholars who perpetuated the tradition of outsider-interpretation of [[Arab]]o-Islamic cultures, especially [[Bernard Lewis]] and [[Fouad Ajami]].<ref>''Orientalism'' (1978) Preface, 2003 ed. p. xv.</ref><ref name= Xypolia2011>{{cite journal|last=Xypolia|first=Ilia|title=Orientations and Orientalism: The Governor Sir Ronald Storrs|journal=Journal of IslamicJerusalem Studies|year=2011|volume=11|pages=25–43|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/294256}}</ref> Furthermore, Said said that "The idea of representation is a theatrical one: the Orient is the stage on which the whole East is confined",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Edward W. |url=https://archive.org/details/orientalism0000said/page/63/mode/1up |title=Orientalism |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1979 |isbn=0-394-74067-X |location=New York |page=63 |language=English}}</ref> and that the subject of learned Orientalists "is not so much the East itself as the East made known, and therefore less fearsome, to the Western reading public".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Edward W. |url=https://archive.org/details/orientalism0000said/page/60/mode/1up |title=Orientalism |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1979 |isbn=0-394-74067-X |location=New York |page=60 |language=English}}</ref>

In the academy, the book ''Orientalism'' (1978) became a foundational text of [[Postcolonialism|post-colonial cultural studies]].<ref name="Xypolia2011" /> The analyses in Said's works are of Orientalism in European literature, especially [[French literature]], and do not analyse [[visual art]] and [[Orientalist painting]]. In that vein, the art historian [[Linda Nochlin]] applied Said's methods of critical analysis to art, "with uneven results".<ref>Tromans, 6, 11 (quoted), 23–25</ref> Other scholars see Orientalist paintings as depicting a myth and a fantasy that did not often correlate with reality.<ref>{{cite book |author=Marta Mamet–Michalkiewicz |url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789401200332/B9789401200332-s009.xml |title=Projections of Paradise |editor=Helga Ramsey-Kurz and Geetha Ganapathy-Doré |pages=145–146 |chapter=Paradise Regained?: The Harem in Fatima Mernissi's Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood|year=2011 |doi=10.1163/9789401200332_009 |isbn=9789401200332 }}</ref>

Said's work has influenced cultural criticisms of how industry and technology have further shaped the outsider-interpretation of the East in techno-Orientalism or postmodern Orientalism. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Roh |first1=David |last2=De Kosnik |first2=Abigail |last3=Huang |first3=Betsy |last4=Aiyu Niu |first4=Greta |last5=Hough |first5=Keneth |last6=Crum |first6=Jason |last7=Bascara |first7=Victor |last8=Liu |first8=Warren |last9=Chu |first9=Seo-Young |title=Techno-Orientalism : Imagining Asia in Speculative Fiction, History, and Media |date=2015-04-17 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=9780813570648}}</ref>
==== Islamic world ====
There is also a critical trend within the [[Islamic world]]. In 2002, it was estimated that in [[Saudi Arabia]] alone some 200 books and 2,000 articles discussing Orientalism had been penned by local or foreign scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.1163/9789004379183_018|chapter = Discussions on Orientalism in Present-Day Saudi Arabia|title = Modern Societies & the Science of Religions: Studies in Honour of Lammert Leertouwer|year = 2002|last1 = Al-Samarrai|first1 = Qasim|isbn = 9789004379183|editor-last1 = Wiegers|editor-first1 = Gerard|series=Numen Book Series|volume=95|pages = 283–301}} Page 284.</ref>

==In European architecture and design==
[[File:MoscheeSchwetzingen Panorama quad.jpg|thumb|Islamic inspiration: [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] ''Red Mosque'' in the garden of the [[Schwetzingen Palace]], [[Schwetzingen]], Germany, the only surviving example of an 18th-century European garden mosque, by [[Nicolas de Pigage]], 1779–1795<ref>{{cite book|author1=Richard Rogers |author2=Philip Gumuchdjian |author3=Denna Jones |display-authors=etal|title=Architecture The Whole Story|date=2014|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29148-1|page=140}}</ref>]]
The [[Moresque]] style of [[Renaissance]] [[ornament (art)|ornament]] is a European adaptation of the Islamic [[arabesque]] that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as [[bookbinding]], until almost the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent is known as [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture]]. One of the earliest examples is the façade of [[Guildhall, London]] (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by [[William Hodges]], and [[William Daniell|William]] and [[Thomas Daniell]] from about 1795.

[[Turquerie]] began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the [[Ottoman Empire]] itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century.

[[Chinoiserie]] is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially [[Rococo]] Chinoiserie, ''c.'' 1740–1770. From the [[Renaissance]] to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the [[East India Company]]), Denmark (the [[Danish East India Company]]), the Netherlands (the [[Dutch East India Company]]) and France (the [[Louis XIV's East India Company|French East India Company]]). Tin-glazed pottery made at [[Delft]] and other Dutch towns adopted genuine [[Ming dynasty|Ming]]-era [[blue and white porcelain]] from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at [[Meissen]] and other centers of true [[porcelain]] imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and [[teaware]]s and [[Chinese export porcelain]].

Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at [[Aranjuez]] near [[Madrid]]. [[Thomas Chippendale]]'s mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ''c.'' 1753–1770. Sober ''homages'' to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the ''tang'' evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "[[chinoiserie]]". Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (''tôle'') ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small [[pagoda]]s appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. [[Kew]] has a magnificent [[Great Pagoda, Kew Gardens|Great Pagoda]] designed by [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]]. The [[Wilhelma]] (1846) in [[Stuttgart]] is an example of [[Moorish Revival architecture]]. [[Leighton House Museum|Leighton House]], built for the artist [[Frederic Leighton]], has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work.

[[Image:Pavilion.jpg|thumb|The Brighton Royal Pavilion at dusk]]
From about 1805 onward Europe and America were gripped by architectural exoticism, exemplified by the [[Royal Pavilion]] in England. The domes were supposed to be ''Indian''. In 1848 the showman [[Phineas Taylor Barnum]] build a ''Iranistan'' mansion which was perceived to be ''Mogul style''. this triggered the construction of ''Oriental Villas'' in America. However, architectural exoticism was mostly limited to [[interior design]]s. Railroad stations and pumping stations were decorated with ''Moorish'' details. [[Pagoda]]s and arched doors in [[city park]]s were styled in Chinese or Japanese.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jürgen Osterhammel|title=The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century|date=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691169804|page=312-313}}</ref> After 1860, [[Japonism]] was sparked by the importing of [[ukiyo-e]], became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as [[Claude Monet]] and [[Edgar Degas]] were influenced by the Japanese style. [[Mary Cassatt]], an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images.<ref>The subject of Ives</ref> The paintings of [[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]]'s ''[[The Peacock Room]]'' demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects [[Greene and Greene]] were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the [[Gamble House (Pasadena, California)|Gamble House]] and other buildings.

[[Egyptian Revival architecture]] became popular in the early and mid-19th century and continued as a minor style into the early 20th century. [[Moorish Revival architecture]] began in the early 19th century in the German states and was particularly popular for building synagogues. [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture]] was a genre that arose in the late 19th century in the [[British Raj]].

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Chinese House Potsdam-, Germany.jpg|alt=Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie - Chinese House, Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, Germany, by Johann Gottfried Büring, 1755-1764|Chinese inspiration/[[Chinoiserie]] - [[Chinese House (Potsdam)|Chinese House]], [[Sanssouci Park]], [[Potsdam]], Germany, by [[Johann Gottfried Büring]], 1755–1764{{sfn|Sund|2019|p=104}}
Stockholm Sweden Royal-Domain-of Drottningholm Drottningholms-Kina-Slott-01.jpg|Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie: [[Chinese Pavilion at Drottningholm|Chinese Pavilion]], [[Ekerö Municipality]], [[Sweden]], by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz, 1763–1769<ref name=Fastighet>{{cite web|title=Kina slott, Drottningholm|url=http://www.sfv.se/fastigheter/sverige/stockholms-lan-ab/slott/drottningholm/kina-slott-drottningholm/|website=www.sfv.se|publisher=National Property Board of Sweden|access-date=2 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140806205518/http://www.sfv.se/fastigheter/sverige/stockholms-lan-ab/slott/drottningholm/kina-slott-drottningholm/|archive-date=6 August 2014}}</ref>
Nodding pagod, Meissen, Germany, c. 1760, porcelain, 1892.60.325 - Metropolitan Museum of Art - New York City - DSC07727.jpg|Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie: Pagod, based on Asian figures of [[Budai]] by [[Johann Joachim Kändler]], {{circa|1765}}, hard paste porcelain, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City{{sfn|Sund|2019|p=99, 100}}
File:Table MET DP106721.jpg|Egyptian inspiration/[[Egyptian Revival decorative arts|Egyptian Revival]]: Table, 1775–1780, wood, carved, painted, and partly gilded, and black granite top not original to table, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Haga Park March 2015 01.jpg|Islamic inspiration: Turkish Tent, [[Hagaparken]], [[Stockholm]], Sweden, by [[Louis Jean Desprez]], 1787{{sfn|Sund|2019|p=151}}
The Royal Pavilion Brighton UK.jpg|alt=Islamic inspiration: Royal Pavilion, Brighton, UK, by John Nash, 1787-1823|Islamic inspiration: [[Royal Pavilion]], [[Brighton]], UK, by [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]], 1787–1823{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=262}}
File:2012-07-17 - Landtagsprojekt München - Englischer Garten - Chinesischer-Turm - 7362.jpg|Chinese inspiration/Chinoiserie: [[Chinese Tower]] in the [[Englischer Garten]], [[Munich]], Germany, by [[Johann Baptist Lechner]], 1789–1790, reconstructed in 1952
Hôtel de Beauharnais.jpg|Egyptian inspiration/[[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian Revival]]: Portico of the [[Hôtel Beauharnais]], Paris, L.E.N. Bataille, {{circa|1804}}{{sfn|Sund|2019|p=216}}
File:Vase MET DP-1687-023.jpg|Islamic inspiration: Vase, {{circa|1867}}, porcelain, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Cabinet, by Léon Dromard, Paris, circa 1874-1889, pear wood, inv. 2014.3.1 MAD Paris.jpg|Japanese inspiration/[[Japonisme]]: Cabinet, by Léon Dromard, {{circa}}1874–1889, pear wood, [[Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris|Museum of Decorative Arts]], Paris
2043-05370 De Grote Tempel van de vrijmetselaarsloge Les Amis Philanthropes.jpg|Egyptian inspiration/Egyptian Revival: Interior of the Temple maçonnique des Amis philanthropes, [[Brussels]], Belgium, 1877–1879, by [[Adolphe Samyn]], with the help of [[Ernest Hendrickx]], J. De Blois and [[Alban Chambon]]
Vase Espoir.jpg|Islamic inspiration: Vase Espoir, by [[Émile Gallé]], 1889, acid-etched glass, with enamelled and gilt decoration, [[Musée de l'École de Nancy]], [[Nancy, France|Nancy]], France
Le Palais de la Turquie, at the 1900 Paris Exposition (cropped).jpg|Islamic inspiration: Turkish Pavilion at the [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900 Paris Exposition]], Paris, by [[Émile Dubuisson]], {{circa}}1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ageorges|first1=Sylvain|title=Sur les traces des Expositions universelles – 1855 Paris 1937|date=2006|publisher=Parigramme|isbn=978-2-8409-6444-5|page=122|url=|language=fr}}</ref>

Praha - Wilsonova - Central Station - Jugendstil V.jpg|Japanese inspiration: Mascaron of the [[Praha hlavní nádraží]], [[Prague]], Czech Republic, designed by [[Josef Fanta]], 1901–1909

18 Calea Dorobanților, Bucharest (04).jpg|Islamic inspiration: Ceiling in the Filitti House ([[Calea Dorobanților]] no. 18), Bucharest, by [[Ernest Doneaus]], {{circa}}1910<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marinache|first1=Oana|title=Ernest Donaud – visul liniei|date=2015|publisher=Editura Istoria Artei|isbn=978-606-94042-8-7|page=79|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

File:Oculus, Maurel & Prom, rue des Mathurins, Paris 29 April 2017.jpg|[[Thai art|Thai]] inspiration – Monumental [[corbel]]s of a [[Société financière française et coloniale]] headquarter ([[Rue des Mathurins]] no. 53), Paris, unknown architect, {{circa}}1910

The Baron Palace.JPG|[[Indian architecture|Indian]] inspiration – [[Baron Empain Palace]], [[Heliopolis, Cairo|Heliopolis]], Egypt, by [[Alexandre Marcel]], 1911

Fancy dress costume MET DT7446.jpg|Islamic inspiration: Fancy dress costume, by [[Paul Poiret]], 1911, metal, silk, cotton, Metropolitan Museum of Art

VogueMagazine15Nov1911.jpg|Japanese inspiration/Japonisme: Cover of ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'', November 15, 1911, by [[George Wolfe Plank]], [[chromolithograph]], multiple locations<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=Bird – Exploring the Winged World|date=2021|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-1-83866-140-3|page=234|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Paris 10e Cinéma Le Louxor 965.jpg|alt=Mix of Egyptian Revival and Art Deco: Le Louxor Cinema, Paris, 1919–1921, by Henri Zipcy|Mix of Egyptian Revival and [[Art Deco]]: [[Le Louxor]] Cinema, Paris, by [[Henri Zipcy]], 1919–1921<ref>{{cite book|last1=Texier|first1=Simon|title=Architectures Art Déco – Paris et Environs – 100 Bâtiments Remarquable|date=2022|publisher=Parigramme|isbn=978-2-37395-136-3|page=37|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>

==Orientalist art==
{{further|Turquerie}}
Orientalist tendencies in Western art have a long history. Oriental scenes may be found in medieval and Renaissance art, and [[Islamic art]] has itself [[Islamic influences on Western art|had a profound and formative influence]] on Western artistic output. Oriental subject matter further proliferated in the 19th century, in step with Western colonialism in Africa and Asia.

===Pre-19th century===
[[File:Bellini, Gentile - Sultan Mehmet II.jpg|thumb|240px|''[[Sultan]] [[Mehmed II]]'', attr. [[Gentile Bellini]], 1480]]
Depictions of Islamic "[[Moors]]" and "[[Turkish people|Turks]]" (imprecisely named [[Muslim]] groups of [[southern Europe]], [[North Africa]] and [[West Asia]]) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in [[Early Netherlandish painting]], secondary figures, especially Romans, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the [[Near East]]. The [[Biblical Magi|Three Magi]] in [[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity scenes]] were an especial focus for this. In general art with Biblical settings would not be considered as Orientalist except where contemporary or historicist Middle Eastern detail or settings is a feature of works, as with some paintings by [[Gentile Bellini]] and others, and a number of 19th-century works. Renaissance [[Venice]] had a phase of particular interest in depictions of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in painting and [[old master print|prints]]. Gentile Bellini, who travelled to [[Constantinople]] and painted the Sultan, and [[Vittore Carpaccio]] were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of [[Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting]] sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.<ref>King and Sylvester, throughout</ref>

[[Jean-Étienne Liotard]] (1702–1789) visited [[Istanbul]] and painted numerous [[pastel]]s of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish attire for much of the time when he was back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th-century artist [[Gavin Hamilton (artist)|Gavin Hamilton]] found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in [[history painting]] by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travelers were advised to do. His huge ''James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of [[Palmyra]]'' (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travelers wearing what look very like [[toga]]s. Many travelers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including [[Lord Byron]], as did many who had never left Europe, including [[Madame de Pompadour]].<ref>Christine Riding, ''Travellers and Sitters: The Orientalist Portrait'', in Tromans, 48–75</ref> The growing French interest in exotic Oriental luxury and lack of liberty in the 18th century to some extent reflected a pointed analogy with France's own [[absolute monarchy]].<ref name="McCabe2008">{{cite book|author=Ina Baghdiantz McCabe|title=Orientalism in Early Modern France: Eurasian Trade, Exoticism and the Ancien Regime|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XnS6lVLapI4C&pg=PA134|access-date=31 August 2013|date=2008|publisher=Berg|isbn=978-1-84520-374-0|page=134}}</ref> Byron's poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of [[Romanticism]] in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art.

===French Orientalism===
[[File:Leon Cogniet - L Expedition D Egypte Sous Les Ordres De Bonaparte.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Léon Cogniet]], ''The 1798 Egyptian Expedition Under the Command of Bonaparte'' (1835; [[Musée du Louvre]]).]]
[[File:Le Bain Turc, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]], ''[[The Turkish Bath]]'', 1862]]
[[File:Eugène Grasset - A La Place Clichy.jpg|thumb|"A La Place Clichy" – Advertisement for [[oriental rugs]] by [[Eugène Grasset]]]]
French Orientalist painting was transformed by [[Napoleon]]'s ultimately unsuccessful [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|invasion of Egypt and Syria]] in 1798–1801, which stimulated great public interest in [[Egyptology]], and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon's court painters, especially [[Antoine-Jean Gros]], although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, ''[[Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa]]'' (1804) and ''[[Battle of Abukir (1799)|Battle of Abukir]]'' (1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective ''Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids'' (1810). [[Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson]]'s ''[[The Revolt of Cairo]]'' (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated ''Description de l'Égypte'' was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on [[antiquities]].<ref>Harding, 69–70</ref>

[[Eugène Delacroix]]'s first great success, ''[[The Massacre at Chios]]'' (1824) was painted before he visited Greece or the East, and followed his friend [[Théodore Géricault]]'s ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'' in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. [[Greece]] was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively as exotic as the more Near Eastern parts of the empire. Delacroix followed up with ''[[Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi]]'' (1827), commemorating a siege of the previous year, and ''[[The Death of Sardanapalus]]'', inspired by [[Lord Byron]], which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting.<ref>Nochlin, 294–296; Tromans, 128</ref> In 1832, Delacroix finally visited what is now [[Algeria]], recently conquered by the French, and [[Morocco]], as part of a diplomatic mission to the [[Sultan of Morocco]]. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the North African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching women, and many of his scenes featured [[Jews]] or warriors on horses. However, he was apparently able to get into the women's quarters or [[harem]] of a house to sketch what became ''[[Women of Algiers]]''; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity.<ref>Harding, 81</ref>

When Ingres, the director of the French ''Académie de peinture'', painted a highly colored vision of a ''[[hammam]]'', he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model). More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient.<ref name="Tromans, 135">Tromans, 135</ref> This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in [[Henri Matisse]]'s orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres' pupil [[Théodore Chassériau]] (1819–1856) had already achieved success with his nude ''[[The Toilette of Esther]]'' (1841, [[Louvre]]) and equestrian portrait of ''Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed by his Escort'' (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the [[steamship]] made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists traveled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes.

In many of these works, artists portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say [[stereotype]]d. Such works typically concentrated on Arab, Jewish, and other Semitic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as [[Eugène Delacroix]], [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] and [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]] painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging [[odalisque]]s. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in [[genre painting]], have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode";<ref>Tromans. 136</ref> (''Gallery, below'')

Orientalist sculptors include [[Charles Cordier]].

===British Orientalism===
[[File:William Holman Hunt 002.jpg|thumb|left|190px|[[William Holman Hunt]], ''A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship'', 1854–61]]
Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th-century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for nude women. The leading British [[genre painter]], [[David Wilkie (artist)|Sir David Wilkie]] was 55 when he travelled to [[Istanbul]] and [[Jerusalem]] in 1840, dying off [[Gibraltar]] during the return voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a [[Martin Luther]] in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christian [[iconography]]. He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] [[William Holman Hunt]] and [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]] (in ''[[The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia]]'') had similar motivations,<ref>Tromans, 14 (quoted), 162–165</ref> giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start.<ref>Nochlin, 289, disputing Rosenthal assertion, and insisting that "there must be some attempt to clarify ''whose'' reality we are talking about".</ref> The French artist [[James Tissot]] also used contemporary Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little regard for historical costumes or other fittings.

William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included ''[[The Scapegoat (painting)|The Scapegoat]]'' (1856), ''[[The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple]]'' (1860), and ''[[The Shadow of Death]]'' (1871). ''[[The Miracle of the Holy Fire (painting)|The Miracle of the Holy Fire]]'' (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most European visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His ''A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship'' (1854–61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fiancé's face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as a Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick.<ref>Tromans, 16–17 and see index</ref> This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into an Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings.

When Gérôme exhibited ''For Sale; Slaves at Cairo'' at the [[Royal Academy]] in London in 1871, it was "widely found offensive", partly because the British involvement in successfully suppressed the [[Slavery in Africa|slave trade]] in Egypt, but also for cruelty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake".<ref>Tromans, 135–136</ref> But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Gérôme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists"<ref>Tromans, 43</ref> Nonetheless, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and "the iconography of the ''[[odalisque]]'' ... the Oriental [[Sexual slavery|sex slave]] whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master – is almost entirely French in origin",<ref name="Tromans, 135"/> though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other European painters.

[[John Frederick Lewis]], who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in [[Cairo]], painted highly detailed works showing both realistic [[Genre painting|genre scenes]] of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His careful and seemingly affectionate representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Gérôme in his later works. He "never painted a nude", and his wife modelled for several of his harem scenes,<ref>Tromans, quote 135; 134 on his wife; generally: 22–32, 80–85, 130–135, and see index</ref> which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter [[Lord Leighton]], imagine "the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... [where]... women's fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks".<ref name="Tromans, 135"/>

Other artists concentrated on [[landscape painting]], often of desert scenes, including [[Richard Dadd]] and [[Edward Lear]]. [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]] (1796–1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of [[antiquities]], and published very successful books of [[lithograph]]s from them.<ref>Tromans, 102–125, covers landscape</ref>[[File:1872 Vereshchagin Triumphierend anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Vasily Vereshchagin]], ''They are Triumphant'', 1872]]

===Russian Orientalism===
[[File:John Singer Sargent, Fumée d'ambre gris (Smoke of Ambergris).jpg|thumb|[[John Singer Sargent]], ''Fumée d'ambre gris (Smoke of Ambergris)'', 1880. [[Clark Art Institute]]. This painting combines details of costume and setting adapted from different regions across North Africa.]]
Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of [[Central Asia]] that Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the [[Mongol]]s who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rarely shown in a good light.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schimmelpenninck van der Oye|first=David|date=2009-12-01|title=Vasilij V. Vereshchagin's Canvases of Central Asian Conquest|url=http://journals.openedition.org/asiecentrale/1196|journal=Cahiers d'Asie centrale|language=en|issue=17/18|pages=179–209|issn=1270-9247}}</ref> The explorer [[Nikolay Przhevalsky|Nikolai Przhevalsky]] played a major role in popularising an exotic view of "the Orient" and advocating imperial expansion.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brower|url=http://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.3673|title=Imperial Russia and Its Orient—the Renown of Nikolai Przhevalsky|date=1994}}</ref>

"[[The Five (composers)|The Five]]" Russian composers were prominent 19th-century Russian [[composers]] who worked together to create a distinct [[Russian classical music|national style of classical music]]. One hallmark of "The Five" composers was their reliance on orientalism.<ref name="figes391">Figes, Orlando, <nowiki>''</nowiki>Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia<nowiki>''</nowiki> (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002), 391.</ref> Many quintessentially "Russian" works were composed in orientalist style, such as Balakirev's ''[[Islamey]]'', Borodin's ''[[Prince Igor]]'' and Rimsky-Korsakov's ''[[Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov)|Scheherazade]]''.<ref name="figes391" /> As leader of "The Five", Balakirev encouraged the use of eastern themes and harmonies to set their "Russian" music apart from the German symphonism of [[Anton Rubinstein]] and other Western-oriented composers.<ref name="figes391" />

=== German Orientalism ===
Edward Said originally wrote that Germany did not have a politically motivated Orientalism because its colonial empire did not expand in the same areas as France and Britain. Said later stated that Germany "had in common with Anglo-French and later American Orientalism [...] a kind of intellectual authority over the Orient". However, Said also wrote that "there was nothing in Germany to correspond to the Anglo-French presence in India, the Levant, North Africa. Moreover, the German Orient was almost exclusively a scholarly, or at least a classical, Orient: it was made the subject of lyrics, fantasies, and even novels, but it was never actual."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Jennifer|date=2004|title=German Orientalism: Introduction|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/181657|journal=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East|volume=24|issue=2|pages=97–100|doi=10.1215/1089201X-24-2-97|s2cid=144782212 |issn=1548-226X}}</ref> According to [[Suzanne L. Marchand]], German scholars were the "pace-setters" in oriental studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marchand|first=Suzanne L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/283802855|title=German orientalism in the age of empire : religion, race, and scholarship|date=2009|publisher=German Historical Institute|isbn=978-0-521-51849-9|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=283802855}}</ref> [[Robert Irwin (writer)|Robert Irwin]] wrote that "until the outbreak of the Second World War, German dominance of Orientalism was practically unchallenged."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Irwin|first=Robert|date=2001-06-21|title=An Endless Progression of Whirlwinds|language=en|volume=23|work=London Review of Books|issue=12|url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v23/n12/robert-irwin/an-endless-progression-of-whirlwinds|access-date=2021-09-04|issn=0260-9592}}</ref>

=== Elsewhere ===
[[File:Theodor Aman - Interior de harem.jpg|thumb|Harem Interior, by [[Theodor Aman]], 1886, oil on canvas, Theodor Aman Museum, [[Bucharest]], [[Romania]]]]
[[Nationalist]] historical painting in [[Central Europe]] and the [[Balkans]] dwelt on oppression during the Ottoman Empire period, battles between Ottoman and Christian armies, as well as themes like the [[Ottoman Imperial Harem]], although the latter was a less common theme than in French depictions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Malečková|first=Jitka|url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004440791/BP000002.xml|title=The Return of the "Terrible Turk"|date=2020-09-24|pages=26–69|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-44079-1|doi=10.1163/9789004440791_003|s2cid=238091901}}</ref>

The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter was in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers.<ref>Tromans, 7, 21</ref>

==Pop culture==
[[File:Kairo 1856 (Francis Frith).jpg|thumb|alt=Black and white photograph of a walled city in the desert, showing domes and minarets.|Photograph of [[Cairo]] by [[Francis Frith]], 1856]]

Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. [[Lord Byron]] with his four long "Turkish tales" in poetry, is one of the most important writers to make exotic fantasy Oriental settings a significant theme in the literature of [[Romanticism]]. [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera ''[[Aida]]'' (1871) is set in [[Egypt]] as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a [[Militarism|militaristic]] Egypt's tyranny over [[Ethiopia]].<ref>Beard and Gloag 2005, 128</ref>

Irish Orientalism had a particular character, drawing on various beliefs about early historical links between Ireland and the East, few of which are now regarded as historically correct. The mythical [[Milesians (Irish)|Milesians]] are one example of this. The Irish were also conscious of the views of other nations seeing them as comparably backward to the East, and Europe's "backyard Orient."<ref>Lennon, Joseph. 2004. ''Irish Orientalism''. New York: [[Syracuse University Press]].</ref>

===In music===
[[File:Auguste mariette - croquis pour la première d'Aïda.jpg|thumb|alt=Colour sketch of an Ancient-Egyptian-styled male costume.|Costume design for [[Aida]] by [[Auguste Mariette]], 1871]]
{{further|Turkish music (style)}}
In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the ''[[Alafranga and alaturca|alla Turca]]'', used by multiple composers including [[Mozart]] and [[Beethoven]].<ref name="Beard and Gloag 2005, 129">Beard and Gloag 2005, 129</ref> The [[Musicology|musicologist]] [[Richard Taruskin]] identified in 19th-century Russian music a strain of Orientalism: "the East as a sign or metaphor, as imaginary geography, as historical fiction, as the reduced and totalized other against which we construct our (not less reduced and totalized) sense of ourselves."<ref>Taruskin (1997): p. 153</ref> Taruskin conceded Russian composers, unlike those in France and Germany, felt an "ambivalence" to the theme since "Russia was a contiguous empire in which Europeans, living side by side with 'orientals', identified (and intermarried) with them far more than in the case of other colonial powers".<ref>Taruskin (1997): p. 158</ref>

Nonetheless, Taruskin characterized Orientalism in Romantic Russian music as having melodies "full of close little ornaments and melismas",<ref>Taruskin (1997): p. 156</ref> chromatic accompanying lines, drone bass<ref name="taruskin165">Taruskin (1997): p. 165</ref>—characteristics which were used by [[Mikhail Glinka|Glinka]], [[Mily Balakirev|Balakirev]], [[Alexander Borodin|Borodin]], [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov|Rimsky-Korsakov]], [[Sergei Lyapunov|Lyapunov]], and [[Sergei Rachmaninoff|Rachmaninov]]. These musical characteristics evoke:<ref name="taruskin165" /><blockquote>not just the East, but the seductive East that emasculates, enslaves, renders passive. In a word, it signifies the promise of the experience of ''nega'', a prime attribute of the orient as imagined by the Russians.... In opera and song, ''nega'' often simply denotes S-E-X a la russe, desired or achieved.</blockquote>Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of [[exoticism]], including the influence of [[Javanese gamelan]]<ref>Howat 1994, 46–57</ref> in [[Claude Debussy]]'s piano music all the way to the [[sitar]] being used in recordings by [[the Beatles]].<ref name="Beard and Gloag 2005, 129"/>

In the United Kingdom, [[Gustav Holst]] composed ''[[Beni Mora]]'' evoking a languid, heady Arabian atmosphere.

Orientalism, in a more ''[[Camp (style)|camp]]'' fashion also found its way into [[exotica]] music in the late 1950s, especially the works of [[Les Baxter]], for example, his composition "City of Veils".

===In literature===
[[File:Oriental Stories Spring 1932.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Almost naked Indian woman dancing in front of a Hindu statue.|Cover of the pulp magazine ''[[Oriental Stories]]'', Spring 1932]]
The [[Romanticism|Romantic movement]] in literature began in 1785 and ended around 1830. The term ''Romantic'' references the ideas and culture that writers of the time reflected in their work. During this time, the culture and objects of the East began to have a profound effect on Europe. Extensive traveling by artists and members of the European elite brought travelogues and sensational tales back to the West creating a great interest in all things "foreign". '''Romantic Orientalism''' incorporates [[Geography of Africa|African]] and [[Geography of Asia|Asian]] geographic locations, well-known colonial and "native" personalities, [[folklore]], and philosophies to create a literary environment of colonial exploration from a distinctly European worldview. The current trend in analysis of this movement references a belief in this literature as a mode to justify European colonial endeavors with the expansion of territory.<ref>{{cite web|title=Romantic Orientalism: Overview|url=http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/nael/romantic/topic_4/welcome.htm|website=The Norton Anthology of English Literature|access-date=3 May 2015}}</ref>

In his novel ''[[Salammbô (novel)|Salammbô]]'', [[Gustave Flaubert]] used ancient [[Carthage]] in North Africa as a [[foil (literature)|foil]] to ancient [[Rome]]. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient [[Semitic cultures]].

===In film===
[[File:The Sheik - Rudolph Valentino and Agnes Ayres.jpg|thumb|alt=Black and white screenshot from the film The Sheik, with the man in Arab costume and the woman in Western clothing.|[[Rudolph Valentino]] and [[Agnes Ayres]] in ''[[The Sheik (film)|The Sheik]]'', 1921]]
Said argues that the continuity of Orientalism into the present can be found in influential images, particularly through the [[Cinema of the United States]], as the West has now grown to include the United States.<ref name="Sharp">{{Cite book|title = Geographies of Postcolonialism|last = Sharp|first = Joanne|page = 25}}</ref> Many [[Blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] feature films, such as the ''[[Indiana Jones]]'' series, ''[[The Mummy (franchise)|The Mummy]]'' films, and Disney's ''[[Aladdin (franchise)|Aladdin]]'' film series demonstrate the imagined geographies of the East.<ref name="Sharp" /> The films usually portray the lead heroic characters as being from the Western world, while the villains often come from the East.<ref name="Sharp" /> The representation of the Orient has continued in film, although this representation does not necessarily have any truth to it.
In ''[[The Teahouse of the August Moon (film)|The Tea House of the August Moon]]'' (1956), as argued by Pedro Iacobelli, there are tropes of orientalism. He notes, that the film "tells us more about the Americans and the American's image of [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] rather than about the [[Okinawan people]]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Iacobelli|first=Pedro|date=2011|title=Orientalism, Mass Culture and the US Administration in Okinawa|journal=ANU Japanese Studies Online|language=en|issue=4|hdl-access=free|hdl=1885/22180|pages=19–35}} pp. 25–26.</ref> The film characterizes the Okinawans as "merry but backward" and "de-politicized", which ignored the real-life Okinawan political protests over forceful land acquisition by the American military at the time.

Kimiko Akita, in ''Orientalism and the Binary of Fact and Fiction in 'Memoirs of a Geisha''', argues that ''[[Memoirs of a Geisha (film)|Memoirs of a Geisha]]'' (2005) contains orientalist tropes and deep "cultural misrepresentations". She states that ''Memoirs of a Geisha'' "reinforces the idea of [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]] and [[geisha]] as exotic, backward, irrational, dirty, profane, promiscuous, bizarre, and enigmatic."<ref>{{Cite web |author=Kimiko Akita |date=2006 |title=Orientalism and the Binary of Fact and Fiction in Memoirs of a Geisha |url=https://www.globalmediajournal.com/open-access/orientalism-and-the-binary-of-fact-and-fiction-in-memoirs-of-a-geisha.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.globalmediajournal.com/open-access/orientalism-and-the-binary-of-fact-and-fiction-in-memoirs-of-a-geisha.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=University of Central Florida |language=EN }}</ref>

===In dance===
During the Romantic period of the nineteenth century, [[ballet]] developed a preoccupation with the exotic. This exoticism ranged from ballets set in Scotland to those based on ethereal creatures.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-19|title=At What Point Does Appreciation Become Appropriation?|url=https://www.dancemagazine.com/cultural-appropriation-in-dance-2639820032.html?rebelltitem=6#rebelltitem6?rebelltitem=6|access-date=2020-12-18|website=Dance Magazine|language=en}}</ref> By the later part of the century, ballets were capturing the presumed essence of the mysterious East. These ballets often included sexual themes and tended to be based on assumptions of people rather than on concrete facts. Orientalism is apparent in numerous ballets.

The Orient motivated several major ballets, which have survived since the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. ''[[Le Corsaire]]'' premiered in 1856 at the Paris Opera, with choreography by [[Joseph Mazilier]].<ref name="abt corsaire">{{cite web|title=Le Corsaire|url=http://www.abt.org/education/archive/ballets/corsairefl.html|website=ABT|publisher=Ballet Theatre Foundation, Inc.|access-date=22 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030506185318/http://www.abt.org/education/archive/ballets/corsairefl.html|archive-date=2003-05-06}}</ref> [[Marius Petipa]] re-choreographed the ballet for the Maryinsky Ballet in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1899.<ref name="abt corsaire" /> Its complex storyline, loosely based on Lord Byron's [[The Corsair|poem]],<ref name=Au/> takes place in Turkey and focuses on a love story between a pirate and a beautiful slave girl. Scenes include a bazaar where women are sold to men as slaves, and the Pasha's Palace, which features his harem of wives.<ref name="abt corsaire" /> In 1877, Marius Petipa choreographed ''[[La Bayadère]]'', the love story of an Indian temple dancer and Indian warrior. This ballet was based on Kalidasa's play ''[[Shakuntala (play)|Sakuntala]]''.<ref name=Au>{{cite book|last1=Au|first1=Susan|title=Ballet and Modern Dance|url=https://archive.org/details/balletmoderndanc00ausu|url-access=registration|publisher=Thames & Hudson, Ltd|year=1988|isbn=9780500202197}}</ref> ''La Bayadere'' used vaguely Indian costuming, and incorporated Indian inspired hand gestures into classical ballet. In addition, it included a 'Hindu Dance,' motivated by Kathak, an Indian dance form.<ref name="Au" /> Another ballet, ''Sheherazade'', choreographed by [[Michel Fokine]] in 1910 to music by [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]], is a story involving a shah's wife and her illicit relations with a Golden Slave, originally played by [[Vaslav Nijinsky]].<ref name="Au" /> The ballet's controversial fixation on sex includes an orgy in an oriental harem. When the shah discovers the actions of his numerous wives and their lovers, he orders the deaths of those involved.<ref name="Au" /> ''Sheherazade'' was loosely based on folktales of questionable authenticity.{{Cn|date=May 2025}}

Several lesser-known ballets of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century also show their Orientalism. For instance, in Petipa's ''[[The Pharaoh's Daughter]]'' (1862), an Englishman imagines himself, in an [[opium]]-induced dream, as an Egyptian boy who wins the love of the Pharaoh's daughter, Aspicia.<ref name="Au" /> Aspicia's costume consisted of 'Egyptian' décor on a [[Tutu (clothing)|tutu]].<ref name="Au" /> Another ballet, Hippolyte Monplaisir's ''Brahma'', which premiered in 1868 in La Scala, Italy,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jowitt|first1=Deborah|title=Time and the Dancing Image|page=55}}</ref> is a story that involves romantic relations between a slave girl and [[Brahma]], the [[Hindu deities|Hindu god]], when he visits earth.<ref name="Au" /> In addition, in 1909, Serge Diagilev included ''[[Cléopâtre (ballet)|Cléopâtre]]'' in the [[Ballets Russes]]' repertory. With its theme of sex, this revision of Fokine's ''Une Nuit d'Egypte'' combined the "exoticism and grandeur" that audiences of this time craved.<ref name="Au" />

As one of the pioneers of modern dance in America, [[Ruth St Denis]] also explored Orientalism in her dancing. Her dances were not authentic; she drew inspiration from photographs, books, and later from museums in Europe.<ref name=Au/> Yet, the exoticism of her dances catered to the interests of society women in America.<ref name="Au" /> She included ''Radha'' and ''The Cobras'' in her 'Indian' program in 1906. In addition, she found success in Europe with another Indian-themed ballet, ''The Nautch'' in 1908. In 1909, upon her return to America, St Denis created her first 'Egyptian' work, ''Egypta''.<ref name="Au" /> Her preference for Orientalism continued, culminating with ''Ishtar of the Seven Gates'' in 1923, about a Babylonian goddess.<ref name="Au" />

While Orientalism in dance climaxed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is still present in modern times. For instance, major ballet companies regularly perform ''[[Le Corsaire]]'', ''[[La Bayadère|La Bayadere]]'', and ''[[Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov)|Sheherazade]]''. Furthermore, Orientalism is also found within newer versions of ballets. In versions of ''[[The Nutcracker]]'', such as the 2010 [[American Ballet Theatre]] production, the Chinese dance uses an arm position with the arms bent at a ninety-degree angle and the index fingers pointed upwards, while the Arabian dance uses two dimensional bent arm movements. Inspired by ballets of the past, stereotypical 'Oriental' movements and arm positions have developed and remain.

==Religion==
{{Spirituality sidebar|orientalist}}
An exchange of Western and Eastern ideas about spirituality developed as the West traded with and established colonies in Asia.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} The first Western translation of a Sanskrit text appeared in 1785,{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=176}} marking the growing interest in Indian culture and languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} Translations of the ''Upanishads'', which [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] called "the consolation of my life", first appeared in 1801 and 1802.{{sfn|Renard|2010|pp=177–178}}{{refn|group=note|Schopenhauer also called his poodle "Atman".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}}} Early translations also appeared in other European languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|pp=183–184}} 19th-century [[transcendentalism]] was influenced by Asian spirituality, prompting [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] (1803–1882) to pioneer the idea of spirituality as a distinct field.<ref>Schmidt, Leigh Eric. ''Restless Souls: The Making of American Spirituality''. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. {{ISBN|0-06-054566-6}}.</ref>

A major force in the mutual influence of Eastern and Western [[spirituality]] and religiosity was the [[Theosophical Society]],{{sfn|Renard|2010|pp=185–188}}{{sfn|Sinari|2000}} a group searching for ancient wisdom from the East and spreading Eastern religious ideas in the West.{{sfn|Lavoie|2012}}{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} One of its salient features was the belief in "[[Masters of the Ancient Wisdom (Theosophy)|Masters of Wisdom]]",{{sfn|Gilchrist|1996|p=32}}{{refn|group=note|See also [[Ascended Master Teachings]]}} "beings, human or once human, who have transcended the normal frontiers of knowledge, and who make their wisdom available to others".{{sfn|Gilchrist|1996|p=32}} The Theosophical Society also spread Western ideas in the East, contributing to its modernisation and a growing nationalism in the Asian colonies.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}}

The [[Theosophical Society]] had a major influence on [[Buddhist modernism]]{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} and [[Hindu reform movements]].{{sfn|Sinari|2000}}{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} Between 1878 and 1882, the Society and the [[Arya Samaj]] were united as the [[Theosophical Society of the Arya Samaj]].{{sfn|Johnson|1994|p=107}} [[Helena Blavatsky]], along with [[Henry Steel Olcott|H. S. Olcott]] and [[Anagarika Dharmapala]], was instrumental in the Western transmission and revival of [[Theravada Buddhism]].{{sfn|McMahan|2008|p=98}}{{sfn|Gombrich|1996|pp=185–188}}{{sfn|Fields|1992|pp=83–118}}

Another major influence was [[Vivekananda]],{{sfn|Renard|2010|pp=189–193}}{{sfn|Michaelson|2009|pp=79–81}} who popularised his modernised interpretation{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}} of [[Advaita Vedanta]] during the later 19th and early 20th century in both India and the West,{{sfn|Michaelson|2009|pp=79–81}} emphasising ''anubhava'' ("personal experience") over scriptural authority.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|p=1}}

=== Islam ===
With the spread of [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern]] religious and cultural ideals towards the [[Western world|West]], came in with studies and certain illustrations that depicts certain regions and religions under the [[Western world|Western]] perspective. Many the aspects or views are often turned into the ideas that the [[Western world|West]] have adopted onto those cultural and religious ideals. One of the more adopted views can be depicted through [[Western world|Western]] context on [[Islam]] and the [[Middle East]]. Under the adopted view of [[Islam]] under the Western context, [[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]] falls under the category of the Western perspective of thinking that shifts through social constructs that refers towards representations of the religion or culture in a subjective view point.<ref name="Kerboua-2016">{{Cite journal|last=Kerboua|first=Salim|date=2016|title=From Orientalism to Neo-Orientalism: Early and Contemporary Constructions of Islam and the Muslim World|url=|journal=Intellectual Discourse|volume=24|pages=7–34|id={{ProQuest|<!-- insert ProQuest data here --> }}}}</ref> The concept of Orientalism dates back to precolonial eras, as the main European powers acquired and perceived of territory, resources, knowledge, and control of the regions in the East.<ref name="Kerboua-2016" /> The term Orientalism, depicts further into the historical context of antagonism and misrepresentation into the tendencies of a growing layer of [[Western world|Western]] inclusion and influence on foreign culture and ideals.<ref name=":1b">{{Cite journal|last=Mutman|first=Mahmut|date=1992–1993|title=Under the Sign of Orientalism: The West vs. Islam|url=|journal=University of Minnesota Press|volume=23|pages=165–197}}</ref>

In the religious perspective under Islam, the term Orientalism applies in similar meaning as the outlook from the Western perspective, mainly in the eyes of the [[Christianity and Islam|Christian]] majority.<ref name=":1b"/> The main contributor of the depiction of Oriental perspectives or illustrations on [[Islam]] and other Middle Eastern cultures derives from the imperial and colonial influences and powers that attribute to formation of multiple fields of geographical, political, educational, and scientific elements.<ref name=":1b"/> The combination of these different genres reveal significant division among people of those cultures and reinforces the ideals set from the Western perspective.<ref name=":1b"/> With Islam, historically scientific discoveries, research, inventions, or ideas that were presented before and contributed to many other European breakthroughs are not affiliated with the previous [[Islam]]ic scientists.<ref name=":1b"/>  From the exclusion of past contributions and initial works further lead to narrative of the concept of Orientalism with the passing of time generated a history and directive of presence within region and religion that historically influences the image of the East.<ref name="Kerboua-2016" />

Through the recent years, Orientalism has been influenced and shifted to altering representations of various forms that all derive from the same meaning.<ref name="Kerboua-2016" />  From the nineteenth century, among the Western perspectives on Orientalism, differed as the split of American and European Orientalism viewed different illustrations.<ref name="Kerboua-2016" /> With mainstream media and popular production reveal many depictions of Oriental cultures and Islamic references to the current event of radicalization for Non-western cultures.<ref name="Kerboua-2016" /> With references and mainstream media often utilized to contribute to an extended agenda under the construct judgement of alternate motives.<ref name="Kerboua-2016" /> The approach with the generalization of the term Orientalism was embedded with under beginning of [[colonialism]] as the root of the main complexity of within modern societies perspectives of foreign cultures.<ref name=":1b"/> As mainstream media depicts illustrations to utilize many instances of discourse and on certain regions mainly among the conflict within regions in the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]].<ref name=":1b"/>  With agenda of influencing views on non-western societies to be deemed non-compatible with differing ideologies and cultures, the elements that present diversion among Eastern societies and aspects.<ref name=":1b"/>

==Eastern views of the West and Western views of the East==
The concept of ''Orientalism'' has been adopted by scholars in [[East-Central Europe|East-Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]], among them [[Maria Todorova]], [[Attila Melegh]], Tomasz Zarycki, and Dariusz Skórczewski<ref>{{Cite book|last=Skórczewski|first=Dariusz|title=Polish Literature and National Identity: A Postcolonial Perspective|publisher=University of Rochester Press – Boydell & Brewer|year=2020|isbn=9781580469784|location=Rochester}}</ref> as an analytical tool for exploring the images of East-Central and Eastern European societies in cultural discourses of the West in the 19th century and during the [[Soviet Union|Soviet domination]].

The term "'''re-orientalism'''" was used by Lisa Lau and Ana Cristina Mendes<ref>{{Cite book|title=Re-orientalism and South Asian identity politics : the oriental other within|editor1-last=Lau|editor1-first=Lisa|editor2-last=Mendes|editor2-first=Ana Cristina|date=11 September 2014|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781138844162|oclc=886477672}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Lisa|last2=Mendes|first2=Ana Cristina|s2cid=148197670|date=2016-03-09|title=Post-9/11 Re-Orientalism: Confrontation and conciliation in Mohsin Hamid's and Mira Nair's The Reluctant Fundamentalist|journal=The Journal of Commonwealth Literature|language=en|volume=53|issue=1|pages=78–91|doi=10.1177/0021989416631791|issn=0021-9894|url=http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/1559/8/lau_jcl_2016.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/1559/8/lau_jcl_2016.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> to refer to how Eastern self-representation is based on western referential points:<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mendes|first1=Ana Cristina|last2=Lau|first2=Lisa|date=December 2014|title=India through re-Orientalist Lenses|url=http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/1560/1/lau_india_2016.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/1560/1/lau_india_2016.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=Interventions|language=en|volume=17|issue=5|pages=706–727|doi=10.1080/1369801x.2014.984619|s2cid=142579177|issn=1369-801X}}</ref><blockquote>Re-Orientalism differs from Orientalism in its manner of and reasons for referencing the West: while challenging the metanarratives of Orientalism, re-Orientalism sets up alternative metanarratives of its own in order to articulate eastern identities, simultaneously deconstructing and reinforcing Orientalism.</blockquote>

=== Occidentalism ===
{{Further|Occidentalism}}
The term ''[[occidentalism]]'' is often used to refer to negative views of the [[Western world]] found in [[Eastern world|Eastern societies]], and is founded on the sense of [[nationalism]] that spread in reaction to [[colonialism]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url =http://www.erudit.org/revue/jcha/2006/v17/n2/016587ar.pdf |title = Edward Said: Orientalism and Occidentalism|last = Lary|first = Diana|date = 2006|journal = Journal of the Canadian Historical Association |volume = 17|pages = 3–15| number = 2 |doi = 10.7202/016587ar|doi-access = free}}</ref> (see [[Pan-Asianism]]). [[Edward Said]] has been accused of Occidentalizing the west in his [[Orientalism (book)|critique of Orientalism]]; of falsely characterizing the West in the same way that he states that Western scholars have falsely characterized the East.<ref name="Sharp-2008">{{Cite book|last=Sharp|first=Joanne|title=Geographies of Postcolonialism|publisher=Sage|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4129-0778-1|location=London|page=25}}</ref> According to this viewpoint, Said [[Essentialism|essentialized]] the West by creating a [[Homogeneity and heterogeneity|homogenous]] image of the area.<ref name="Sharp-2008" />

Eighteenth century [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] emperors in China had a material fascination with ''Occidenterie'', or objects inspired by Western art and architecture (an analogue to Europe's [[chinoiserie]] or material imitation of Chinese artistic traditions). Although the phenomenon was strongly associated with the emperor's court and the architecture project of [[Xiyang Lou]], nonetheless, a wide spectrum of China's social classes had some access to ''Occidenterie'' objects as they were domestically produced.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleutghen |first=Kristina |date=2014 |title=Chinese Occidenterie: the Diversity of 'Western' Objects in Eighteenth-Century China |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24690358 |journal=Eighteenth-Century Studies |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=117–135 |doi=10.1353/ecs.2014.0006 |jstor=24690358 |s2cid=146268869 |issn=0013-2586}}</ref>

=== Othering ===
The action of ''[[othering]]'' cultures occurs when groups are labeled as different due to characteristics that distinguish them from the perceived norm.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.4135/9781446279496.n35|chapter = The other|title = Key Concepts in Political Geography|pages = 328–338|year = 2009|last1 = Mountz|first1 = Alison|isbn = 9781412946728|editor-last1 = Gallaher|editor-first1 = Carolyn|editor-last2 = Dahlman|editor-first2 = Carl|editor-last3 = Gilmartin|editor-first3 = Mary|editor-last4 = Mountz|editor-first4 = Alison|editor-last5 = Shirlow|editor-first5 = Peter|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpBJclVnVdQC&pg=PA328|publisher=Sage}}</ref> [[Edward Said]], author of the book ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'', argued that western powers and influential individuals such as [[Social science|social scientists]] and artists othered "[[Orient|the Orient]]".<ref name=":1b"/> The evolution of ideologies is often initially embedded in the language, and continues to ripple through the fabric of society by taking over the culture, economy and political sphere.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Orientalism at Home: The Case of 'Canada's Toughest Neighbourhood'|last = Richardson|first = Chris|s2cid = 143588760|date = 2014|journal = British Journal of Canadian Studies|volume = 27|pages = 75–95|doi = 10.3828/bjcs.2014.5|url=https://www.academia.edu/8438595 }}</ref> Much of Said's criticism of Western Orientalism is based on what he describes as articularizing trends. These ideologies are present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese, and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. A particularly significant development is the manner in which Orientalism has taken shape in non-Western cinema, as for instance in [[Bollywood|Hindi-language cinema]].

Said's Orientalism has been instrumental to the critical turn in the humanities and the social sciences concerning the appreciation of the political weight of "representing" as a form of powering over Others. However, as recent anthropological enquiries suggest, Orientalism has also been at times simplistically applied to merely equate Othering with the attribution of negative qualities.<ref name="journals.uchicago.edu">{{cite journal |last1=Kalantzis |first1=Konstantinos |title=The Indigenous Sublime Rethinking Orientalism and Desire from documenta 14 to Highland Crete |journal=Current Anthropology |doi=10.1086/728171 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/728171?journalCode=ca}}</ref>
A study of the sphere of othering in contexts, seemingly removed from Said's original focus, such as the relationship between Greece and Germany during the [[sovereign debt crisis]] years may point to volatile ingredients in the othering process, including fascination mixed with condescension, aversion, admiration and hopes for an escape from an oppressive northern European lifestyle.<ref name="journals.uchicago.edu"/> Similarly, tourism and intra-national relations between urban and rural are spheres where Orientalist dynamics is at a play, even if, as noted above, these dynamics may well involve the ambivalence of the spectators, and also the involvement of those represented in reproducing, and at times contesting the stereotypes of those who represent others.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kalantzis |first1=Konstantinos |title=Tradition in the Frame: Photography, Power, and Imagination in Sfakia, Crete |date=2019 |publisher=Indiana University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctvpb3z6m |jstor=j.ctvpb3z6m |isbn=978-0-253-03714-5 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvpb3z6m}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Allosemitism]]
* [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination]]
* [[Arabist]]
* [[Black orientalism]]
* [[Borealism]]
* [[Chinoiserie]]
* [[Cultural appropriation]]
* [[Dahesh Museum]]
* [[Ethnocentrism]]
* [[Exoticism]]
* [[Hebraist]]
* [[Hellenocentrism]]
* [[Indomania]]
* [[Japonisme]]
* [[La belle juive]]
* [[Levant]] ([[Jerusalem]])
* [[List of artistic works with Orientalist influences]]
* [[List of Orientalist artists]]
* [[Mongol Empire]] ([[Golden Horde]])
* [[Negrophilia]]
* [[Neo-orientalism]]
* [[Noble savage]]
* [[Objectification]]
* [[Occidentalism]]
* [[Oriental despotism]]
* [[Othering]]
* [[Pizza effect]]
* [[Primitivism]]
* [[Racial fetishism]]
* [[Romantic racism]]
* [[Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam]]
* [[Stereotypes]]
** [[Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States]]
** [[Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States]]
** [[Stereotypes of Jews]]
** [[Stereotypes of South Asians]]
* [[Turquerie]]
* [[Westsplaining]]
* [[World music]]
* [[Xenocentrism]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. ''Musicology: The Key Concepts''. New York: Routledge.
* Cristofi, Renato Brancaglione. ''Architectural Orientalism in São Paulo – 1895 – 1937''. 2016. São Paulo: University of São Paulo [http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/16/16133/tde-20122016-152110/en.php online, accessed July 11, 2018]
* {{Citation | last =Fields | first =Rick | year =1992 | title =How The Swans Came To The Lake. A Narrative History of Buddhism in America | publisher =Shambhala}}
* Harding, James, ''Artistes Pompiers: French Academic Art in the 19th Century'', 1979, Academy Editions, {{ISBN|0-85670-451-2}}
* C F Ives, "The Great Wave: The Influence of Japanese Woodcuts on French Prints", 1974, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, {{ISBN|0-87099-098-5}}
* Gabriel, Karen & P.K. Vijayan (2012): Orientalism, terrorism and Bombay cinema, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 48:3, 299–310
* {{Citation | last =Gilchrist | first =Cherry | year =1996 | title =Theosophy. The Wisdom of the Ages | publisher =HarperSanFrancisco}}
* {{Citation | last= Gombrich | first =Richard | year =1996 | title =Theravada Buddhism. A Social History From Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo | publisher =Routledge}}
* Holloway, Steven W., ed. (2006). ''Orientalism, Assyriology and the Bible''. Hebrew Bible Monographs, 10. Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-1-905048-37-3}}
* {{Citation | last =Johnson | first =K. Paul | year =1994 | title =The masters revealed: Madam Blavatsky and the myth of the Great White Lodge | publisher =SUNY Press | isbn =978-0-7914-2063-8 | url-access =registration | url =https://archive.org/details/mastersrevealedm0000john }}
* {{Citation|editor-last1=Jones |editor-first1=Denna |title=Architecture The Whole Story |date=2014 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-29148-1 |language=en}}
* King, Donald and [[David Sylvester|Sylvester, David]] eds. ''The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century'', [[Arts Council of Great Britain]], London, 1983, {{ISBN|0-7287-0362-9}}
* {{Citation | last =Lavoie | first =Jeffrey D. | year =2012 | title =The Theosophical Society: The History of a Spiritualist Movement | publisher =Universal-Publishers}}
* Mack, Rosamond E. ''Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300–1600'', University of California Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-520-22131-1}}
* {{Citation | last =McMahan | first =David L. | year =2008 | title =The Making of Buddhist Modernism | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =9780195183276}}
* Meagher, Jennifer. ''Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art''. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/euor/hd_euor.htm online], accessed April 11, 2011
* {{Citation | last =Michaelson | first =Jay | year =2009 | title =Everything Is God: The Radical Path of Nondual Judaism | publisher =Shambhala}}
* [[Linda Nochlin|Nochlin, Linda]], ''The Imaginary Orient'', 1983, page numbers from reprint in ''The nineteenth-century visual culture reader'',[https://books.google.com/books?id=R8U_CoZYqnMC&dq=Rosenthal%2C+Donald%2C+Orientalism&pg=PA289 google books], a reaction to Rosenthal's exhibition and book.
* {{Citation | last =Rambachan | first =Anatanand | year =1994 | title =The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas | publisher =University of Hawaii Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Renard | first =Philip | year =2010 | title =Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg | place =Cothen | publisher =Uitgeverij Juwelenschip}}
* [[Edward Said|Said, Edward W]]. ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]''. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978 {{ISBN|0-394-74067-X}}).
* {{Citation | last =Sinari | first =Ramakant | year =2000 | title =Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta" | place =Delhi | publisher =Centre for Studies in Civilizations}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sund|first1=July|title=Exotic: A Fetish for the Foreign|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7637-5 |language=en}}
* [[Richard Taruskin|Taruskin, Richard]]. ''Defining Russia Musically''. Princeton University Press, 1997 {{ISBN|0-691-01156-7}}.
* Tromans, Nicholas, and others, ''The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting'', 2008, [[Tate Gallery|Tate Publishing]], {{ISBN|978-1-85437-733-3}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
===Art===
* [[Jean Alazard|Alazard, Jean]]. L'Orient et la peinture française.
* Behdad, Ali. 2013. ''Photography's Orientalism: New Essays on Colonial Representation''. [[Getty Publications]]. 224 pages.
* Benjamin, Roger. 2003. ''Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880–1930''. [[University of California Press]].
* Peltre, Christine. 1998. ''Orientalism in Art''. New York: [[Abbeville Publishing Group]]. {{ISBN|0-7892-0459-2}}.
* Rosenthal, Donald A. 1982. ''Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880''. Rochester, NY: [[Memorial Art Gallery]], [[University of Rochester]].
* Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. 1984. ''The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painters in North Africa and the Near East'' (exhibition catalogue). London: [[Royal Academy of Arts]].

===Literature===
* [[S. N. Balagangadhara|Balagangadhara, S. N.]] 2012. ''Reconceptualizing India studies''. New Delhi: [[Oxford University Press]].
* [[Sophie Bessis|Bessis, Sophie]] (2003). ''Western Supremacy: The Triumph of an Idea?''.  Zed Books.  {{isbn|9781842772195}} {{isbn|1842772198}}
* {{cite book |last=Bitar |first=Amer |date=2020 |title=Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4oBEAAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |isbn=9783030573973}}
* Clarke, J. J. 1997. "Oriental Enlightenment". London: [[Routledge]].
* Chatterjee, Indrani. 1999. "Gender, Slavery and Law in Colonial India". [[Oxford University Press]].
* [[Andre Gunder Frank|Frank, Andre Gunder]]. 1998. "ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age". [[University of California Press]].
* [[Fred Halliday|Halliday, Fred]]. 1993. "'Orientalism' and its critics". ''British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies'' 20(2):145–63. {{doi|10.1080/13530199308705577}}.
* [[Ronald Inden|Inden, Ronald]]. 2000. "Imagining India". [[Indiana University Press]].
* [[Robert Irwin (writer)|Irwin, Robert]]. 2006. ''For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies''. London: [[Penguin Books|Penguin]]/[[Allen Lane]]. {{ISBN|0-7139-9415-0}}.
* Isin, Engin, ed. 2015. ''Citizenship After Orientalism: Transforming Political Theory''. Basingstoke: [[Palgrave Macmillan]].
* [[Rana Kabbani|Kabbani, Rana]]. 1994. ''Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient''. London: Pandora Press. {{ISBN|0-04-440911-7}}.
* [[Kees van der Pijl|Van der Pijl, Kees]] (2014). ''The Discipline of Western Supremacy: Modes of Foreign Relations and Political Economy, Volume III'', Pluto Press, {{ISBN|9780745323183}}
* King, Richard. 1999. "Orientalism and Religion". Routledge.
* Kontje, Todd. 2004. ''German Orientalisms''. Ann Arbor, MI: [[University of Michigan Press]]. {{ISBN|0-472-11392-5}}.
* [[Donald F. Lach|Lach, Donald]], and Edwin Van Kley. 1993. "Asia in the Making of Europe. Volume III". University of Chicago Press.
* [[Sven Lindqvist|Lindqvist, Sven]] (1996). ''[[Exterminate All the Brutes (book)|Exterminate all the brutes]]''.  New Press, New York.  {{isbn|9781565843592}}.
* [[Douglas Little|Little, Douglas]]. 2002. ''American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945''. (2nd ed.) {{ISBN|1-86064-889-4}}.
* [[Lisa Lowe|Lowe, Lisa]]. 1992. ''Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms''. Ithaca: [[Cornell University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8014-8195-6}}.
* [[A. L. Macfie|Macfie, Alexander Lyon]]. 2002. ''Orientalism''. White Plains, NY: [[Longman]]. {{ISBN|0-582-42386-4}}.
* MacKenzie, John. 1995. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hwhwfod4rTEC&dq=Rosenthal%2C+Donald%2C+Orientalism&pg=PA67 Orientalism: History, theory and the arts]''. Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-7190-4578-9}}.
* [[Thomas McEvilley|McEvilley, Thomas]]. 2002. "The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies". New York: Allworth Press.
* Murti, Kamakshi P. 2001. ''India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism''. Westport, CT: [[Greenwood Press]]. {{ISBN|0-313-30857-8}}.
* Oueijan, Naji. 1996. ''The Progress of an Image: The East in English Literature''. New York: [[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang Publishers]].
* Skórczewski, Dariusz. 2020. ''Polish Literature and National Identity: A Postcolonial Perspective''. Rochester: [[University of Rochester Press]]. {{ISBN|9781580469784}}.
* Steiner, Evgeny, ed. 2012. ''Orientalism/Occidentalism: Languages of Cultures vs. Languages of Description''. Moscow: Sovpadenie. [English & Russian]. {{ISBN|978-5-903060-75-7}}.
* [Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Orientalism., Murder of History.. Facts behind the Gossips and Realities. (October 20, 2023). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4608350 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4608350]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/khamseen/terms/2021/orientalism/ Alex Dika Seggerman, "Orientalism," ''Khamseen: Islamic Art History Online'', published 3 September 2021.]

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[[Category:Orientalism| ]]
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