Editing Organic electronics

{{short description|Field of materials science}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
[[File:Organic CMOS logic circuit.jpg|thumb|Organic [[CMOS]] logic circuit. Total thickness is less than 3 μm. Scale bar: 25 mm]]
'''Organic electronics''' is a field of [[materials science]] concerning the design, [[Chemical synthesis|synthesis]], characterization, and application of [[Organic compound|organic]] molecules or [[polymer]]s that show desirable [[Electronics|electronic]] properties such as [[Electrical resistivity and conductivity|conductivity]]. Unlike conventional inorganic [[Electrical conductor|conductor]]s and [[semiconductor]]s, organic electronic materials are constructed from organic (carbon-based) molecules or polymers using synthetic strategies developed in the context of [[organic chemistry]] and [[polymer chemistry]].

One of the promised benefits of organic electronics is their potential low cost compared to traditional electronics.<ref>Hagen Klauk (Ed.) ''Organic Electronics: Materials, Manufacturing and Applications''  2006, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. Print {{ISBN|9783527312641}}.</ref><ref>Hagen Klauk (Ed.) ''Organic electronics. More materials and applications'' 2010, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{ISBN|9783527640218}} electronic bk.</ref><ref>Paolo Samori, Franco Cacialli  ''Functional Supramolecular Architectures: for Organic Electronics and Nanotechnology'' 2010 Wiley {{ISBN|978-3-527-32611-2}}</ref> Attractive properties of polymeric conductors include their electrical conductivity (which can be varied by the concentrations of [[dopant]]s) and comparatively high mechanical [[flexibility]]. Challenges to the implementation of organic electronic materials are their inferior [[thermal stability]], high cost, and diverse fabrication issues.

==History==
===Electrically conductive polymers===
Traditional conductive materials are [[inorganic]], especially [[metals]] such as [[copper]] and [[aluminum]] as well as many [[alloy]]s.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In 1862 [[Henry Letheby]] described [[polyaniline]], which was subsequently shown to be electrically conductive. Work on other polymeric organic materials began in earnest in the 1960s. For example in 1963, a derivative of tetraiodopyrrole was shown to exhibit conductivity of 1 S/cm (S = [[Siemens (unit)|Siemens]]).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Electronic Conduction in Polymers. I. The Chemical Structure of Polypyrrole |first1=R. |last1=McNeill |first2=R. |last2=Siudak |first3=J. H. |last3=Wardlaw |first4=D. E. |last4=Weiss |journal=[[Australian Journal of Chemistry|Aust. J. Chem.]] |year=1963 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=1056–1075 |doi=10.1071/CH9631056}}</ref> In 1977, it was discovered that oxidation enhanced the conductivity of [[polyacetylene]]. The 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to [[Alan J. Heeger]], [[Alan G. MacDiarmid]], and [[Hideki Shirakawa]] jointly for their work on polyacetylene and related conductive polymers.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2000/ |publisher=Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media}}</ref> Many families of electrically conducting polymers have been identified including [[polythiophene]], [[polyphenylene sulfide]], and others.

J.E. Lilienfeld<ref name=patent>{{Cite patent|country=CA|number=272437|title= Electric current control mechanism|pubdate=1927-07-19|inventor1-last=Lilienfeld|inventor1-first=Julius Edgar}}</ref> first proposed the [[field-effect transistor]] in 1930, but the first OFET was not reported until 1987, when Koezuka et al. constructed one using [[Polythiophene]]<ref name = Koezuka1988>{{cite journal |title=Field-effect transistor with polythiophene thin film |journal=Synthetic Metals |volume=18 |issue=1–3 |year=1987 |pages=699–704 |doi=10.1016/0379-6779(87)90964-7 |last1=Koezuka |first1=H. |last2=Tsumura |first2=A. |last3=Ando |first3=T.}}</ref> which shows extremely high conductivity. Other [[conductive polymer]]s have been shown to act as semiconductors, and newly synthesized and characterized compounds are reported weekly in prominent research journals. Many review articles exist documenting the development of these [[Chemical substance|materials]].<ref name=sc>{{cite journal |type=free download |journal=Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. |volume=10 |year=2009 |page=024314 |doi=10.1088/1468-6996/10/2/024314 |pmid=27877287 |title=Organic field-effect transistors using single crystals |bibcode=2009STAdM..10b4314H |issue=2 |last1=Hasegawa |first1=Tatsuo |last2=Takeya |first2=Jun|pmc=5090444 }}</ref><ref name=pc>{{cite journal |type=free download |journal=Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. |volume=10 |year=2009 |page=024313 |doi=10.1088/1468-6996/10/2/024313 |pmid=27877286 |title=Organic semiconductors for organic field-effect transistors |bibcode=2009STAdM..10b4313Y |issue=2 |last1=Yamashita |first1=Yoshiro|pmc=5090443 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Adv. Mater. |volume=14 |year=2002 |page=99 |doi=10.1002/1521-4095(20020116)14:2<99::AID-ADMA99>3.0.CO;2-9 |title=Organic Thin Film Transistors for Large Area Electronics |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233927802 |issue=2 |last1=Dimitrakopoulos |first1=C.D. |last2=Malenfant |first2=P.R.L.|bibcode=2002AdM....14...99D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Mater. Today |volume=7 |year=2004 |page=20 |doi=10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00398-0 |title=Organic thin film transistors |issue=9 |last1=Reese |first1=Colin |last2=Roberts |first2=Mark |last3=Ling |first3=Mang-Mang |last4=Bao |first4=Zhenan|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=hk>{{cite journal |journal=Chem. Soc. Rev. |volume=39 |year=2010 |doi=10.1039/B909902F |pmid=20396828 |title=Organic thin-film transistors |last1=Klauk |first1=Hagen |issue=7|pages=2643–66 }}</ref>

In 1987, the first organic [[diode]] was produced at [[Eastman Kodak]] by [[Ching W. Tang]] and [[Steven Van Slyke]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1557/mrs.2012.125 |title=Energy efficiency with organic electronics: Ching W. Tang revisits his days at Kodak |journal=MRS Bulletin |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=552–553 |year=2012 |last1=Forrest |first1=S. |bibcode=2012MRSBu..37..552F |url=http://www.mrs.org/06-2012-interview/|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Electrically conductive charge transfer salts===
In the 1950s, organic molecules were shown to exhibit electrical conductivity. Specifically, the organic compound [[pyrene]] was shown to form semiconducting charge-transfer complex [[salts]] with [[halogens]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mulliken |first=Robert S. |date=January 1950 |title=Structures of Complexes Formed by Halogen Molecules with Aromatic and with Oxygenated Solvents 1 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01157a151 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=600–608 |doi=10.1021/ja01157a151 |bibcode=1950JAChS..72..600M |issn=0002-7863}}</ref> In 1972, researchers found metallic conductivity (conductivity comparable to a metal) in the charge-transfer complex [[TTF-TCNQ]].

===Light and electrical conductivity===
[[André Bernanose]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bernanose, A. |author2=Comte, M. |author3=Vouaux, P. |journal=J. Chim. Phys. |year=1953 |volume=50 |pages=64–68 |title=A new method of light emission by certain organic compounds|doi=10.1051/jcp/1953500064 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bernanose, A. |author2=Vouaux, P. |journal=J. Chim. Phys. |year=1953 |volume=50 |pages=261–263 |title=Organic electroluminescence type of emission|doi=10.1051/jcp/1953500261 }}</ref> was the first person to observe [[electroluminescence]] in organic [[Chemical substance|materials]]. Ching W. Tang and [[Steven Van Slyke]],<ref name=ApplPhy87/> reported fabrication of the first practical OLED device in 1987. The OLED device incorporated a double-layer structure motif composed of  [[copper phthalocyanine]] and a derivative of [[perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1515/nanoph-2020-0322|doi-access=free|title=Waiting for Act 2: What lies beyond organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays for organic electronics? |year=2020 |last1=Forrest |first1=Stephen R. |journal=Nanophotonics |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=31–40 |bibcode=2020Nanop..10..322F }}</ref>

In 1990, a [[Poly(p-phenylene vinylene)|polymer]] light emitting diodes was demonstrated by [[Donal Bradley|Bradley]], [[Jeremy Burroughes|Burroughes]], [[Richard Friend|Friend]]. Moving from molecular to macromolecular materials solved the problems previously encountered with the long-term stability of the organic films and enabled high-quality films to be easily made.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Nature |volume=347 |issue=6293 |pages=539–541 |doi=10.1038/347539a0 |date=1990 |url=http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-back/burroughes/index.html |title=Light-emitting diodes based on conjugated polymers|bibcode=1990Natur.347..539B |last1=Burroughes |first1=J. H. |last2=Bradley |first2=D. D. C. |last3=Brown |first3=A. R. |last4=Marks |first4=R. N. |last5=MacKay |first5=K. |last6=Friend |first6=R. H. |last7=Burns |first7=P. L. |last8=Holmes |first8=A. B. |s2cid=43158308 }}</ref> In the late 1990's, highly efficient electroluminescent dopants were shown to dramatically increase the light-emitting efficiency of OLEDs<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/25954|title=Highly efficient phosphorescent emission from organic electroluminescent devices |year=1998 |last1=Baldo |first1=M. A. |last2=O'Brien |first2=D. F. |last3=You |first3=Y. |last4=Shoustikov |first4=A. |last5=Sibley |first5=S. |last6=Thompson |first6=M. E. |last7=Forrest |first7=S. R. |journal=Nature |volume=395 |issue=6698 |pages=151–154 |bibcode=1998Natur.395..151B |s2cid=4393960 }}</ref>  These results suggested that electroluminescent materials could displace traditional hot-filament lighting. Subsequent research developed multilayer polymers and the new field of plastic electronics and [[organic light-emitting diode]]s (OLED) research and device production grew rapidly.<ref>{{cite book |author1=National Research Council |title=The Flexible Electronics Opportunity |date=2015 |publisher=The National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-30591-4 |pages=105–6 |url=http://www.nap.edu/read/18812/chapter/7}}</ref>

==Conductive organic materials==
[[File:SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg|thumb|left|Edge-on view of portion of crystal structure of hexamethylene [[TTF-TCNQ]] charge transfer salt, highlighting the segregated stacking.  Such molecular semiconductors exhibit anisotropic electrical conductivity.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=D. Chasseau|author2=G. Comberton|author3=J. Gaultier|author4=C. Hauw|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section B|title=Réexamen de la structure du complexe hexaméthylène-tétrathiafulvalène-tétracyanoquinodiméthane|year=1978| volume=34|issue=2|page=689|doi=10.1107/S0567740878003830|doi-access=|bibcode=1978AcCrB..34..689C }}</ref>]]
Organic conductive materials can be grouped into two main classes: polymers and conductive [[molecule|molecular]] solids and salts.  [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|Polycyclic aromatic]] compounds such as [[pentacene]] and [[rubrene]] often form semiconducting materials when partially oxidized.

[[Conductive polymer]]s are often typically intrinsically conductive or at least semiconductors. They sometimes show mechanical properties comparable to those of conventional organic polymers. Both [[organic chemistry|organic]] synthesis and advanced [[dispersion (chemistry)|dispersion]] techniques can be used to tune the [[electrical]] properties of [[conductive polymer]]s, unlike typical [[inorganic]] conductors. Well-studied class of [[conductive polymer]]s include [[polyacetylene]], [[polypyrrole]], [[polythiophene]]s, and [[polyaniline]]. Poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and its [[Derivative (chemistry)|derivative]]s are [[electroluminescent]] semiconducting polymers. Poly(3-alkythiophenes) have been incorporated into prototypes of [[solar cell]]s and [[transistor]]s.

==Organic light-emitting diode==
{{Main|OLED|AMOLED}}
An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) consists of a thin film of organic material that emits light under stimulation by an electric current. A typical OLED consists of an anode, a cathode, OLED organic material and a conductive layer.<ref>{{cite book|title=OLED Fundamentals: Materials, Devices, and Processing of Organic Light-Emitting Diodes|edition= 1|editor=Daniel J. Gaspar, Evgueni Polikarpov|year=2015|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1466515185}}</ref>
[[File:Br6Acrystal.png|thumb|Br6A, a next generation pure organic light emitting crystal family]]
[[File:Bilayer-OLED.png|thumb|Schematic of a bilayer OLED: 1. Cathode (−), 2. Emissive layer, 3. Emission of radiation, 4. Conductive layer, 5. Anode (+)]]

OLED organic [[Chemical substance|materials]] can be divided into two major families: small-molecule-based and polymer-based. Small molecule OLEDs (SM-OLEDs) include [[tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato)aluminium]]<ref name=ApplPhy87>{{cite journal |doi=10.1063/1.98799 |title=Organic electroluminescent diodes |year=1987 |last1=Tang |first1=C. W. |last2=Vanslyke |first2=S. A. |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=51 |page=913 |issue=12 |bibcode=1987ApPhL..51..913T}}</ref> [[fluorescent]] and [[phosphorescent]] dyes, and conjugated [[dendrimers]]. [[Fluorescent]] [[dye]]s can be selected according to the desired range of [[emission (radiocommunications)|emission]] [[wavelength]]s; compounds like [[perylene]] and [[rubrene]] are often used. Devices based on small molecules are usually fabricated by [[Heat|thermal]] [[evaporation]] under [[vacuum]]. While this method enables the formation of well-controlled homogeneous [[film]]; is hampered by high cost and limited scalability.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1063/1.1317547 |title=Role of CsF on electron injection into a conjugated polymer |year=2000 |last1=Piromreun |first1=Pongpun |last2=Oh |first2=Hwansool |last3=Shen |first3=Yulong |last4=Malliaras |first4=George G. |last5=Scott |first5=J. Campbell |last6=Brock |first6=Phil J. |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=77 |page=2403 |issue=15 |bibcode=2000ApPhL..77.2403P}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Holmes |first=Russell |author2=Erickson, N. |title=Highly efficient, single-layer organic light-emitting devices based on a graded-composition emissive layer |journal=Applied Physics Letters |date=27 August 2010 |volume=97 |issue=1 |page=083308 |bibcode=2010ApPhL..97a3308S |doi=10.1063/1.3460285 |last3=Lüssem |first3=Björn |last4=Leo |first4=Karl}}</ref> Polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs) are generally more efficient than SM-OLEDs. Common polymers used in PLEDs include [[Derivative (chemistry)|derivative]]s of poly(p-phenylene vinylene)<ref name="Polyphenylene vinylene"/> and [[polyfluorene]]. The emitted [[color]] is determined by the structure of the polymer. Compared to thermal evaporation, [[Solution (chemistry)|solution]]-based methods are more suited to creating [[film]]s with large dimensions.

==Organic field-effect transistor==
{{Main|Organic field-effect transistor}}
[[File:Rubrene.svg|thumb|Rubrene-OFET with the highest charge mobility]]
An organic field-effect transistor (OFET) is a field-effect transistor utilizing organic molecules or polymers as the active semiconducting layer. A field-effect transistor ([[FET]]) is any semiconductor material that utilizes [[electric field]] to control the shape of a channel of one type of [[charge (physics)|charge]] carrier, thereby changing its conductivity. Two major classes of [[FET]] are n-type and p-type semiconductor, classified according to the charge type carried. In the case of organic FETs (OFETs), p-type OFET compounds are generally more stable than n-type due to the susceptibility of the latter to oxidative damage.

As for OLEDs, some OFETs are molecular and some are polymer-based system. [[Rubrene]]-based OFETs show high carrier mobility of 20–40&nbsp;cm<sup>2</sup>/(V·s). Another popular OFET material is [[Pentacene]]. Due to its low [[solubility]] in most organic [[solvent]]s, it's difficult to fabricate thin film transistors ([[Thin-film transistor|TFTs]]) from pentacene itself using conventional spin-cast or, [[dip coating]] methods, but this obstacle can be overcome by using the derivative TIPS-pentacene.

==Organic electronic devices==
{{Main|Organic solar cell|Photovoltaics}}
[[File:Flexible display.jpg|thumb|Organics-based [[flexible display]]]]
[[File:Organic photovoltaic material.pdf|thumb|Five structures of organic photovoltaic materials]]
[[Organic solar cell]]s could cut the cost of solar power compared with conventional solar-cell manufacturing.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/21574/page1/ |title=Mass Production of Plastic Solar Cells |magazine=Technology Review |author=Bullis, Kevin |date=17 October 2008}}</ref> Silicon [[thin-film solar cell]]s on flexible substrates allow a significant cost reduction of large-area photovoltaics for several reasons:<ref name="ipe.uni-stuttgart.de">Koch, Christian (2002) [http://www.ipe.uni-stuttgart.de/index.php?lang=eng&pulldownID=12&ebene2ID=18&ID=3394 Niedertemperaturabscheidung von Dünnschicht-Silicium für Solarzellen auf Kunststofffolien], Doctoral Thesis, ipe.uni-stuttgart.de</ref>

# The so-called '[[roll-to-roll]]'-deposition on flexible sheets is much easier to realize in terms of technological effort than deposition on fragile and heavy [[glass sheet]]s.
# Transport and installation of lightweight flexible solar cells also saves cost as compared to cells on glass.

Inexpensive polymeric substrates like [[polyethylene terephthalate]] (PET) or [[polycarbonate]] (PC) have the potential for further cost reduction in photovoltaics. [[Protocrystalline|Protomorphous]] solar cells prove to be a promising concept for efficient and low-cost photovoltaics on cheap and flexible substrates for large-area production as well as small and mobile applications.<ref name="ipe.uni-stuttgart.de"/>

One advantage of [[printed electronics]] is that different electrical and electronic components can be printed on top of each other, saving space and increasing reliability and sometimes they are all transparent. One ink must not damage another, and low temperature annealing is vital if low-cost flexible materials such as paper and [[plastic film]] are to be used. There is much sophisticated engineering and chemistry involved here, with iTi, Pixdro, Asahi Kasei, Merck & Co.|Merck, BASF, HC Starck, Sunew, Hitachi Chemical, and Frontier Carbon Corporation among the leaders.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Raghu Das, IDTechEx |url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2008/09/25/44587/printed-electronics-is-it-a-niche.htm |title=Printed electronics, is it a niche? – 25 September 2008 |work=Electronics Weekly |date=25 September 2008 |access-date=14 February 2010}}</ref>
[[Electronic device]]s based on [[organic compound]]s are now widely used, with many new products under development. [[Sony]] reported the first full-color, video-rate, flexible, plastic display made purely of organic [[Chemical substance|materials]];<ref>[http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/News/Press/200705/07-053/index.html プラスチックフィルム上の有機TFT駆動有機ELディスプレイで世界初のフルカラー表示を実現]. sony.co.jp (in Japanese)</ref><ref>[http://pinktentacle.com/2007/05/flexible-full-color-organic-el-display/ Flexible, full-color OLED display]. pinktentacle.com (24 June 2007).</ref> [[television]] screen based on OLED materials; [[biodegradable]] electronics based on organic compound and low-cost organic [[solar cell]] are also available.

===Fabrication methods===
Small molecule semiconductors are often [[insoluble]], necessitating [[deposition (chemistry)|deposition]] via vacuum [[sublimation (phase transition)|sublimation]]. Devices based on [[conductive polymer]]s can be prepared by solution processing methods. Both solution processing and vacuum based methods produce amorphous and [[polycrystalline]] films with variable degree of disorder. "Wet" [[coating]] techniques require polymers to be dissolved in a volatile [[solvent]], filtered and deposited onto a [[substrate (materials science)|substrate]]. Common examples of solvent-based coating techniques include drop casting, [[spin-coating]], doctor-blading, [[inkjet printing]] and [[screen printing]]. Spin-coating is a widely used technique for small area [[thin film]] production. It may result in a high degree of material loss. The doctor-blade technique results in a minimal material loss and was primarily developed for large area thin film production. Vacuum based thermal deposition of small molecules requires [[evaporation]] of molecules from a hot source. The molecules are then transported through vacuum onto a substrate. The process of condensing these molecules on the substrate surface results in thin film formation. Wet coating techniques can in some cases be applied to small molecules depending on their solubility.

===Organic solar cells===
[[File:BilayerElectrode.pdf|thumb|Bilayer organic photovoltaic cell]]
Organic semiconductor diodes convert light into electricity. Figure to the right shows five commonly used organic photovoltaic materials. Electrons in these organic molecules can be delocalized in a delocalized π [[Molecular orbital|orbital]] with a corresponding π* antibonding [[Molecular orbital|orbital]]. The difference in energy between the π orbital, or highest occupied molecular orbital ([[HOMO]]), and π* orbital, or lowest unoccupied molecular orbital ([[LUMO]]) is called the [[band gap]] of organic photovoltaic materials. Typically, the [[band gap]] lies in the range of 1-4eV.<ref name="Nelson"/><ref name="HallsFriend"/><ref name="Hoppe"/>

The difference in the [[band gap]] of organic [[photovoltaic]] materials leads to different chemical structures and forms of organic [[solar cell]]s. Different forms of solar cells includes single-layer organic [[photovoltaic]] cells, bilayer organic [[photovoltaic]] cells and heterojunction [[photovoltaic]] cells. However, all three of these types of solar cells share the approach of sandwiching the organic electronic layer between two metallic conductors, typically [[indium tin oxide]].<ref name="McGehee"/>
[[File:Tft.png|thumb|Illustration of thin film transistor device]]

===Organic field-effect transistors===
An organic field-effect transistor is a three terminal device (source, drain and gate). The charge carriers move between source and drain, and the gate serves to control the path's conductivity. There are mainly two types of organic field-effect transistor, based on the semiconducting layer's charge transport, namely p-type (such as dinaphtho[2,3-''b'':2′,3′-''f'']thieno[3,2-''b'']thiophene, DNTT),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sugiyama |first1=Masahiro |last2=Jancke |first2=Sophie |last3=Uemura |first3=Takafumi |last4=Kondo |first4=Masaya |last5=Inoue |first5=Yumi |last6=Namba |first6=Naoko |last7=Araki |first7=Teppei |last8=Fukushima |first8=Takanori |last9=Sekitani |first9=Tsuyoshi |date=September 2021 |title=Mobility enhancement of DNTT and BTBT derivative organic thin-film transistors by triptycene molecule modification |journal=Organic Electronics |language=en |volume=96 |pages=106219 |doi=10.1016/j.orgel.2021.106219|doi-access=free }}</ref> and n-type (such phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester, PCBM).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=John E. |last2=Facchetti |first2=Antonio |last3=Heeney |first3=Martin |last4=Marder |first4=Seth R. |last5=Zhan |first5=Xiaowei |date=2010-09-08 |title=n-Type Organic Semiconductors in Organic Electronics |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.200903628 |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=22 |issue=34 |pages=3876–3892 |doi=10.1002/adma.200903628|pmid=20715063 |bibcode=2010AdM....22.3876A |s2cid=205235378 }}</ref> Certain organic semiconductors can also present both p-type and n-type (i.e., ambipolar) characteristics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Yan |last2=Guo |first2=Yunlong |last3=Liu |first3=Yunqi |date=2013-10-11 |title=25th Anniversary Article: Recent Advances in n-Type and Ambipolar Organic Field-Effect Transistors |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.201302315 |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=25 |issue=38 |pages=5372–5391 |doi=10.1002/adma.201302315|pmid=24038388 |bibcode=2013AdM....25.5372Z |s2cid=6042903 }}</ref>

Such technology allows for the fabrication of large-area, flexible, low-cost electronics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di |first1=Chong-an |last2=Zhang |first2=Fengjiao |last3=Zhu |first3=Daoben |date=2013-01-18 |title=Multi-Functional Integration of Organic Field-Effect Transistors (OFETs): Advances and Perspectives |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.201201502 |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1002/adma.201201502|pmid=22865814 |bibcode=2013AdM....25..313D |s2cid=26645918 }}</ref> One of the main advantages is that being mainly a low temperature process compared to CMOS, different type of materials can be utilized. This makes them in turn great candidates for sensing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dudhe |first1=Ravishankar S. |last2=Sinha |first2=Jasmine |last3=Kumar |first3=Anil |last4=Rao |first4=V. Ramgopal |date=2010-06-30 |title=Polymer composite-based OFET sensor with improved sensitivity towards nitro based explosive vapors |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925400510003503 |journal=Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical |language=en |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=158–165 |doi=10.1016/j.snb.2010.04.022 |bibcode=2010SeAcB.148..158D |issn=0925-4005}}</ref>

==Features==
{{Main|Printed electronics}}

[[Conductive polymer]]s are lighter, more [[flexible electronics|flexible]], and less expensive than inorganic conductors. This makes them a desirable alternative in many applications. It also creates the possibility of new applications that would be impossible using copper or silicon.

Organic electronics not only includes [[organic semiconductor]]s, but also organic [[dielectric]]s, conductors and [[light emitter]]s.

New applications include [[smart windows]] and [[electronic paper]]. [[Conductive polymer]]s are expected to play an important role in the emerging science of [[molecular computer]]s.

==See also==
{{portal|Electronics}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Annealing (metallurgy)|Annealing]]
* [[Bioplastic]]
* [[Carbon nanotube]]
* [[Circuit deposition]]
* [[Conductive ink]]
* [[Flexible electronics]]
* [[Laminar flow|Laminar]]
* [[Melanin]]
* [[Organic field-effect transistor|Organic field-effect transistor (OFET)]]
* [[Organic semiconductor]]
* [[OLED|Organic light-emitting diode]]
* [[Photodetector]]
* [[Printed electronics]]
* [[Radio frequency identification]]
* [[Radio tag]]
* [[Schön scandal]]
* [[Spin coating]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=
<ref name="Polyphenylene vinylene">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/347539a0 |title=Light-emitting diodes based on conjugated polymers |year=1990 |last1=Burroughes |first1=J. H. |last2=Bradley |first2=D. D. C. |last3=Brown |first3=A. R. |last4=Marks |first4=R. N. |last5=MacKay |first5=K. |last6=Friend |first6=R. H. |last7=Burns |first7=P. L. |last8=Holmes |first8=A. B. |journal=Nature |volume=347 |page=539 |issue=6293 |bibcode=1990Natur.347..539B|s2cid=43158308 }}</ref>
<ref name="Nelson">{{cite journal |author=Nelson J. |journal=Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=87–95 |year=2002 |doi=10.1016/S1359-0286(02)00006-2 |title=Organic photovoltaic films |bibcode=2002COSSM...6...87N}}</ref>
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==Further reading==
<!-- Books or major reviews, please. -->
* Grasser, Tibor., Meller, Gregor. Baldo, Marc. (Eds.) (2010) ''Organic electronics'' Springer, Heidelberg. {{ISBN|978-3-642-04537-0}} (Print) 978-3-642-04538-7 (Online)
* {{cite journal |title=Electronic Conduction in Polymers. II. The Electrochemical Reduction of Polypyrrole at Controlled Potential |first1=B. A. |last1=Baracus |first2=D. E. |last2=Weiss |journal=Aust. J. Chem. |year=1963 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=1076–1089 |doi=10.1071/CH9631076}}
* {{cite journal |title=Electronic Conduction in Polymers. III. Electronic Properties of Polypyrrole |first1=B. A. |last1=Bolto |first2=R. |last2=McNeill |first3=D. E. |last3=Weiss |journal=Aust. J. Chem. |year=1963 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=1090–1103 |doi=10.1071/CH9631090}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hush |first1=Noel S. |year=2003 |title=An Overview of the First Half-Century of Molecular Electronics |journal=Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1006 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1196/annals.1292.016 |pmid=14976006 |bibcode=2003NYASA1006....1H|s2cid=24968273 }}
* ''Electronic Processes in Organic Crystals and Polymers, 2 ed. '' by Martin Pope and Charles E. Swenberg, Oxford University Press (1999), {{ISBN|0-19-512963-6}}
* ''Handbook of Organic Electronics and Photonics'' (3-Volume Set) by Hari Singh Nalwa, American Scientific Publishers. (2008), {{ISBN|1-58883-095-0}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://www.orgworld.de orgworld] – ''Organic Semiconductor World'' homepage.

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[[Category:Organic electronics| ]]
[[Category:Artificial materials]]