Editing Norwegian Sea

{{short description|Marginal sea of the Arctic or Atlantic Ocean, northwest of Norway}}
{{about|the actual sea|the cruise ship|MS Norwegian Sea|the ancient name of the Kattegat|Kattegat}}
{{Infobox sea
| name = Norwegian Sea
| image = Vågakaillen nattlys.JPG
| caption = The [[Vestfjorden (Norway)|Vestfjorden]] with the mountains of the [[Lofoten]] archipelago seen from Løvøy Island in [[Steigen]]. Vågakaillen (942 m) is the taller of the two peaks in the centre of the image.
| image_bathymetry =Europäisches Nordmeer mit Grenzen.png<!--In German, but much more informative than previous File:Norwegian Sea map.png-->
| caption_bathymetry = The Norwegian Sea is outlined in red (''Europäisches Nordmeer'' in German)
| location = [[Northern Europe]]
| coords = {{coord|69|N|2|E|type:waterbody_dim:1000km_region:XZ|display=title,inline}}
| type =[[Sea]]
| inflow = {{ubl|Central North Atlantic,|numerous Norwegian fjords}}
| outflow = 
| catchment = 
| basin_countries = [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]] ([[Faroe Islands|Faroe Island]]) and [[United Kingdom]] ([[Shetland Island]])
| length = 
| width = 
| area = {{convert|1383000|km2|abbr=on}}
| depth = {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}}
| max-depth = {{convert|3970|m|abbr=on}}
| volume = {{convert|2000000|km3|acre.ft|abbr=on}}
| frozen = 
| reference =<ref name=bse>[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article082535.html Norwegian Sea], [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]] (in Russian)</ref><ref name=brit>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/420384/Norwegian-Sea Norwegian Sea], Encyclopædia Britannica on-line</ref><ref name="ICES1">[[#refICES|ICES, 2007]], p. 1</ref>
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-stroke-width = 1
| mapframe-zoom = 2
}}
The '''Norwegian Sea''' ({{langx|no|Norskehavet}}; {{langx|is|Noregshaf}}; {{langx|fo|Norskahavið}}) is a [[marginal sea]], grouped with either the [[Atlantic Ocean]] or the [[Arctic Ocean]], northwest of [[Norway]] between the [[North Sea]] and the [[Greenland Sea]], adjoining the [[Barents Sea]] to the northeast. In the southwest, it is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a submarine ridge running between [[Iceland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]]. To the north, the [[Jan Mayen]] Ridge separates it from the Greenland Sea.

Unlike many other seas, most of the bottom of the Norwegian Sea is not part of a [[continental shelf]] and therefore lies at a great depth of about two kilometres on average. Rich deposits of oil and [[natural gas]] are found under the sea bottom and are being explored commercially, in the areas with sea depths of up to about one kilometre. The coastal zones are rich in fish that visit the Norwegian Sea from the North Atlantic or Barents Sea (cod) for [[Spawn (biology)|spawning]]. The warm [[North Atlantic Current]] ensures relatively stable and high water temperatures, so that unlike the Arctic seas, the Norwegian Sea is ice-free throughout the year. Recent research has concluded that the large volume of water in the Norwegian Sea with its large heat absorption capacity is more important as a source of Norway's mild winters than the Gulf Stream and its extensions.<ref>[http://www.forskningsradet.no/en/Newsarticle/Westerly_storms_warm_Norway/1253979657686 Westerly storms warm Norway] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929155537/https://www.forskningsradet.no/en/Newsarticle/Westerly_storms_warm_Norway/1253979657686 |date=2018-09-29 }}. The Research Council of Norway. Forskningsradet.no (3 September 2012). Retrieved on 2013-03-21.</ref>

== Extent ==
The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] defines the limits of the Norwegian Sea as follows:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition |year=1953 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization |access-date=28 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2011 }}</ref>

::''On the Northeast.'' A line joining the southernmost point of [[Spitsbergen|West Spitzbergen]] {{sic}} to North Cape of [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bear Island]], through this island to Cape Bull and thence on to [[North Cape, Norway|North Cape]] in [[Norway]] (25°45'E).

::''On the Southeast.'' The West coast of Norway between North Cape and Cape Stadt ({{coord|62|10|N|5|00|E|name=Cape Stadt}}).

::''On the South.'' From a point on the West coast of Norway in [[61st parallel north|Latitude 61°00' North]] along this parallel to Longitude 0°53' West thence a line to the NE extreme of [[Fugloy|Fuglö]] ({{coord|62|21|N|6|15|W|name=Fuglö}}) and on to the East extreme of Gerpir ({{coord|65|05|N|13|30|W|name=Gerpir}}) in [[Iceland]].

::''On the West.'' The Southeastern limit of [[Greenland Sea]] [A line joining the southernmost point of West Spitzbergen {{sic}} to the Northern point of [[Jan Mayen]] Island, down the West coast of that island to its Southern extreme, thence a Line to the Eastern extreme of Gerpir ({{coord|65|05|N|13|30|W|name=Gerpir}}) in Iceland].

== Formation and geography ==
[[File:World Wind Globe NASA Norwegian Sea 3.jpg|thumb|Norwegian Sea, surrounded by shallower seas to the south (North Sea) and northeast (Barents Sea). The white dot near the centre is Jan Mayen, and the dot between Spitsbergen (large island to the north) and Norway is [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bear Island]].]]
[[File:Værøy og Røst.jpg|thumb|left|Vedøya, Skumvær and Røst islands, [[Lofoten]], Norway]]
The Norwegian Sea was formed about 250 million years ago, when the [[Eurasian Plate]] of Norway and the [[North American Plate]], including Greenland, started to move apart. The existing narrow shelf sea between Norway and Greenland began to widen and deepen.<ref name="Origin">Terje Thornes & Oddvar Longva "The origin of the coastal zone" in: [[#refSætre|Sætre, 2007]], pp. 35–43</ref> The present continental slope in the Norwegian Sea marks the border between Norway and Greenland as it stood approximately 250 million years ago. In the north it extends east from [[Svalbard]] and on the southwest between Britain and the Faroes. This continental slope contains rich fishing grounds and numerous [[coral reef]]s. Settling of the shelf after the separation of the continents has resulted in [[landslide]]s, such as the [[Storegga Slide]] about 8,000 years ago that induced a major [[tsunami]].<ref name="Origin"/>

The coasts of the Norwegian Sea were shaped during the [[Last Glacial Period|last ice age]]. Large [[glacier]]s several kilometres high pushed into the land, forming fjords, removing the crust into the sea, and thereby extending the continental slopes. This is particularly clear off the Norwegian coast along [[Helgeland]] and north to the [[Lofoten Islands]].<ref name="Origin"/> The [[Norwegian continental shelf]] is between 40 and 200 kilometres wide, and has a different shape from the shelves in the North Sea and Barents Sea. It contains numerous trenches and irregular peaks, which usually have an amplitude of less than 100 metres, but can reach up to 400 metres.<ref name="Driving"/> They are covered with a mixture of gravel, sand, and mud, and the trenches are used by fish as spawning grounds.<ref name="Origin"/> Deeper into the sea, there are two deep basins separated by a low ridge (its deepest point at 3,000 m) between the [[Vøring Plateau]] and [[Jan Mayen]] island. The southern basin is larger and deeper, with large areas between 3,500 and 4,000 metres deep. The northern basin is shallower at 3,200–3,300 metres, but contains many individual sites going down to 3,500 metres.<ref name=b366/> Submarine thresholds and continental slopes mark the borders of these basins with the adjacent seas. To the south lies the European [[continental shelf]] and the North Sea, to the east is the Eurasian continental shelf with the Barents Sea. To the west, the [[Scotland-Greenland Ridge]] separates the Norwegian Sea from the North Atlantic. This ridge is on average only 500 metres deep, only in a few places reaching the depth of 850 metres. To the north lie the Jan Mayen Ridge and Mohns Ridge, which lie at a depth of 2,000 metres, with some trenches reaching depths of about 2,600 metres.<ref name = b366/>

== Hydrology ==
[[File:Tides in Norway.png|thumb|300px|Tide ranges and tide times ([[North Sea#Selected tide ranges around North Sea|hours after Bergen]]) along the Norwegian coast]]
[[File:Thermohaline Circulation 2.png|thumb|left|Thermohaline circulation explains the formation of cold, dense deep water in the Norwegian Sea. The entire circulation pattern takes ~2000 years to complete.]]
[[File:Gulfstream.jpg|thumb|left|Surface currents in the North Atlantic]]
Four major water masses originating in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans meet in the Norwegian Sea, and the associated currents are of fundamental importance for the global climate. The warm, salty [[North Atlantic Current]] flows in from the Atlantic Ocean, and the colder and less saline [[Norwegian Current]] originates in the North Sea. The so-called East Iceland Current transports cold water south from the Norwegian Sea toward Iceland and then east, along the [[Arctic Circle]]; this current occurs in the middle water layer. Deep water flows into the Norwegian Sea from the Greenland Sea.<ref name=b366/> The tides in the sea are semi-diurnal; that is, they rise twice a day, to a height of about 3.3 metres.<ref name=bse/>

=== Surface currents ===
The hydrology of the upper water layers is largely determined by the flow from the North Atlantic. It reaches a speed of 10 [[Sverdrup|Sv]] (1 Sv = million m<sup>3</sup>/s) and its maximum depth is 700 metres at the Lofoten Islands, but normally it is within 500 metres.<ref name=b366/> Part of it comes through the Faroe-Shetland Channel and has a comparatively high [[salinity]] of 35.3‰ (parts per thousand). This current originates in the North Atlantic Current and passes along the European continental slope; increased evaporation due to the warm European climate results in the elevated salinity. Another part passes through the Greenland-Scotland trench between the Faroe Islands and [[Iceland]]; this water has a mean salinity between 35 and 35.2‰.<ref name="Aken119">[[#refAken|Aken, 2007]], pp. 119–124</ref> The flow shows strong seasonal variations and can be twice as high in winter as in summer.<ref name="Driving"/> While at the Faroe-Shetland Channel it has a temperature of about 9.5&nbsp;°C; it cools to about 5&nbsp;°C at Svalbard and releases this energy (about 250 terawatts) to the environment.<ref name="Driving44">Roald Sætre ''Driving forces'' in: [[#refSætre|Sætre, 2007]], pp. 44–58</ref><ref name=b366/>

The current flowing from the [[North Sea]] originates in the Baltic Sea and thus collects most of the drainage from northern Europe; this contribution is however relatively small.<ref name="Driving">[[#refSætre|Sætre, 2007]], pp. 44–58</ref> The temperature and salinity of this current show strong seasonal and annual fluctuations. Long-term measurements within the top 50 metres near the coast show a maximum temperature of 11.2&nbsp;°C at the [[63rd parallel north|63° N parallel]] in September and a minimum of 3.9&nbsp;°C at the North Cape in March. The salinity varies between 34.3 and 34.6‰ and is lowest in spring owing to the inflow of melted snow from rivers.<ref name=b366/> The largest rivers discharging into the sea are [[Namsen]], [[Ranelva]] and [[Vefsna]]. They are all relatively short, but have a high discharge rate owing to their steep mountainous nature.<ref name="Sepp"/>

A portion of the warm surface water flows directly, within the [[West Spitsbergen Current]], from the Atlantic Ocean, off the Greenland Sea, to the Arctic Ocean. This current has a speed of 3–5 Sv and has a large impact on the climate.<ref name="Tyler45">[[#refTyler|Tyler, 2003]], pp. 45–49</ref> Other surface water (~1 Sv) flows along the Norwegian coast in the direction of the [[Barents Sea]]. This water may cool enough in the Norwegian Sea to submerge into the deeper layers; there it displaces water that flows back into the North Atlantic.<ref name="Tyler">[[#refTyler|Tyler, 2003]], pp. 115–116</ref>

Arctic water from the East Iceland Current is mostly found in the southwestern part of the sea, near Greenland. Its properties also show significant annual fluctuations, with long-term average temperature being below 3&nbsp;°C and salinity between 34.7 and 34.9‰.<ref name=b366/> The fraction of this water on the sea surface depends on the strength of the current, which in turn depends on the pressure difference between the [[Icelandic Low]] and [[Azores High]]: the larger the difference, the stronger the current.<ref name="ICES2">[[#refICES|ICES, 2007]], pp. 2–4</ref>

=== Deep-sea currents ===
The Norwegian Sea is connected with the Greenland Sea and the Arctic Ocean by the 2,600-metre deep [[Fram Strait]].<ref name="Tyler240">[[#refTyler|Tyler, 2003]], pp. 240–260</ref> The Norwegian Sea Deep Water (NSDW) occurs at depths exceeding 2,000 metres; this homogeneous layer with a salinity of 34.91‰ experiences little exchange with the adjacent seas. Its temperature is below 0&nbsp;°C and drops to −1&nbsp;°C at the ocean floor.<ref name=b366/> Compared with the deep waters of the surrounding seas, NSDW has more nutrients but less oxygen and is relatively old.<ref name="Aken">[[#refAken|Aken, 2007]], pp. 131–138</ref>

The weak deep-water exchange with the Atlantic Ocean is due to the small depth of the relatively flat [[Greenland-Scotland Ridge]] between Scotland and Greenland, an offshoot of the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. Only four areas of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge are deeper than 500 metres: the [[Faroe-Bank Channel overflow#Faroe-Bank Channel|Faroe-Bank Channel]] (about 850 metres), some parts of the [[Iceland-Faroe Ridge]] (about 600 metres), the [[Wyville-Thomson Ridge]] (620 metres), and areas between [[Greenland]] and the [[Denmark Strait]] (850 metres) – this is much shallower than the Norwegian Sea.<ref name="Tyler"/><ref name="Aken"/> Cold deep water flows into the Atlantic through various channels: about 1.9 Sv through the Faroe Bank channel, 1.1 Sv through the Iceland-Faroe channel, and 0.1 Sv via the Wyville-Thomson Ridge.<ref name="Skreslet93">[[#refSkreslet|Skreslet & NATO, 2005]], p. 93</ref> The turbulence that occurs when the deep water falls behind the Greenland-Scotland Ridge into the deep Atlantic basin mixes the adjacent water layers and forms the [[North Atlantic Deep Water]], one of two major deep-sea currents providing the deep ocean with oxygen.<ref name="Threat">Ronald E. Hester, Roy M. Harrison ''Biodiversity Under Threat'', Royal Society of Chemistry, 2007 {{ISBN|0-85404-251-2}}, p. 96</ref>

== Climate ==
The thermohaline circulation affects the climate in the Norwegian Sea, and the regional climate can significantly deviate from average. There is also a difference of about 10&nbsp;°C between the sea and the coastline. Temperatures rose between 1920 and 1960,<ref name="Wefer">Gerold Wefer, Frank Lamy, Fauzi Mantoura [https://books.google.com/books?id=wC7CF9Bd5CoC&pg=PA32 ''Marine Science Frontiers for Europe''], Springer, 2003 {{ISBN|3-540-40168-7}}, pp. 32–35</ref> and the frequency of storms decreased in this period. The storminess was relatively high between 1880 and 1910, decreased significantly in 1910–1960, and then recovered to the original level.<ref name="Sepp">[[Matti Seppälä]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=q33WekTp7tgC&pg=PA121 ''The Physical Geography of Fennoscandia''], Oxford University Press, 2005 {{ISBN|0-19-924590-8}}, pp. 121–141</ref>

In contrast to the Greenland Sea and Arctic seas, the Norwegian Sea is ice-free year round, owing to its warm currents.<ref name=bse/> The convection between the relatively warm water and cold air in the winter plays an important role in the Arctic climate.<ref name="Schäfer10">[[#refSchaefer|Schaefer, 2001]], pp. 10–17</ref> The 10-degree July isotherm (air temperature line) runs through the northern boundary of the Norwegian Sea and is often taken as the southern boundary of the Arctic.<ref name="Mulvaney">Kieran Mulvaney [https://archive.org/details/atendsofearthhis00mulv/page/23 ''At the Ends of the Earth: A History of the Polar Regions''], Iceland Press, 2001 {{ISBN|1-55963-908-3}}, p. 23</ref> In winter, the Norwegian Sea generally has the lowest air pressure in the entire Arctic and where most [[Icelandic Low]] depressions form. The water temperature in most parts of the sea is 2–7&nbsp;°C in February and 8–12&nbsp;°C in August.<ref name=bse/>

[[File:Bloom in the Norwegian Sea.jpg|thumb|[[Phytoplankton]] bloom in the Norwegian Sea.]]

== Flora and fauna ==
The Norwegian Sea is a transition zone between [[Boreal ecosystem|boreal]] and Arctic conditions, and thus contains flora and fauna characteristic of both climatic regions.<ref name=b366>[[#refBlindheim|Blindheim, 1989]], pp. 366–382</ref> The southern limit of many Arctic species runs through the North Cape, Iceland, and the center of the Norwegian Sea, while the northern limit of boreal species lies near the borders of the Greenland Sea with the Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea; that is, these areas overlap. Some species like the [[scallop]] ''[[Chlamys islandica]]'' and [[capelin]] tend to occupy this area between the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.<ref name="Skreslet103">[[#refSkreslet|Skreslet & NATO, 2005]], pp. 103–114</ref>

=== Plankton and sea bottom organisms ===
Most of the aquatic life in the Norwegian Sea is concentrated in the upper layers. Estimates for the entire North Atlantic are that only 2% of biomass is produced at depths below 1,000 metres and only 1.2% occurs near the sea floor.<ref name="Schäfer81">Andrea Schröder-Ritzrau ''et al.'', ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iVAzudOPt1kC&pg=PA81 Distribution, export and alteration of plankton in the Norwegian Sea Fossiliziable]''. [[#refSchaefer|Schaefer, 2001]], pp. 81–104</ref>

The blooming of the [[phytoplankton]] is dominated by [[chlorophyll]] and peaks around 20 May. The major phytoplankton forms are [[diatoms]], in particular the genus ''[[Thalassiosira]]'' and ''[[Chaetoceros]]''. After the spring bloom the [[haptophytes]] of the genus ''[[Phaecocystis pouchetti]]'' become dominant.<ref name="ICES5">[[#refICES|ICES, 2007]], pp. 5–8</ref>

<gallery class="center" widths="160px" heights="130px">
File:Hyperia.jpg|[[Hyperiidea]]
File:Pandborealisind.jpg|Shrimp ''[[Pandalus borealis]]''
File:Lophelia pertusa.jpg|''[[Lophelia pertusa]]''
File:Meganyctiphanes norvegica.jpg|''[[Northern krill|Meganyctiphanes norvegica]]''
</gallery>

Zooplankton is mostly represented by the [[copepods]] ''Calanus finmarchicus'' and ''Calanus hyperboreus'', where the former occurs about four times more often than the latter and is mostly found in the Atlantic streams, whereas ''C. hyperboreus'' dominates the Arctic waters;<ref name="ICES5"/> they are the main diet of most marine predators.<ref name="Skreslet103" /> The most important krill species are ''[[Northern krill|Meganyctiphanes norvegica]]'', ''[[Thyssanoessa inermis]]'', and ''[[Thyssanoessa longicaudata]]''.<ref name="ICES5"/> In contrast to the Greenland Sea, there is a significant presence of [[calcareous]] plankton ([[Coccolithophore]] and [[Globigerinida]]) in the Norwegian Sea.<ref name="Schäfer81"/> Plankton production strongly fluctuates between years. For example, ''C. finmarchicus'' yield was 28 g/m<sup>2</sup> (dry weight) in 1995 and only 8 g/m<sup>2</sup> in 1997; this correspondingly affected the population of all its predators.<ref name="ICES5"/>

Shrimp of the species ''[[Pandalus borealis]]'' play an important role in the diet of fish, particularly cod and [[blue whiting]], and mostly occur at depths between 200 and 300 metres. A special feature of the Norwegian Sea is extensive coral reefs of ''[[Lophelia pertusa]]'', which provide shelter to various fish species. Although these corals are widespread in many peripheral areas of the North Atlantic, they never reach such amounts and concentrations as at the Norwegian continental slopes. However, they are at risk due to increasing [[trawling]], which mechanically destroys the coral reefs.<ref name="ICES5"/>

=== Fish ===
[[File:Clupea harengus.png|thumb|Atlantic herring]]

The Norwegian coastal waters are the most important spawning ground of the [[Atlantic Herring|herring populations]] of the North Atlantic, and the hatching occurs in March. The eggs float to the surface and are washed off the coast by the northward current. Whereas a small herring population remains in the fjords and along the northern Norwegian coast, the majority spends the summer in the Barents Sea, where it feeds on the rich plankton. Upon reaching puberty, herring returns to the Norwegian Sea.<ref name="Blindheim382">[[#refBlindheim|Blindheim, 1989]], pp. 382–401</ref> The herring stock varies greatly between years. It increased in the 1920s owing to the milder climate and then collapsed in the following decades until 1970; the decrease was, however, at least partly caused by overfishing.<ref name="Wefer"/> The biomass of young hatched herring declined from 11 million tonnes in 1956 to almost zero in 1970;<ref name="Skreslet103"/> that affected the ecosystem not only of the Norwegian Sea but also of the Barents Sea.<ref name="Stokke">Olav Schram Stokke ''Governing High Seas Fisheries: The Interplay of Global and Regional regime,'' Oxford University Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-19-829949-4}}, pp. 241–255</ref>

[[File:Mallotus villosus.gif|thumb|[[Capelin]] is a common fish of the Atlantic-arctic transitional waters]]
Enforcement of environmental and fishing regulations has resulted in partial recovery of the herring populations since 1987.<ref name="Wefer"/><ref name="Skreslet103"/> This recovery was accompanied by a decline of capelin and cod stocks. While the capelin benefited from the reduced fishing, the temperature rise in the 1980s and competition for food with the herring resulted in a near disappearance of young capelin from the Norwegian Sea.<ref name="Helfman321">Gene S. Helfman ''Fish Conservation: A Guide to Understanding and Restoring Global Aquatic Biodiversity and Fishery Resources'', Iceland Press, 2007 {{ISBN|1-55963-595-9}}, pp. 321–323</ref> Meanwhile, the elderly capelin population was quickly fished out. This also reduced the population of cod – a major predator of capelin – as the herring was still too small in numbers to replace the capelin in the cod's diet.<ref name="Helfman321"/><ref name="NRC">National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Ecosystem Management for Sustainable Marine Fisheries: Sustaining Marine Fisheries, National Academies Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-309-05526-1}}, p. 46</ref>

[[File:Micromesistius poutassou Gervais.jpg|thumb|Blue whiting]]

[[Blue whiting]] (''Micromesistius poutassou'') has benefited from the decline of the herring and capelin stocks as it assumed the role of major predator of plankton. The blue whiting spawns near the British Isles. The sea currents carry their eggs to the Norwegian Sea, and the adults also swim there to benefit from the food supply. The young spend the summer and the winter until February in Norwegian coastal waters and then return to the warmer waters west of Scotland.<ref name=b366/> The Norwegian Arctic cod mostly occurs in the Barents Sea and at the [[Svalbard]] Archipelago. In the rest of the Norwegian Sea, it is found only during the reproduction season, at the Lofoten Islands,<ref name="Blindheim382"/> whereas ''[[Pollachius virens]]'' and [[haddock]] spawn in the coastal waters.<ref name=b366/> [[Mackerel]] is an important commercial fish. The coral reefs are populated by different species of the genus ''[[Sebastes]]''.<ref name="ICES5"/>

=== Mammals and birds ===
[[File:Gonatus fabricii 600.jpg|thumb |Armhook squid ''[[Gonatus fabricii]]'']]
Significant numbers of [[minke whale|minke]], [[Humpback whale|humpback]], [[Sei whale|sei]], and [[orca]] whales are present in the Norwegian Sea,<ref name="Hoyt">Erich Hoyt: ''Marine Protected Areas for Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises'' Earthscan, 2005 {{ISBN|1-84407-063-8}}, pp. 120–128</ref> and [[white-beaked dolphin]]s occur in the coastal waters.<ref name="Dolphins138">[[#refKlinowska|Klinowska, 1991]], p. 138</ref> Orcas and some other whales visit the sea in the summer months for feeding; their population is closely related to the herring stocks, and they follow the herring schools within the sea.<ref name="ICES5"/> With a total population of about 110,000, minke whales are by far the most common whales in the sea. They are hunted by Norway and Iceland, with a quota of about 1,000 per year in Norway. In contrast to the past, nowadays primarily their meat is consumed, rather than fat and oil.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061001084616/http://www.norway.org.uk/policy/environment/whaling/whaling.htm Norwegian minke whaling]. the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. norway.org.uk</ref>

The [[bowhead whale]] used to be a major plankton predator, but it almost disappeared from the Norwegian Sea after intense whaling in the 19th century,<ref name="Skreslet103"/> and was temporarily extinct in the entire North Atlantic. Similarly, the [[blue whale]] used to form large groups between Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, but is hardly present nowadays.<ref name="Johnson95">[[#refJohnson|Johnson, 1982]], pp. 95–101</ref> Observations of [[northern bottlenose whale]]s in the Norwegian Sea are rare.<ref name="Dolphins320">[[#refKlinowska|Klinowska, 1991]], p. 320</ref> Other large animals of the sea are [[hooded seal|hooded]] and [[harp seal]]s and [[squid]].<ref name="Skreslet103" />

Important waterfowl species of the Norwegian Sea are [[puffin]], [[kittiwake]] and [[guillemot]]. Puffins and guillemots also suffered from the collapse of the herring population, especially the puffins on the Lofoten Islands. The latter hardly had an alternative to herring and their population was approximately halved between 1969 and 1987.<ref name="Jennings">Simon Jennings ''et al.'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=_J_E8O33E2gC&pg=PA297 Marine Fisheries Ecology], Blackwell Publishing, 2001 {{ISBN|0-632-05098-5}}, p. 297</ref>

== Human activities ==
Norway, Iceland, and Denmark/Faroe Islands share the territorial waters of the Norwegian Sea, with the largest part belonging to the first. Norway has claimed [[territorial waters|twelve-mile limit]] as territorial waters since 2004 and an exclusive economic zone of 200 miles since 1976. Consequently, due to the Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen, the southeast, northeast and northwest edge of the sea fall within Norway. The southwest border is shared between Iceland and Denmark/Faroe Islands.<ref name="Noel"/>

According to the Føroyingasøga, Norse settlers arrived on the islands around the 8th century. King Harald Fairhair is credited with being the driving force to colonize these islands as well as others in the Norwegian sea.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archaeology of Viking Age Faroe Islands – Projekt Forlǫg|date=2 June 2016 |url=https://sagy.vikingove.cz/archaeology-of-viking-age-faeroe-islands/|access-date=2020-12-09|language=cs-CZ}}</ref>

The largest damage to the Norwegian Sea was caused by extensive fishing, whaling, and pollution. Other contamination is mostly by oil and toxic substances,<ref name="Noel">Alf Håkon Noel ''The Performance of Exclusive Economic Zones – The Case of Norway'' in: Syma A. Ebbin et al. ''A Sea Change: The Exclusive Economic Zone and Governance Institutions for Living Marine Resources'', Springer, 2005 {{ISBN|1-4020-3132-7}}</ref> but also from the great number of ships sunk during the two world wars.<ref name="Tyler434">[[#refTyler|Tyler, 2003]], p. 434</ref> The environmental protection of the Norwegian Sea is mainly regulated by the [[Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic|OSPAR]] Convention.<ref name="Noel"/>

=== Fishing and whaling ===
[[File:Cod lofoten.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional [[cod]] stand]]
[[File:18th century arctic whaling.jpg|thumb|Arctic whaling (18th century). The ships are Dutch and the animals are [[bowhead whale]]s. [[Beerenberg]] on Jan Mayen Land can be seen in the background.]]
Fishing has been practised near the Lofoten archipelago for hundreds of years. The coastal waters of the remote Lofoten islands are one of the richest fishing areas in Europe, as most of the Atlantic cod swims to the coastal waters of Lofoten in the winter to spawn. So in the 19th century, dried cod was one of Norway's main exports and by far the most important industry in northern Norway. Strong sea currents, [[Whirlpool|maelstrom]]s, and especially frequent storms made fishing a dangerous occupation: several hundred men died on the "Fatal Monday" in March 1821, 300 of them from a single [[parish]], and about a hundred boats with their crews were lost within a short time in April 1875.<ref name="Smith10">Tim Denis Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=glYeaAEaKGgC&pg=PA10 ''Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855–1955''], Cambridge University Press, 1994 {{ISBN|0-521-39032-X}}, pp. 10–15</ref>

Over the last century, the Norwegian Sea has been suffering from overfishing. In 2018, 41% of stocks were excessively harvested.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EU still far from phasing out overfishing by 2020|url=https://europe.oceana.org/en/press-center/press-releases/eu-still-far-phasing-out-overfishing-2020|access-date=2020-12-07|website=Oceana Europe|language=en}}</ref> Two out of sixteen of the Total Allowed Catches (TACs) agreed upon by the [[European Union]] (EU) and Norway follow scientific advice. Nine of those TACs are at least 25% above scientific advice. While the other five are set above scientific evidence when excluding landing obligation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EU-Norway agreement the worst outcome for fish stocks in ten years|url=https://our.fish/press/eu-norway-agreement-the-worst-outcome-for-fish-stocks-in-ten-years/|access-date=2020-12-07|website=Our Fish|language=en-US}}</ref> Under the [[Common Fisheries Policy]] (CFP), the EU committed to phase out overfishing by 2015, 2020 at the absolute latest.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-02|title=Depleted fish stocks can't wait. The EU and Norway need to commit to ending overfishing now ǀ View|url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/12/02/depleted-fish-stocks-can-t-wait-the-eu-and-norway-commit-to-ending-overfishing-now-view|access-date=2020-12-07|website=euronews|language=en}}</ref> As of 2019, the EU was reported to not be on path to achieving that goal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Elliott |first1=Stuart |title=Norway plans to include more Barents Sea, Norwegian Sea blocks in new APA round |url=https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/012423-norway-plans-to-include-more-barents-sea-norwegian-sea-blocks-in-new-apa-round |website=www.spglobal.com |access-date=16 February 2023 |language=en |date=24 January 2023}}</ref>

Whaling was also important for the Norwegian Sea. In the early 1600s, the Englishman [[Stephen Bennet]] started hunting [[walrus]] at [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bear Island]]. In May 1607 the [[Muscovy Company]], while looking for the [[Northwest Passage]] and exploring the sea, discovered the large populations of walrus and whales in the Norwegian Sea and started hunting them in 1610 near [[Spitsbergen]].<ref name="Richards589">[[#refRichards|Richards, 2006]], pp. 589–596</ref> Later in the 17th century, Dutch ships started hunting bowhead whales near [[Jan Mayen]]; the bowhead population between Svalbard and Jan Mayen was then about 25,000 individuals.<ref name="Richards574">[[#refRichards|Richards, 2006]], pp. 574–580</ref> Britons and Dutch were then joined by Germans, [[Denmark|Danes]], and Norwegians.<ref name="Richards589"/> Between 1615 and 1820, the waters between Jan Mayen, Svalbard, Bear Island, and Greenland, between the Norwegian, Greenland, and Barents Seas, were the most productive whaling area in the world. However, extensive hunting had wiped out the whales in that region by the early 20th century.<ref name="Johnson95"/>

=== Sea monsters and maelstroms ===
[[File:Carta Marina.jpeg|thumb|The [[Carta Marina]] (1539) by [[Olaus Magnus]] is the earliest detailed map of the Nordic countries. Note various sea monsters on the map.]]
[[File:Maelstrom-Clarke.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Illustration by [[Harry Clarke]] (1889–1931) for [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s story "Descent into the Maelstrom," published in 1919.]]
For many centuries, the Norwegian Sea was regarded as the edge of the known world. The disappearance of ships there, due to the natural disasters, induced legends of monsters that stopped and sank ships ([[kraken]]). As late as in 1845, the ''[[Encyclopædia metropolitana]]'' contained a multi-page review by [[Erik Pontoppidan]] (1698–1764) on ship-sinking sea monsters half a mile in size.<ref name="Krak">''Octopus'' in:. E. Smedley et al. (Eds): ''Encyclopædia metropolitana; or, universal dictionary of knowledge'' in 1845, pp. 326–330</ref> Many legends might be based on the work ''[[Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus]]'' of 1539 by [[Olaus Magnus]], which described the kraken and maelstroms of the Norwegian Sea.<ref name="Glavin">Terry Glavin ''The Sixth Extinction: Journeys Among the Lost and Left Behind'', Macmillan, 2007 {{ISBN|0-312-36231-5}}, p. 149</ref> The kraken also appears in [[Alfred Tennyson]]'s poem of the same name, in Herman Melville's ''[[Moby Dick]]'', and in ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas]]'' by [[Jules Verne]].

Between the [[Lofoten|Lofoten islands]] of [[Moskenesøya]] and [[Værøya]], at the tiny [[Mosken]] island, lies the [[Moskenstraumen]] – a system of [[tide|tidal]] [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddies]] and a [[whirlpool]] called a maelstrom. With a speed on the order of {{convert|15|km/h|0|abbr=on}} (the value strongly varies between sources), it is one of the strongest maelstroms in the world. It was described in the 13th century in the [[Old Norse]] [[Poetic Edda]] and remained an attractive subject for painters and writers, including [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Walter Moers]] and [[Jules Verne]]. The word was introduced into the English language by Poe in his story "[[A Descent into the Maelström]]" (1841) describing the Moskenstraumen.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/merriamwebsterne00merr/page/300 The Merriam-Webster new book of word histories], 1991, {{ISBN|0-87779-603-3}} p. 300</ref> The Moskenstraumen is created as a result of a combination of several factors, including the tides, the position of the Lofoten, and the underwater topography; unlike most other whirlpools, it is located in the open sea rather than in a channel or bay. With a diameter of 40–50 metres, it can be dangerous even in modern times to small fishing vessels that might be attracted by the abundant cod feeding on the microorganisms sucked in by the whirlpool.<ref name="Koppel">Tom Kopel [https://books.google.com/books?id=acqyEz8TViMC&pg=PA76 ''Ebb and Flow: Tides and Life on Our Once and Future Planet''], Dundurn Press, 2007 {{ISBN|1-55002-726-3}}, pp. 76–79</ref>

=== Exploration ===
[[File:Nordatlantiska strömmar, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|In the late 19th century, [[Henrik Mohn]] developed the first dynamic flow model of the North Atlantic. This map of 1904 shows surface and underwater currents.]]
The fish-rich coastal waters of northern Norway have long been known and attracted skilled sailors from Iceland and Greenland. Thus most settlements in Iceland and Greenland were on the west coasts of the islands, which were also warmer due to the Atlantic currents. The first reasonably reliable map of northern Europe, the [[Carta marina]] of 1539, represents the Norwegian Sea as coastal waters and shows nothing north of the North Cape. The Norwegian Sea off the coast regions appeared on the maps in the 17th century as an important part of the then sought [[Northern Sea Route]] and a rich whaling ground.<ref name="Kent300">Neil Kent ''The Soul of the North: A Social, Architectural and Cultural History of the Nordic Countries, 1700–1940'', Reaktion Books, 2001 {{ISBN|1-86189-067-2}}, pp. 300–302</ref>

Jan Mayen island was discovered in 1607 and become an important base of Dutch whalers. The Dutchman [[Willem Barents]] discovered [[Bear Island (Norway)|Bear Island]] and [[Svalbard]],<ref name="Kent300"/> which was then used by Russian whalers called [[pomors]]. The islands on the edge of the Norwegian Sea have been rapidly divided between nations. During the peaks of whaling, some 300 ships with 12,000 crew members were yearly visiting Svalbard.<ref name="Kent300"/>

The first [[Sounding line|depth measurements]] of the Norwegian Sea were performed in 1773 by [[Constantine Phipps, 2nd Baron Mulgrave|Constantine Phipps]] aboard HMS ''Racehorse'', as a part of his North Pole expedition.<ref name="Sommerhayes93">Colin Summerhayes, "The exploration of the sea floor" in Margaret Deacon et al. (Eds) ''Understanding the oceans: a century of ocean exploration'', Routledge, 2001 {{ISBN|1-85728-705-3}}, p. 93</ref> Systematic [[Oceanography|oceanographic research]] in the Norwegian Sea started in the late 19th century, when declines in the yields of cod and herring off the Lofoten prompted the Norwegian government to investigate the matter.<ref name="Mills41">[[#refMills|Mills, 2001]], pp. 41–43</ref> The zoologist [[Georg Ossian Sars]] and meteorologist [[Henrik Mohn]] persuaded the government in 1874 to send out a scientific expedition, and between 1876 and 1878 they explored much of the sea aboard ''Vøringen''.<ref name="Mills44">[[#refMills|Mills, 2001]], pp. 44–47</ref> The data obtained allowed Mohn to establish the first dynamic model of ocean currents, which incorporated winds, pressure differences, sea water temperature, and salinity and agreed well with later measurements.<ref name="Mills50">[[#refMills|Mills, 2001]], pp. 50–53</ref> In 2019, deposits of iron, copper, zink and cobalt were found on the Mohn Ridge, likely from [[hydrothermal vent]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Andersen |first1=Ina |title=Minaleralfunnet på havbunnen inneholder mye kobber |url=https://www.tu.no/artikler/minaleralfunnet-pa-havbunnen-inneholder-mye-kobber/467379 |website=Tu.no |publisher=[[Teknisk Ukeblad]] |language=no |date=14 June 2019}}</ref>

=== Navigation ===
[[File:HMS Sheffield frost.jpg|thumb|{{HMS|Sheffield|C24|6}} during the winter convoy through the Norwegian Sea to Russia in 1941]]
[[File:DN-SN-87-07042-Mike class submarine-1 Jan 1986.JPEG|thumb|Soviet nuclear submarine [[K-278 Komsomolets]], 1986]]

Until the 20th century, the coasts of the Norwegian Sea were sparsely populated and therefore shipping in the sea was mostly focused on fishing, whaling, and occasional coastal transportation. Since the late 19th century, the [[Hurtigruten|Norwegian Coastal Express]] sea line has been established, connecting the more densely populated south with the north of Norway by at least one trip a day. The importance of shipping in the Norwegian Sea also increased with the expansion of the Russian and Soviet navies in the Barents Sea and development of international routes to the Atlantic through the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Kattegat]], [[Skagerrak]], and [[North Sea]].

The Norwegian Sea is ice-free and provides a direct route from the Atlantic to the Russian ports in the Arctic ([[Murmansk]], [[Arkhangelsk]], and [[Kandalaksha]]), which are directly linked to central Russia. This route was extensively used for supplies during World War II – of 811 US ships, 720 reached Russian ports, bringing some 4 million tonnes of cargo that included about 5,000 tanks and 7,000 aircraft. The Allies lost 18 convoys and 89 merchant ships on this route.<ref name="Killham106">Edward L. Killham: ''The Nordic Way: A Path to Baltic Equilibrium'', Howells House, 1993 {{ISBN|0-929590-12-0}}, p. 106</ref> The major operations of the German Navy against the convoys included [[Convoy PQ 17|PQ 17]] in July 1942, the [[Battle of the Barents Sea]] in December 1942, and the [[Battle of the North Cape]] in December 1943 and were carried out around the border between the Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea, near the North Cape.<ref name="Killham106"/>

Navigation across the Norwegian Sea declined after World War II and intensified only in the 1960s–70s with the expansion of the [[Soviet Northern Fleet]], which was reflected in major joint naval exercises of the Soviet Northern Baltic fleets in the Norwegian Sea. The sea was the gateway for the Soviet Navy to the Atlantic Ocean and thus to the United States, and the major Soviet port of [[Murmansk]] was just behind the border of the Norwegian and Barents Sea.<ref name="Sokolsky83">Joel J. Sokolsky ''Seapower in the Nuclear Age: The United States Navy and NATO, 1949–80'' Taylor & Francis, 1991 {{ISBN|0-415-00806-9}}, pp. 83–87</ref> The countermeasures by the NATO countries resulted in a significant naval presence in the Norwegian Sea and intense cat-and-mouse games between Soviet and NATO aircraft, ships, and especially submarines.<ref name="Riste">Olav Riste. ''NATO's Northern Front Line in 1980s'' in: Olav Njølstad: ''The Last Decade of the Cold War: From Conflict Escalation to Conflict Transformation'', Routledge, 2004 {{ISBN|0-7146-8539-9}}, pp. 360–371</ref> A relic of the Cold War in the Norwegian Sea, the Soviet nuclear submarine [[K-278 Komsomolets]], sank in 1989 southwest of Bear Island, at the border of the Norwegian and Barents seas, with radioactive material onboard that poses potential danger to flora and fauna.<ref name="Livingston">Hugh D. Livingston: ''Marine Radioactivity'' Elsevier, 2004 {{ISBN|0-08-043714-1}}, p. 92</ref>

The Norwegian Sea is part of the [[Northern Sea Route]] for ships from European ports to Asia. The travel distance from [[Rotterdam]] to [[Tokyo]] is {{convert|21100|km|0|abbr=on}} via the [[Suez Canal]] and only {{convert|14100|km|0|abbr=on}} through the Norwegian Sea. Sea ice is a common problem in the Arctic seas, but ice-free conditions along the entire northern route were observed at the end of August 2008.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Seidler |first=Christoph |url=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/natur/0,1518,574539,00.html |title=Northeast – and the Northwest Passage ice-free for the first time at the same time |magazine=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=August 27, 2008 |access-date=July 21, 2011}}</ref> Russia is planning to expand its offshore oil production in the Arctic, which should increase the traffic of tankers through the Norwegian Sea to markets in Europe and America; it is expected that the number of oil shipments through the northern Norwegian Sea will increase from 166 in 2002 to 615 in 2015.<ref>Leichenko, Robin M. & Karen L. O'Brien: ''Environmental Change and Globalization'' {{ISBN|0-19-517732-0}}, p. 99</ref>

[[File:Kart rorledning lite.gif|thumb|Map of the [[Langeled pipeline]]]]

=== Oil and gas ===
The most important products of the Norwegian Sea are no longer fish, but oil and especially gas found under the ocean floor.<ref>Jerome D. Davis. ''Changing World of Oil: An Analysis of Corporate Change and Adaptation'' Ashgate Publishing, 2006 {{ISBN|0-7546-4178-3}}, p. 139</ref> Norway started undersea oil production in 1993, followed by development of the Huldra gas field in 2001.<ref name="Falola">Ann Genova ''The Politics of the Global Oil Industry'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005 {{ISBN|0-275-98400-1}}, pp. 202–209</ref> The large depth and harsh waters of the Norwegian Sea pose significant technical challenges for offshore drilling.<ref name="Kristin"/> Whereas drilling at depths exceeding 500 metres has been conducted since 1995, only a few deep gas fields have been explored commercially. The most important current project is [[Ormen Lange (gas field)|Ormen Lange]] (depth 800–1,100 m), where gas production started in 2007. With reserves of {{Convert|1.4e13|cuft|abbr=on|order=flip}}, it is the major Norwegian gas field. It is connected to the [[Langeled]] pipeline, currently the world's longest underwater pipeline, and thus to a major European gas pipeline network.<ref name="eiaN">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080303150922/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Norway/Full.html ''Country Analysis Briefs: Norway''], Energy Information Administration</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Moskwa |first=Wojciech |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/norway-ormenlange/update-2-norways-ormen-lange-gas-starts-flowing-to-britain-idUKL1351839120070913 |title=Norway's Ormen Lange gas starts flowing to Britain |work=Reuters |date=September 13, 2007 |access-date=March 30, 2022}}</ref> Several other gas fields are being developed. As of 2019, there is an estimated 6.5 hm<sup>3</sup> of crude oil in the Norwegian Sea, with an expectation to increase oil production in the region up until  2025. A particular challenge is the Kristin field, where the temperature is as high as 170&nbsp;°C and the gas pressure exceeds 900 bar (900 times the normal pressure).<ref name="Kristin">[http://www.geoexpro.com/sfiles/1/02/6/file/GeoExpro_12-18.pdf Geo ExPro November 2004. ''Kristin – A Tough Lady''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711085553/http://www.geoexpro.com/sfiles/1/02/6/file/GeoExpro_12-18.pdf |date=2011-07-11 }} (pdf)</ref> Further north are [[Norne]] and [[Snøhvit]].
{{clear}}

==In popular culture==
In the fishing simulation game ''[[Russian Fishing 4]]'', Norwegian Sea is a popular map especially for [[Recreational boat fishing|boat fishing]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Russian Fishing 4 - Norwegian Sea Trailer - News |url=http://rf4game.com/news/russian-fishing-4-norwegian-sea-trailer/ |website=Russian Fishing 4 |access-date=16 February 2023}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans}}
* [[Sea#List of seas|List of seas]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|32em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |first=Hendrik Mattheus |last=van Aken |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dGydMj2madMC&pg=PA119 |title=The Oceanic Thermohaline Circulation: An Introduction |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-387-36637-1 |ref=refAken}}
*{{cite book |last=Blindheim |first=Johan |chapter=Ecological Features of the Norwegian Sea |editor=Louis René Rey |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BNYUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA366 |title=Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of the Comité arctique international, 13–15 May 1985 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1989 |isbn=90-04-08281-6 |pages=366–401 |ref=refBlindheim |display-editors=etal}}
*{{cite book |author=International Council for the Exploration of the Sea |author-link=International Council for the Exploration of the Sea |url=http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/2007/may/Barents%20and%20Norwegian%20Seas.pdf |series=ICES Advice 2007 |volume=3 |title=The Barents Sea and the Norwegian Sea |year=2007 |ref=refICES |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064618/http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/2007/may/Barents%20and%20Norwegian%20Seas.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}
*{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Arne Odd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HoiX87YZIa8C&pg=PR17 |title=The History of Modern Whaling |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year=1982 |isbn=0-905838-23-8 |ref=refJohnson}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Klinowska |editor-first=Margaret |year=1991 |title=Dolphins, Porpoises and Whales of the World: The IUCN Red Data Book |isbn=2-88032-936-1 |ref=refKlinowska}}
*{{cite book |last=Mills |first=Eric L. |title=[[The Machine in Neptune's Garden: Historical Perspectives on Technology and the Marine Environment]] |editor=Helen M. Rozwadowski & David K. van Keuren |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fj0sCBGo1DEC&pg=PA39 |chapter=Mathematics in Neptune's Garden |publisher=Science History Publications/USA |year=2001 |isbn=0-88135-372-8 |ref=refMills}}
*{{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i85noYD9C0EC&pg=PA589 |title=The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=0-520-24678-0 |ref=refRichards}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Sætre |editor-first=Roald |title=The Norwegian Coastal Current – Oceanography and Climate |publisher=[[Tapir Academic Press]] |location=Trondheim |year=2007 |isbn=978-82-519-2184-8 |ref=refSætre}}
*{{cite book |last=Schaefer |first=Priska |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVAzudOPt1kC&pg=PA10 |title=The Northern North Atlantic: A Changing Environment |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |year=2001 |isbn=3-540-67231-1 |ref=refSchaefer}}
*{{cite book |last=Skreslet |first=Stig |author2=North Atlantic Treaty Organization |author-link2=North Atlantic Treaty Organization |title=Jan Mayen Iceland in Scientific Focus |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |year=2005 |isbn=1-4020-2956-X |ref=refSkreslet}}
*{{cite book |last=Tyler |first=Paul A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62zMI9P4Vv8C&pg=PA428 |title=Ecosystems of the Deep Oceans: Ecosystems of the World |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-444-82619-X |ref=refTyler}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle = Norwegian Sea |volume= XVII |last= Murray |first= John |author-link= John Murray (oceanographer)| pages=592-594 |short=1}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Norwegian Sea | volume= 19 |last1= Dickson |first1= Henry Newton |author1-link= Henry Newton Dickson | page = 818 |short=1}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Norwegian Sea}}

{{Authority control}}
{{List of seas}}
{{Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean}}

[[Category:Norwegian Sea| ]]
[[Category:Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean]]
[[Category:Seas of Norway]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Iceland]]
[[Category:European seas]]